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Latin America and the United States:Independence to Mexican American War
W. Frank RobinsonDepartment of HistoryVanderbilt University
Presentation 2
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Hapsburgs
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Bourbon Monarchs
Philip V(1701-1746)
Ferdinand VI(1746-1759)
Charles III(1759-1788)
Charles IV(1788-1808)
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Seven Years War (1756-1763)
1. French and Indian War – colonial extension
2. bloodiest American war of 18th century
3. French outnumbered and outgunned
4. Native American alliances
5. results: reworked colonial map of North America, end to French political influence, erosion of relations between Great Britain and its colonies
European Wars on a Global Stage
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Seven Years War
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Global War
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War for Independence, 1776-1781
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French Revolution
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Haitian Revolution, 1791-1804
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First Independent Black Republic
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Age of Warfare in Spanish America
I. Interpretations− creole resentments− Jay Kinsbruner: causes
• the Enlightenment• Bourbon reforms• creole-peninsular controversy• late colonial revolts and protests
− John Lynch: external shock + long process of alienation
− Jaime E. Rodríguez O. – political process and cultural continuities rather than rupture with Spain
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2. Wars of National Liberation1. three theaters: guerrilla warfare
2. counterinsurgency techniques3. violent protracted struggles 4. disillusionment
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Threats to the Status Quo
Security Issues
1. strengthen defenses
2. mobilization of creoles and castas
3. shockwaves from Haitian Revolution
Bourbon Reforms: Rebellion and Unrest
1. creole grievances
2. expulsion of Jesuits provoked riots
3. questioning of Spanish regime
4. Bourbon failures to resolve issues of race, class, ethnicity
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Napoleonic Empire, 1812
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Palacio de mineria, Bourbon reforms era
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Alegoría de la Compañía de Jesús y su labor misional en los cuatro continentes (San Pedro, Lima, s. XVIII)
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Plaza Túpac Amarú
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Haitian Revolution
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Peninsular War
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Simón Bolívar
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José de San Martín
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José de San Martín
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Argentine National Hero
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Campaigns
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Bolívar and San Martín
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Father Miguel Hidalgo
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The combat of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato on September 28, 1810, Oil on canvas, José Díaz del Castillo
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Father of Mexican Independence
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Félix Calleja
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José María Morelos
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Morelos
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Agustín de Iturbide
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1. American Revolution - roles of France and Spain
2. expansionist U.S. – threat to Spanish New World
3. European conflicts – opportunities for U.S.
4. dream of restoring French New World empire
5. central importance of St. Domingue
6. Louisiana Purchase (1803) – “a noble bargain”
7. new expansionist pressures – Floridas and Texas
United States
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Louisiana Purchase
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The U.S. and Latin American Independence
1. Napoleon’s invasion of Iberian peninsula in 1807
2. difficulties for U.S. in formulating policy
a. differing causes, goals, leaders
b. duration of movements
3. U.S. neutrality – caution and restraint
4. expansion into borderlands
5. U.S. recognition of independence
6. pursuit of unilateral policy
7. hemispheric identity – common history, aspirations
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Monroe Doctrine
1. American uniqueness
2. U.S. destined to expand
3. “exclude European influence from this hemisphere”
4. desire to penetrate Latin American markets
5. conservatism of Congress of Vienna
6. Monroe’s two concepts:
a. noncolonization
b. two-spheres principle
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Monroe Doctrine
Responses:
1. bold challenge to European powers
2. mixed reaction in Latin America
3. British and U.S. commercial trade interests
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The Mexican-American War
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Departments of Mexico
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Mexico and the Loss of Texas
I. Rising Discontent
A. Background
1. northern province of New Spain
2. sparsely populated
3. Spanish grant to Moses Austin
4. concession to Stephen F. Austin
a. Roman Catholicism
b. recognition of Mexican law
5. influx of Anglos: cheap land, tax exemptions
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B. Remedial Measures
1. emancipation proclamation of 1829
2. colonization law of 1830
a. forbade future immigration into Texas
b. strengthening of Mexican garrisons
c. improvement of economic ties between Texas and rest of Mexico
d. Mexican colonization plan
3. Santa Anna - centralist tendencies
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eAntonio López de Santa Anna
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Hostilities
proclamation of independence - Lone Star Republic
1. Santa Anna’s response
2. San Antonio mission - Alamo
a. William Barrett Travis, Davy Crockett,
Jim Bowie
b. siege of Alamo - fight to the death,
no quarter, heavy losses
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Alamo
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3. Goliad
a. General José Urrea vs. Colonel James W. Fannin
b. rights of prisoners of war
c. law of piracy - Lt. Col. Nicolás de la Portilla
d. executions
4. excesses crystalized opposition
5. capture of Santa Anna at San Jacinto River
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Goliad
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Texas Declaration of IndependenceMarch 1836
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The Mexican War
I. Prelude to Conflict
A. Posturing
1. joint resolution of Congress: Texas annexation
2. rupturing of diplomatic relations
3. military preparations
4. boundary dispute
a. Nueces River v. Rio Grande
b. claim included half of New Mexico and Colorado
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Border Dispute
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B. Final Preparations
1. Mexican internal differences
2. turmoil/division
3. President James K. Polk - finds excuse for war
a. distortion and provocation
b. “American blood has been shed on American soil!” c. quick declaration of war
4. return of Santa Anna from exile
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James K. Polk
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Course of the War
Opposing Forces and Strategies
1. decisive moves by United States forces
2. three-pronged offensive
a. Army of West - occupy New Mexico and California
b. Army of Center - sent into northern Mexico
c. Army of Occupation - carry fight to Mexico City
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Theaters of War
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Campaigns of Mexican War
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Hostilities
1. success of General Stephen W. Kearny in West
2. struggle in northern Mexico - Zachary Taylor
a. battle of Buena Vista - loss of northeast Mexico
3. major fighting in Mexican heartland and capital
a. General Winfield Scott
b. bombardment and surrender of Veracruz
c. Cerro Gordo
d. bloody fighting in Mexico City: Churubusco district, Molina del Rey, Chapultepec Castle and the Niños Héroes
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Molina del Rey
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Chapultepec Castle
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Monument to the Niños Héroes
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Chapultepec
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U.S. Troops Parading in the Zócalo
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Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Treaty Stipulations
1. United States gained title to Texas and received California and New Mexico territories
2. payment to Mexico of $18,250,000
3. loss of more than half of Mexican territory
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Mexican Territorial Losses
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Legacy
1. deep-seated hostility
2. reinforcement of stereotypes
3. xenophobia, national humiliation, and Mexican nationalism
4. Gadsden Purchase
5. political ideology and last hurrah of Santa Anna
6. civil wars