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1
Understanding
10th G.A. Leonards LectureApril 13, 2012 - Purdue U.
Soil Properties and Behavior- Recent Developments -
J. Carlos SantamarinaGeorgia Institute of Technology
1921 Born (April 29, Montreal)
1943 BSc ( McGill University )1944 Army @ McGill 44-45 Canadian Mines & Resources1945 Married45-46 Canadian DoT1948 MSc (Purdue)
Taught Mechanics & Drafting"MUD-LAB" (compaction and shear tests)6 week trip in the USA (Shannon, Casagrande)
Harvard? Caltech? Purdue?
1952 PhD (Purdue): Compacted clay1952 Assistant Professor1955 A i t P f1955 Associate Professor1958 Full Professor
1960 US Citizen1965 Norman Medal
1976 "Best CE Teacher"
1980 Terzaghi Lecture – Failures1985 Workshop Dam Failures1989 Member NAE
1991 Professor Emeritus1997 Died (February 1)
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1921 Born (April 29, Montreal)
1943 BSc ( McGill University )1944 Army @ McGill 44-45 Canadian Mines & Resources1945 Married45-46 Canadian DoT1948 MSc (Purdue)
Frozen ground Pavements
1952 PhD (Purdue): Compacted clay1952 Assistant Professor1955 A i t P f Clays: σ-history1955 Associate Professor1958 Full Professor
Clays: σ history
1960 US Citizen1965 Norman Medal
Friction (and vibration)Clays - Repeated loadingCracking Earth DamsShallow Foundations
1976 "Best CE Teacher"
Sands: σ-history; vibration; dynamic compactionFly AshFailuresPile Foundations
1980 Terzaghi Lecture – Failures1985 Workshop Dam Failures1989 Member NAE
Slope Stability – Landfills – Dam failuresWeak seamsLateral Earth PressureCulvertsUndrained loading – Liquefaction of sandsTower of Pisa
1991 Professor Emeritus1997 Died (February 1) Hydraulic conductivity, piping, erosion
1921 Born (April 29, Montreal)
1943 BSc ( McGill University )1944 Army @ McGill 44-45 Canadian Mines & Resources1945 Married45-46 Canadian DoT1948 MSc (Purdue) Clays
SandsFly Ash
1952 PhD (Purdue): Compacted clay1952 Assistant Professor1955 A i t P f
y
Frozen ground Discontinuities - Weak seamsFrictionHydraulic conductivityPiping, erosion
Pavements - CulvertsShallow and Deep FoundationsSl d d
1955 Associate Professor1958 Full Professor
1960 US Citizen1965 Norman Medal
1976 "Best CE Teacher"
Slopes and damsLateral Earth Pressure
Failures1980 Terzaghi Lecture – Failures1985 Workshop Dam Failures1989 Member NAE
1991 Professor Emeritus1997 Died (February 1) Energy Geotechnology
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Energy Geotechnology
GAL Historical Geology (Homework #1)
1.0
x
Energy and Life
LEI EI GDPIHDI3
+ +=
(Global 2008)
0.4
0.6
0.8
man
Dev
elop
men
t Ind
ex
0.0
0.2
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00
Hu
Total power per person [kW/person]
data spirces: CIA, UN, EIA
C. Pasten
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1.0
xUSA
1 billion
Energy and Life (Global: 2008 – BRIC trends: 1980-2007)
0.4
0.6
0.8
uman
Dev
elop
men
t Ind
ex
India
China
BrazilRussia
0.0
0.2
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00
Hu
Total power per person [kW/person]
Countries following the same trend: P↑ HDI ↑
Sources – Case: USA2008 LLNL – DOEUnits: [QUADS]
Efficiency in geotechnology? crushing<5% tunneling<< ants!
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1 By4.5 B
2 By3 By4 By 0
Geo-Centered Perspective: Time Scale
1 By4.5 B
2 By3 By4 By 0
3.5
BYA
:ba
cter
ia
2.5
BYA
: O
2at
mos
ph
1.5
BYA
: pl
ants
230-65 MYA: dinosaurs
coal & petrol
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1 By4.5 B
2 By3 By4 By 0
0 My2 My4 My6 My8 My10 My
1 By4.5 B
2 By3 By4 By 0
0 My2 My4 My6 My8 My10 My
400k 300k 200k 100k 0k
Fedorov et al 2006
8 o C
220
300
380
T
CO2
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1 By4.5 B
2 By3 By4 By 0
0 My2 My4 My6 My8 My10 My
0 2000 yr-2000 yr-4000 yr-6000 yr
History of fossil fuels: a δ-function
CO2
Geo-Centered Perspective: Spatial Scale
C
Fossil Fuel: ~90%
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FOSSIL FUELS (C-BASED) RENEWABLENuclear
Petroleum Gas Coal Wind Solar BiofuelsGeo-T Tidal
• fines & clogging
Energy Geotechnology
•sand production• shale instability• EOR• heavy oil & tar sand
• gas hydrates• gas storage• low-T LNG found.
