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An Organizational Context for Training
William Brieger, MPH, CHES, DrPHJohns Hopkins University
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Section A
Introduction and Definitions
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The Context
Organizational Management
Personnel Management
Continuing Education
TRAINING
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Training Is
A set or series of formal learning activities
That enables future or current workers
To acquire the knowledge, skills and attitudes
Needed to perform a job
Within the workplace …
In-Service Training (IST) is part of continuing education (CE)
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Training in the Community
While trainingsupportsimplementation andachievement oforganizational goals,training is not limitedto formal employees
Community volunteers, peer educators and outreach workers also can be trained
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Continuing Education
CE is both formal and informal
CE helps workers revise and polish existing skills
CE helps workers obtain new skills on the job
CE keeps workers up-to-date
CE is part of
Personnel or human resource management
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Personnel Management
Obtaining, organizing, and motivating the human resources required by the enterprise
Developing an organization climate and management style which will promote effective effort and cooperation and trust between all the people working in it
Source: Armstrong, 1980 Continued
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Personnel Management
Helping the enterprise meet its legal obligations and its social responsibilities towards its employees with regard to the conditions of work and quality of life provided for them
Source: Armstrong, 1980
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Components
Personnel management: those activities within an organization that are geared to recruiting and maintaining high quality human resources
Cardinal function: create a workforce with the ability/motivation to accomplish basic corporate goals
Two categories: (1) conditions of service, and (2) job performance
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Conditions of Service
Salary and remuneration
Location and time of work
Promotions, transfers, separation
Performance appraisal, discipline
Benefits, such as health care
Entitlements such as continuing education
Health and safety
Allowances such as hazard pay, vacations
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Job Performance
Personnel policy defines
Job descriptions and responsibilitiesJob qualificationsWorking, reporting, and supervisory relationships
Job performance is enhanced through
Continuing educationSupervisory feedback
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Summary of Context
Personnel/HumanResource Management
Conditions of Service Personnel Development
ContinuingEducation
In-Service Training Self-Learning Staff Meetings Supervisory Visits
Job DescriptionSalary,
PromotionsBenefits,
Allowances
Workshops
Seminars
Short Courses
Discipline
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Section BTraining in the Context of Organizational Management and Programming
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Stakeholders in Organizational Management
Organizational management must address and balance the needs and interest of many stakeholders including:
Personnel, workforce, unionsShareholders, legislatorsDirectors, board membersCustomers/consumersSocial interest groups, etc.
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Organizational Performance: Employee Performance
An organization (public or private) exists and grows because it provides the community with goods or services the community sees as worthwhile
To do this efficiently, the organization must function at an optimum level of productivity
Continued
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Organizational Performance: Employee Performance
This level is a direct result of the collective effort of all employees
Yet not every employee works at the level established by the standard of performance for the job he or she holds
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A Review of Organizational Diagnosis
Environment
Human Element
Time & Space Coordination
Policy
Technical
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How Training Can Address Organizational Problems
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Issues Training May Not Address
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In Fact
It is estimated that only 15% of performance problems can be addressed through training
The other 85% are due to problems in the system—facilities, equipment, supplies, management procedures, etc.
Learning for Health, 1992
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Performance Can Be Affected By
Rigid timetables
Personal unwillingness to change
Feelings of isolation
Poor accommodation
Few incentives or opportunities for advancement
Lack of or dysfunctional basic equipment
Heavy caseload and not enough staff
Inadequate referral system
Irregular or inadequate supplies
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Herzberg’s Research Helps Explain
He focused on factors in the job that lead to satisfaction or to dissatisfaction
These factors include the full scope of personnel management
The factors that employees listed as causing them satisfaction on the job were distinctly different in nature than those that cause dissatisfaction
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Satisfiers
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Work itself
Growth
Advancement
Note that these are components of self-actualization
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Dissatisfiers
Working conditions
Policies, practices
Supervision
Interpersonal relations
Salary/financial compensation
Status
Job security
Personal life
Note that these are often sources of conflict, tension, worry, and disunity
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Analysis of Factors
Satisfiers are all integral to the performance of the job and are therefore referred to as job-content factors
Dissatisfiers have to do with the environment surrounding the job itself and thus are referred to as job-context factors
Training, it would appear, addresses the satisfiers
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Analyze before You Train
A performance gap by employees doesn’t necessarily or directly translate into a need for continuing education or training
Before putting resources into CE:
Look at the underlying causes of problem
The lack of appropriate knowledge and skills is one case where continuing education may be the answer
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Other Reasons
Other reasons are related to:
Lack of resourcesPoor motivationPoor work organization
These problems require different solutions
Petit, 1994
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Tuberculosis Patient Case Detection, Treatment,and Holding Is below National Standards
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Program Planning Example
WHO’s Mother-Baby Package
Program activities
Strengthen health servicesDevelop and manage human resourcesAssure equipment, supplies, and drugsAssure quality of careOrganize health education for the community
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Human Resource Development Includes
Improving basic training—e.g., for midwives
Deploying adequate staff at front-line and referral levels
Conducting in-service training for existing MCH staff
