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Lecture Outlines PowerPoint
Chapter 8
Earth Science, 12e
Tarbuck/Lutgens
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Earth Science, Earth Science, 12e12e
Earthquakes and Earthquakes and EarthEarth’’s Interiors Interior
Chapter 8Chapter 8
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Earthquakes Earthquakes General features • Vibration of Earth produced by the rapid
release of energy • Associated with movements along faults
• Explained by the plate tectonics theory• Mechanism for earthquakes was first explained
by H. Reid • Rocks “spring back” – a phenomenon called
elastic rebound• Vibrations (earthquakes) occur as rock
elastically returns to its original shape
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Elastic reboundElastic rebound
Figure 8.5
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Earthquakes Earthquakes
General features • Earthquakes are often preceded by
foreshocks and followed by aftershocks
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Earthquakes Earthquakes Earthquake waves • Study of earthquake waves is called
seismology • Earthquake recording instrument
(seismograph) • Records movement of Earth • Record is called a seismogram
• Types of earthquake waves • Surface waves
• Complex motion • Slowest velocity of all waves
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SeismographSeismograph
Figure 8.7
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A seismogram records wave A seismogram records wave amplitude vs. timeamplitude vs. time
Figure 8.8
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Surface wavesSurface waves
Figure 8.9 D
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Earthquakes Earthquakes
Earthquake waves• Types of earthquake waves
• Body waves• Primary (P) waves
• Push–pull (compressional) motion • Travel through solids, liquids, and gases• Greatest velocity of all earthquake
waves
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Primary (P) wavesPrimary (P) waves
Figure 8.9 B
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Earthquakes Earthquakes
Earthquake waves• Types of earthquake waves
• Body waves • Secondary (S) waves
• “Shake” motion • Travel only through solids • Slower velocity than P waves
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Earthquakes Earthquakes
Locating an earthquake • Focus – the place within Earth where
earthquake waves originate• Epicenter
• Point on the surface, directly above the focus • Located using the difference in the arrival times
between P and S wave recordings, which are related to distance
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Earthquake focus Earthquake focus and epicenterand epicenter
Figure 8.2
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Earthquakes Earthquakes
Locating an earthquake • Epicenter
• Three station recordings are needed to locate an epicenter
• Circle equal to the epicenter distance is drawn around each station
• Point where three circles intersect is the epicenter
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A A traveltravel--timetimegraph graph
Figure 8.10
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The epicenter is located using The epicenter is located using three or more seismic stationsthree or more seismic stations
Figure 8.11
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Earthquakes Earthquakes
Locating an earthquake • Earthquake zones are closely correlated
with plate boundaries• Circum-Pacific belt• Oceanic ridge system
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Magnitude 5 or greater Magnitude 5 or greater earthquakes over 10 yearsearthquakes over 10 years
Figure 8.12
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Earthquakes Earthquakes
Earthquake intensity and magnitude • Intensity
• A measure of the degree of earthquake shaking at a given locale based on the amount of damage
• Most often measured by the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
• Magnitude• Concept introduced by Charles Richter in 1935
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Earthquakes Earthquakes
Earthquake intensity and magnitude• Magnitude
• Often measured using the Richter scale• Based on the amplitude of the largest
seismic wave • Each unit of Richter magnitude equates to
roughly a 32-fold energy increase • Does not estimate adequately the size of
very large earthquakes
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Earthquakes Earthquakes
Earthquake intensity and magnitude• Magnitude
• Moment magnitude scale • Measures very large earthquakes • Derived from the amount of displacement
that occurs along a fault zone
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Earthquakes Earthquakes
Earthquake destruction • Factors that determine structural damage
• Intensity of the earthquake • Duration of the vibrations • Nature of the material upon which the structure
rests• The design of the structure
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Earthquakes Earthquakes
Earthquake destruction • Destruction results from
• Ground shaking • Liquefaction of the ground
• Saturated material turns fluid • Underground objects may float to surface