• characterization• optimal extraction• subsurface conv.
•periodic load• ratcheting
• engineered soils• decommission• leak detect• leak repair
• mixed fluid flow, percolation • contact angle & surface tension = f(ua)
GEOLOGICAL STORAGE
CO2 sequestration Energy Storage Waste 104-105 yr BTHCMmineral dissolution shear faults, pipes
CAES, phase-changeCyclic HTCM
storage105 yr BTHCM
GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION
CONSERVATION
•Hydro‐electric: capacity almost saturated
Energy: critical for development
High increase in demand in next decades
Lessons Learned
Resources: C-economy
Environmental implications
Geotechnology: Central Role
Production, transport, conservation, waste
Rich & complex phenomena - interwoven processes
Urgency ….
Fascinating !
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Clays Fly Ash Sands
Ottawa sand
> 50 μm< 10 μm
http://www.minersoc.org
illite
kaolinite crushed granite
sintered lead(The Diatoms –1990)
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http://www.minersoc.org
smectitekaolinite illite
Clay Minerals: Very High Specific Surface
Implications: (1) small pores (2) very low kgas (3) adsorbed gas (clay)(4) high capillary entry (5) low gas recovery (6) low bioactivity
Ss= 10 m2/gdpore=10 nm
Ss= 50 m2/gdpore=2 nm
Ss= 300 m2/gdpore=0.3 nmfor n=0.2
Critical fines Content FC*
Grain Size Distribution: The Role of Fines
(for mechanical properties …)
finecoarse
coarse
total
fine*
ee1e
MMFC
++==
Sediment e1kPa FC*Silt ~0.7 ~ 25 %
Kaolinite ~1.5 ~ 20 %
Illite ~3.7 ~ 11 %
Montmorillonite ~5.4 ~ 8 %
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Particle Forces
Skeletal
WeightWeight
Buoyant
Hydrodynamic
Capillary
ElectricalElectrical
attraction
repulsion
Cementation
Skeletal
Weight
Particle Forces
Weight
Buoyant
Hydrodynamic
Capillary
Electrical
U
W FdragElectrical
attraction
repulsion
Cementation
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Skeletal
Weight
Particle Forces
Weight
Buoyant
Hydrodynamic
Capillary
ElectricalElectrical
attraction
repulsion
Cementation
Skeletal
Weight
Laponite 1200 H2O 24 Na+
Particle Forces
Weight
Buoyant
Hydrodynamic
Capillary
ElectricalElectrical
attraction
repulsion
Cementation(N. Skipper - UCL)
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Skeletal
Weight
2d'N σ=3d)6/G(W
boundary-determined
Particle Forces
Weight
Buoyant
Hydrodynamic
Capillary
Electrical
3ws d)6/G(W γπ=
3ww d)6/(VolU γπ=γ⋅=
dv3Fdrag μπ=
dTF scap π=
A
particle-level
Electrical
attraction
repulsion
Cementation
dt24
AAtt 2h=
dec0024.0pRe o8 ct10
o−=
dtT tenσπ=
contact-level
123Skeletal
Weight
Particle Forces
μN
mN
Att
Fcap
WN 100 kPa
forc
e
Buoyant
Hydrodynamic
Capillary
Electrical
attraction nN
μm mm
diameter d
attraction
repulsion
Cementation
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Soil Properties and BehaviorSoils: particulate mediaParticle-level forces
Lessons LearnedKingston Fossil Plant – 22 December 2008
Transition: d ~10μm
Energy GeotechnologyFly ash pondsResource distributionResource recoveryyFines migration and formation damageDevelopment of discontinuities – Fractures and lensesMixed fluid conditions (oil-water; gas-water)Gas migration…
Hydraulic Conductivity&
Fines Migration
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fabric inherent and stress‐induced anisotropy particle & pore‐scale
Pore Size Distribution
Log (dpore/micron)
1.00
10.00
100.00
devi
atio
n of
d [m
icro
n]
d
d
0.4σμ
=
0.01
0.10
0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00 1000.00
Mean of d [micron]
Stan
dard
d
(σd/μd) ≈ σln(dpore)
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Network Models – Upscaling
Poiseuille’s Eq. PL
Rq ΔΔ
=ηπ
8
4
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛Δ
=L
Rηπα
8
4
Mass Balance at Nodes
c0 q=∑( ) ( ) ( ) ( )a a c b b c r r c l l c0 P P P P P P P P= α − +α − +α − +α −
a a b b r r l lP P P PP α +α +α +α
Pl
Pb
Pc
Pa
Pr
( )a a b b r r l l
ca b r l
P =α +α +α +α
System of Equations1B A P then P A B−= =
COV(R2)=0.49 COV(R2)=1.26 COV(R2)=1.95
Spatially Correlated Porosity
Log (dpore/micron)
Uncorrelated
Correlated
J. Jang
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Skeletal
Weight
Particle Forces
μN
mN
Wfo
rce
10-1 m/s
10-3 m/s
Detach.(high i & k)
No
Buoyant
Hydrodynamic
Capillary
Electrical
attraction nN
μm mm
Att
diameter d
10-5 m/sNo Detach.