Obtaining legal backing for new procedures, roles of front-line cadres
Improving conditions of service for front-line staff
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Conclusion
When all things are considered, 15% of performance problems and needs is not a small number
While training must be put in context of personnel and organizational management, training also must be addressed in a thorough and systematic manner
Organizations must, therefore, have training policies
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Section C
Training Policy and Functions
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Organization of Personnel Management
Organizations usually have departments that are variously called
EstablishmentsPersonnelHuman resources
Training and continuing education units, departments, or programs are less common
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Legitimizing Training
IST and CE should be part of a training department/unit within an organization
This makes it possible for training to become a planned component of overall organizational management
As opposed to an ad hoc arrangement
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g gyin Most Programs
Here a community health committee is being trained on mobilization for immunization
The job of planning and implementing training should be a normal agency line function
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Institutionalizing Training
In order for the training function to be thus institutionalized:
The position of training manager and the establishment of a training department must be legitimized in the form of an organizational policyTraining must be an entitlementA resource center is needed
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Functions of a Training Unit
Recognize, determine organization’s training needs
Implement staff development and training according to overall plans
Utilize training specialists to design plans for the organization
Provide coaching (individualized training) as needed
Evaluate and plan future training
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Training Specialist
Research and develop overall training plans
Network with outside resources
Work with management to develop appropriate supervisory approaches
Administer and coordinate training programs
Prepare training outlines and learning materials
Train supervisors in teaching skills
Evaluate training results
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Accountability
Training consumes resources
Staff time, materials, travel costs, etc.From design through follow-up
Administrators and executives demand that a training unit demonstrate its value
Cost/benefit analysisReturn on investment
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Linkage
Trainees return to a work setting where they will apply new knowledge and skills
But will they be accepted and function?
Continued
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Linkage
Trainers must liaise with departments to ensure that:
Training needs are recognizedSupervisors know what to expect from traineesJob security is maintainedTrainees are rewarded appropriately
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Ideal Training Roles
When there is a difference or gap between actual performance and the standard, productivity suffers
Training can reduce this gap by changing the behavior of individuals
By giving them additional specific knowledge, skills, or attitudes needed to achieve a standard
Continued
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Ideal Training Roles
Changing behavior, then is the function of training
The ultimate objective is to help achieve the goals of the organization through optimum use of human resources
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Training Functions
Increase productivity
Improve the quality of work and raise morale
Develop new skills, knowledge, understanding, and attitudes (fight obsolescence)
Use correctly new tools, machines, processes, methods, or modifications
Continued
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Training Functions
Reduce waste, accidents, turnover, lateness, absenteeism, and other overhead costs
Implement new/changed policies/regulations
Develop replacements, prepare people for advancement, improve manpower development, and ensure continuity of leadership
High expectations for training: can training live up to these?
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Sample Training Activities
Orienting new employees to the goals, policies, structure, products, or services of the organization
Acquainting employees with a new organizational policy and how it is to be implemented
Continued
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Sample Training Activities
Familiarizing employees with a new procedure, new record form, a new machine, or a modification of existing forms, machines, etc.
Improving the quality of information management and report writing throughout the organization
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Section D
Continuing Education
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Continuing Education
Combating continuing ignorance
Help in remembering basic learningJob realities that were never taught in schoolJob changes due to new circumstances and technologiesCE is a lifelong process
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of Continuing Ignorance?
Health workers in isolated settings
With few supervisory visitsInadequate or lack of reading materialsLess opportunity to attend meetings, seminarsInteract with fewer professional colleagues
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CE Strategies
Staff meetings within the workplace
Meetings with professional colleagues at seminars, conferences, workshops
On-site supervision and coaching
Self-study with books, journals, distance education
Radio and mass media programs
Exchange visits
Formal in-service training courses
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A Study of CE in Nigeria
Rural Ibarapa District, Oyo State
Approximately 160,000 residents
165 health workers
33% local government35% state, federal government32% private facilities
Continued
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A Study of CE in Nigeria
Interviewed about CE experiences in:
ISTSupervisionStaff meetingsSelf-study
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CE Experiences: 144 Respondents
56
98 10484
020406080
100120
IST Super <6mos
StaffMeet
<6mos
SelfStudy
Type of CE
Num
ber
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CE Experiences by Sector
010203040506070
IST Super <6mos
StaffMeet
<6mos
SelfStudy
Local State/Fed Private
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CE Experiences and Gender
020406080
100
IST Super <6mos
StaffMeet
<6mos
SelfStudy
Male Female
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Lessons
Government health staff have greater access to IST
Many donor programs sponsor IST
Policymakers forget that private sector provides large share of services
Private sector staff needs updating, too, on new treatment procedures, etc.
Copyright 2005, Bill Brieger and The Johns Hopkins University. All rights reserved. Use of these materials permitted only in accordance with license rights granted. Materials provided “AS IS”; no representations or warranties provided. User assumes all responsibility for use, and all liability related thereto, and must independently review all materials for accuracy and efficacy. May contain materials owned by others. User is responsible for obtaining permissions for use from third parties as needed. Unless otherwise stated, all photos are the property of Bill Brieger.