• Tsunami, or seismic sea waves • Landslides and ground subsidence • Fires
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Damage caused by the 1964 Damage caused by the 1964 earthquake in Alaskaearthquake in Alaska
Figure 8.16
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Damage from the 1964 Damage from the 1964 Anchorage, Anchorage, Alaska,Alaska, earthquakeearthquake
Figure 8.15
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Formation of a tsunamiFormation of a tsunami
Figure 8.19
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Tsunami travel times Tsunami travel times to Honoluluto Honolulu
Figure 8.21
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Earthquakes Earthquakes
Earthquake prediction • Short-range – no reliable method yet
devised for short-range prediction• Long-range forecasts
• Premise is that earthquakes are repetitive • Region is given a probability of a quake
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EarthEarth’’ss layered structure layered structure
Most of our knowledge of Earth’s interior comes from the study of P and S earthquake waves • Travel times of P and S waves through Earth
vary depending on the properties of the materials
• S waves travel only through solids
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Possible seismic paths Possible seismic paths through the Earththrough the Earth
Figure 8.26
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EarthEarth’’ss internal structure internal structure
Layers based on physical properties • Crust
• Thin, rocky outer layer • Varies in thickness
• Roughly 7 km (5 miles) in oceanic regions • Continental crust averages 35–40 km (25 miles) • Exceeds 70 km (40 miles) in some mountainous
regions
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EarthEarth’’ss internal structure internal structure
Layers based on physical properties• Crust
• Continental crust• Upper crust composed of granitic rocks • Lower crust is more akin to basalt• Average density is about 2.7 g/cm3
• Up to 4 billion years old
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EarthEarth’’ss internal structure internal structure
Layers based on physical properties• Crust
• Oceanic Crust• Basaltic composition • Density about 3.0 g/cm3
• Younger (180 million years or less) than the continental crust
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EarthEarth’’ss internal structure internal structure
Layers based on physical properties• Mantle
• Below crust to a depth of 2,900 kilometers (1,800miles)
• Composition of the uppermost mantle is the igneous rock peridotite (changes at greater depths)
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EarthEarth’’ss internal structure internal structure
Layers based on physical properties• Outer Core
• Below mantle • A sphere having a radius of 3,486 km (2,161 miles) • Composed of an iron–nickel alloy • Average density of nearly 11 g/cm3
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EarthEarth’’ss internal structure internal structure Layers based on physical properties• Lithosphere
• Crust and uppermost mantle (about 100 km thick)
• Cool, rigid, solid • Asthenosphere
• Beneath the lithosphere • Upper mantle• To a depth of about 660 kilometers• Soft, weak layer that is easily deformed
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EarthEarth’’ss internal structure internal structure Layers based on physical properties• Mesosphere (or lower mantle)
• 660–2,900 km • More rigid layer • Rocks are very hot and capable of gradual flow
• Outer Core• Liquid layer • 2,270 km (1,410 miles) thick• Convective flow of metallic iron within
generates Earth’s magnetic field
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EarthEarth’’ss internal structure internal structure Layers based on physical properties• Inner Core
• Sphere with a radius of 1,216 km (754 miles) • Behaves like a solid
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Views of EarthViews of Earth’’s s layered structurelayered structure
Figure 8.25
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EarthEarth’’ss layered structure layered structure
Discovering Earth’s major layers • Discovered using changes in seismic wave
velocity • Mohorovicic discontinuity
• Velocity of seismic waves increases abruptly below 50 km of depth
• Separates crust from underlying mantle
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EarthEarth’’ss layered structure layered structure Discovering Earth’s major layers • Shadow zone
• Absence of P waves from about 105 degrees to 140 degrees around the globe from an earthquake
• Explained if Earth contained a core composed of materials unlike the overlying mantle
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SS--wave shadow zoneswave shadow zones
Figure 8.28 B
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EarthEarth’’ss layered structure layered structure
Discovering Earth’s major layers • Inner core
• Discovered in 1936 by noting a new region of seismic reflection within the core
• Size was calculated in the 1960s using echoes from seismic waves generated during underground nuclear tests
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End of Chapter 8End of Chapter 8