attraction
repulsion
Cementation
Bridging
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Bridging Conditions
Glass Beadsmin max
Particles
Container
Orifice
Mica
Sand
min
maxmin
max
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Pore throat -to- particle diameter O/d
5
J. Valdes
Grain-Fluid paths
Deviation enhanced:ρs / ρf ↑
ec ↑
ρs / ρf = 3.2 ρs / ρf = 1.3
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Clogging in radial flow
Test 2Δh=1.18m
Volout = 20cc Volout = 40cc Volout = 70cc Volout = 100cc
Test 3Δh=2.66m
Volout = 20cc Volout = 40cc Volout = 70cc Volout = 100cc
out out out out
Volout = 10cc Volout = 30cc Volout = 60cc Volout = 100cc
Test 4Δh=4.13m
Soil Properties and Behavior
Inherent: pore size distribution
Lessons Learned
Emergent: fluid flow localization reactive fluid transport ?
Fines migration retardation bridging
Emergent: clogging ring at characteristic length scale
Energy Geotechnology
Oil and gas recovery
Geothermal
CO2 injection (….but different)
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Discontinuities
GAL CracksWeak seams
1965 ASCE Norman Medal
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Desiccation Cracks
cmpro.corbis.com
Surface Tension
BBC News In pictures Visions of Science.jpg
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Suction
ab
Desiccation Cracks - Evolution
Time
wat
er c
onte
nt
a b c d e
bc
d
e
Desiccation Cracks
Hosung Shin
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Desiccation Crack: Capillary Forces
1D Consolidation~ Isotropic Consolidation
Soil is in compression EVERYwhere
Microscope/ Digital camera
Forced Invasion of Immiscible Fluid
Pressure transducer
Pressure port
40 m
m
Sediment (water)
Invading fluid (oil, gas)
Drainage
100 mm
4( )
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Forced Fluid: Oil
Apparent Tensile Strength
q/p=0.98
σt=50kPa
e=2.38
50kP
q/p=0.52uc=100kPa
e=2.1
σt=50kPa
uc=100kPa
)'sin(1)'sin(2
0 φφσ
+≤uT
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DISCONTINUITIESInvasion
Invasion vs. Open-mode Discontinuities
1.0 100.1
LensesFracturesRoots
Fluid invasionCrystal growth in pores
d'2
NF LVc
σΤ
π=
fine grained soilslow effective stress
coarse grained soilshigh effective stress
1 2 3
Forced Miscible Fluid: Hydraulic Fracture
4 5 6
5cm
Hosung Shin
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Hydraulic Fracture: Seepage Drag Forces
Soil is in compression EVERYwhere
1D Consolidation
10
Miscible and/or Immiscible Fluid Invasion
(d) Mixed mode opening
(c) Drag-driven opening
(b) Capillary-driven opening
1.0
(a) Fluid invasion ith t
d'2
NF LVcap
σΤ
π=
opening
0.1 1.0 100.1
without localization
d'v3
NFdrag
σμ
π=
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Low P High P
CO2-H2O Interfacial Interaction ?
Surface Tension and Contact Angle
Water droplet in
CO2 gas
CO2 liquid
N. Espinoza
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Soil Properties and Behavior
Effective stress analysis: NO tension anywhere
Particle-level forces:
Lessons Learned
Particle level forces:
skeletal-capillary
skeletal-drag
Energy Geotechnology
Resource recovery: oil shale gas hydrates coalbed CH4 geoTResource recovery: oil, shale gas, hydrates, coalbed CH4, geoT
Development of discontinuities – Fractures and lenses
Unsaturated soil behavior: GREAT (but adapt)
Common: Mixed fluid conditions: oil-H2O; CH4-H2O; CO2-H2O
Lateral Earth Pressure
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Lateral Earth Pressure
Jacky 1944Brooker and Ireland 1965Schmidt 1966
For all soils [NC and OC], Ko should asymptotically approach unity
Andrawesand El-Sohby 1973Abdelhamid and Krizek 1976Mayne and Kulhawy 1982Feda 1984Kavazanjian and Mitchell (1984)Leonards 1985M i d H t 1993Mesri and Hayat 1993Michalowski 2005Castellanza and Nova 2004
…. among others….
Mount St. Helens – May 18, 1980
Washington State
2,950 meters WSPR
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Mount St. Helens – May 18, 1980
USGS
Mount St. Helens – May 18, 1980
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Volcanic Ash Soils: Formation
timewind
e= 0.8-1.5
Ss~0.1-1 m2/g
volcanic glass
time
e= 2.0-7.0
Ss=50-to-200 m2/g
hallositeimogolitel h
wind
alophane
ko= ??ko=1-sinφ
USGS
0.00
rain
90% glass bead + 10% NaCl
ko: Experimental Results
0 5
0.6
0.7
ss c
oeffi
cien
t, k
0.02
0.04 Vert
ical
str
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 1000 2000Time (sec)
Late
ral s
tres
Hosung Shin
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constz =σ
ko: DEM Simulation
N= 9999 (in 2D) - 8000 (in 3D)
cov particle diameter: 0.25
Interparticle friction: 0.5
Simulation: reduce D or G
0.45
0.50
ent,
K a c
2D - diameter gradually reduced - 20% of particles
ko: DEM Simulation
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
Late
ral s
tres
s co
effic
ie
b
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Vertical strain, εz (%)
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ko: DEM Simulation – Pressure Solution
Minsu Cha
250m
seabedPolygonal Fault Systems
1kmCartwright (2005)
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Soil Properties and Behavior
Lessons Learned
Dissolution and diagenesis: affect ko
Emergent phenomena: shear localization
Complex geo-plumbing
Energy Geotechnology
Resource accumulation (oil, gas)
Gas recovery from hydrate bearing sediments
Leakage (C-sequestration)
Frozen Ground
GAL: PavementsTeton Dam
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1965 Highway Research Board "Best Paper Award"
Ice Lenses
Viggiani – Grenoble
Kaolin
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Ice Lens Formation Under Stress Boundary
TensionTension
Tension /compression
Compression
Taesup Yun
Hydrate lenses – Pressure cores
Percussion Core - KUB
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102
103
Pore-filling
10
WHcap
d'2
NF
σΤπ
=
2π
4102π
Hydrate Bearing Sediments
10-1
100
101
eris
tic p
artic
le s
ize
d 10 [ μ
m]
Lenses
Mt. Elbert
NGHP
102π
10-2 10-1 100 101 10210-4
10-3
10-2
Effective stress σv' [MPa]
Cha
ract
e
Nodules
Blake Ridge
Sheng Dai
Soil Properties and Behavior
FIELD: lens formation = Normal to thermal front
Lessons Learned
MORE GENERAL: also affected by effective stress
Energy Geotechnology
Frozen ground engineering
GREAT
but… generalize
Hydrate distribution
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FrictionFriction&
Repetitive Loading
<3500 BC Mesopotamia The wheel
~2750 BC Egyptians Sliding on sand and on wet silt
1452-1519 L. da Vinci T ≠ (apparent contact area)
1663-1705 G. Amontons Re-discovered da Vinci's
1736-1806 C.A. Coulomb Referred to Amontons observations
Strength and Repeated LoadsLarew & Leonards (1962)
Subsidence and VibrationBrumund & Leonards (1972)
F i ti d Vib tiFriction and VibrationBrumund & Leonards (1973)
Dynamic Compaction Leonards, Cutter & Holtz (1980 )
Undrained Monotonic And Cyclic StrengthAlarcon , Leonards & Chameau (1988)
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irc.nrc-cnrc.gc.cawww.dot.ca.gov
Reinforced Earthcoal mine – Australia – guardian.co.uk
100200
Bearing Capacity – N�
factor
10Nγ100
Nγ
10 10 20 30 40
φ °
00 10 20 30 40
φ °
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pφ
Macroscale Response in q, p’, e, ε
q
cvφ
ψ p'εa
q=Μp’
'⎛ ⎞
e
ecsecs cs 1kPap 'e e log
kPa⎛ ⎞= −λ ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠
Constant Volume Shear0.9
0.7
0.5
sphe
ricity
cvφ
30
40
50
ctio
n an
gle
cv 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
0.3
roundness
10
20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Roundness R
CS
fri
cv 42 17 Rφ = −
Gye-Chun Cho
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Dilatency Anglee
p'po'
eo
ecs
λ dilative
contractive
Ε
ψ
8
12
16
20
24y
angl
e ψ
[deg
]Kogyuk sand(0~10% fines)Beaufort sand A (2~10% f ines)Beaufort sand B (5% f ines)Banding sand, Hauchipato sand (Castro 1969)Hokksund sand (NGI)Monterey no. 0 sand (Lade 1972)
p po
-4
0
4
8
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1
State parameter E
Dila
tanc
y
(Been and Jefferies 1985)
Peak Friction Angle pφ
p cvtan tan tanφ = φ + ψ
p cv 0.8φ = φ + ψ
Taylor 1948:
Bolton 1986:
0.4
0.6
0.8
ak fr
ictio
n si
n(φ
p)
rotation
slippage
(DEM 3D from Thornton 2000), (DEM 2D from Kruyt and Rothenberg 2006), Drained TC( ), Undrained TC( ), Drained TE(�), Undrained TE(�) (DEM-3D from Yimsiri 2001), (experiments) and (DEM 3D from Suiker and Fleck 2004), by the authors.
0.0
0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Interparticle friction coef. m
Pea
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Residual Friction Angle
0 8
rφ
Note: clay fraction must exceed ~20%
0.4
0.6
0.8
ilize
d fr
ictio
n sin
( φ)
Soft claysSoft and stiff claysShalesClay minerals
( )[ ] 6IPlog5.1246 ±−=φ
l fric
tion
angl
e si
n(φ
r)
diatomaceous
0.20 50 100 150 200
Plasticity index [%]
Mob
iR
esid
ual
Plasticity Index IP
Very large strains
particle alignment
r cvφ < φ
size segregation
shape segregation
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Macroscale Response in q, p’, e, ε
q
p'εa
e ?
0.58e cs=0.844e max=0.894
Repetitive Loading – Terminal Density
0.52
0.54
0.56
Voi
d ra
tio, e
εa =0.015 peak-to-peak
εa =0.050 peak-to-peak eT = 0.560α = 0.093
eT = 0.520α = 0.067
Void
Rat
io
0.500 50 100 150 200
Event number
e min=0.511
Event Number
Guillermo Narsilio
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Soil Properties and Behavior
Friction: complex parameter !φcv particle shape
Lessons Learned
ψ packing density (OC), shape, cementation
φp = φcv + 0.8 ψ
φr clay(PI) or mica >~20% … also segregation
Repetitive loading: further work needed
Energy GeotechnologyEnergy Geotechnology
Vibration and repetitive loading: common !
stress: e.g., foundations
temperature: energy piles
miscible/immiscible fluid fronts: e.g., geo-storage
Slopes Instability &
Dam Failures
GAL's analysis of failures: Multiple working hypotheses + FalsificationGAL's life: either PASSIONATE or SKEPTICAL
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Teton
Baldwin Hill
VajontMalpasset
Pre‐session meal "harmony"
Vajont Landslide9 October 1963
http://www.landslideblog.org
L. MullerL. G. BelloniJ. HendronF.D. Patton
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Baldwin Hills Reservoir 14 December 1963
http://www3.gendisasters.comR.F. Scott
Teton Dam June 5, 1976
http://www.geol.ucsb.edu
http://wwweng.uwyo.eduM. DuncanJ. SherardJ.W. Hilf
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Malpasset Dam December 2, 1959
P. LondeJ. L. SerafinW. Wittke
The Man In A Red TurbanJan van Eyck (1433 - Oil)
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Conclusions
GAL "Lessons Learned"
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G.A. Leonards: (1) deepest clear-thinker (2) passion
Emphasized: Understanding
Historical geology
Discontinuities – Weak seams
Multiple working hypotheses + Falsification
Contributions: soils, geo-processes, engineering
Renewed relevance in the context of energy geotechnology
Fascinating field !!
Closing Remarks Workshop on Dam Failures
" Speaking for myself in the future I will be more" Speaking for myself, in the future I will be more humble and more tolerant of the errors and omissions that may befall a fellow engineer ….
and [I will be] a lot more careful before taking a decision that could affect the security of an important structure"
Thank you !
Leonards 1985