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Lectures on Physical andMathematical aspects ofGamow States
by Osvaldo Civitarese
from the Departmentof Physics. University ofLa Plata. Argentina
ELAF 2010-Ciudad de Mexico
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Resonances can be defined in several ways, but it is generally accepted that, underrather general conditions, we can associatea resonance to each of the pairs of poles ofthe analytic continuation of the S-matrix.
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In spite of the long-time elapsedsince the discovery of alpha decay phenomena in nucleiand their description in terms of resonances, the use ofthe concept in nuclear structure calculations hasbeen hampered by an apparent contradiction withconventional quantum mechanics, the so-calledprobability problem. It refers to the fact that a statewith complex energy cannot be the eigenstateof a self-adjoint operator, like the Hamiltonian, therefore resonances are not vectors belonging tothe conventional Hilbert space.
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These lectures are devoted to thedescription of resonances, i.e. Gamow states, in an amenable mathematicalformalism, i.e. Rigged Hilbert Spaces. Sincewe aim at further applications in the domainof nuclear structure and nuclear many-bodyproblems, we shall address the issue in a physical oriented way, restricting thediscussion of mathematical concepts to theneeded, unavoidable, background.
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From a rigorous historical prospective, thesequence of events and papers leading to ourmodern view of Gamow vectors in nuclear structure physics includes the followingsteps:
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a) The use of Gamow states in conventionalscattering and nuclear structure problemswas advocated by Berggren, at Lund, in the1960s, and by Romo, Gyarmati and Vertse, andby G. Garcia Calderon and Peierls in the late 70s. The notion was recovered years later, by Liotta, at Stockholm, in the 1980s, in connection with the microscopic description ofnuclear giant resonances, alphadecay and cluster formation in nuclei. Both atGANIL-Oak Ridge, and at Stockholm, the use of resonant states in shell model calculationswas (and still is) reported actively.
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b) A parallel mathematical developmenttook place, this time along the lineproposed by Bohm, Gadella andcollaborators.
Curiously enough both attempts wentpractically unnoticed to each other forquite a long time until recently, when someof the mathematical and physicaldifficulties found in numerical applicationsof Gamow states were discussed oncommon grounds ( Gadella and myself).
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Technically speaking, one may summarizethe pros and drawbacks ofBerggren andBohm approaches in the following:
(i)The formalism developed by Berggren isoriented, primarily, to the use of a mixedrepresentation where scattering statesand bound states are treated on a foot ofequality. In his approach a basis shouldcontain bound states and few resonances, namely those which have a small imaginarypart of the energy.
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ii)In Bohm’s approach the stepstowards the description of Gamowstates are based on thefact that the spectrum of theanalytically continued Hamiltoniancovers the full real axis. As a difference with respect toBerggren’s method, the calculationsin Bohm’s approach are facilitatedby the use of analytic functions.
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The subjects included in these lecturescan be ordered in two well-separatedconceptual regions, namely: (a) the S-matrix theory, with referenceto Moller wave operators, to the spectraltheorem of Gelfand and Maurin, and tothe basic notions about Rigged HilbertSpaces, and(b) the physical meaning of Gamowresonances in dealing with calculation ofobservables.
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The mathematical tools needed tocover part (a) are presented in a self -contained fashion.
In that part of the lectureswe shall follow, as closely as possible, the discussion advanced in the work ofArno Bohm.
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Gamow vectors and decayingstates
• Complex eigenvalues• A model for decaying states• An explanation and a remedy for the
exponential catastrophe• Gamow vectors and Breit-Wigner
distributions
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Some references
• A. Bohm, M. Gadella, G. B. Mainland ;Am.J.Phys 57 (1989)1103
• D. Onley and A. Kumar ;Am.J.Phys.60(1992)432• H. Jakobovits, Y. Rosthchild, J. Levitan ; Am.J. Phys.63
(1995)439)• H. Massmann, Am. J. Phys. 53 (1985) 679• B. Holstein; Am.J. Phys. 64 (1996) 1061• G. Kalbermann; Phys. Rev. C 77 (2008)(R)041601• G. Garcia-Calderon and R. Peierls; Nuc.
Phys.A265(1976)443.• T. Berggren; Nuc. Phys. A. 109 (1968)265.
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-Decay law
Number of particles that have not decay at the time t
(initial decay rate)
(survival)
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For a vector that represents the decaying state, like
The probability of survival is written
Therefore, this absolute value should be equal to the exponent of the decay rate
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The decay condition can be achieved if we think ofthe state as belonging to a set of states withcomplex eigenvalues
From where it follows that
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The equality between the experimental and theoretical expressions for the probability of survival imply
which is, of course, a rather nice but strange relationship which has been obtained under the assumption that there are states, upon which we are acting with of a self-adjoint operator (the Hamiltonian), which possesses complex eigenvalues.
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A model for decaying systems
A particle of point-mass (m) confined in a sphericallysymmetric potential well
The solutions of the non-relativisticSchroedinger equation are written (zero angular momentum for simplicity)
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The stationary solutions are obtained in the limit of a barrier of infinite height, and they are of the form (inside the barrier)
with the real wave number
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And for the three regions considered thequasi-stationary solutions are of the form
the wave-number are real (k) inside andoutside the barrier region and complex (K) inside
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By requiring the continuity of the function and itsfirst derivative, and by assuming purely outgoingboundary conditions to the solution in the externalregion, one gets
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The solution of the system of equationsyields
and the relation between k and K (eigenvalueequation)
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The initial decay rate can be calculated fromthe flux of the probability current integratedover the sphere
where
(radial component of the current in the external region)
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After some trivial calculations one gets (forthe external component of the solution)
Since the real part of the energy is muchsmaller that the barrier (but positive) we have
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Then, by replacing G for its value in terms
of the approximated wave numbers, we find
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and
If we proceed in the same fashion starting from the definition of the Gamowvector, we find for the complex wavenumber
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by keeping only leading order terms, since the imaginary part of the energy is much smaller that the real part:
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With these approximations, the relationship betweenk and K determines the structure of the decay width:
and
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And by equating the imaginary parts of bothequations one gets
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which is fulfilled if (at the same order)
This last result is quite remarkable, because it shows that decaying states can indeed be represented by states withcomplex eigenvalues. It also leads to therather natural interpretation of the decaytime as the inverse of the imaginary partof the complex energy.
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The exponential catastrophe
For well behaved vectors in Hilbert spaceone has the probability density (finite andnormalizable)
But not all vectors are proper vectors, since (for instance for Dirac’s kets)
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And it means that, for them
Although it is finite at each point (in space) it isinfinite when integrated over the complete domain. For a Gamow vector one has, similarly:
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from the wave function in the external region one has
one has
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The factor between parenthesis can be writen in terms of a “initial time” associated to theapproximated wave-number, leading to:
This result (which is valid for times t greater than the“initial “ time) means that a detector place at a distance r detects a counting rate that is maximum atthe initial time and decreases exponentially withincreasing time (Bohm-Gadella-Mainland)
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Thus, when correctly interpreted, Gamow vectors leads to anexponential decay law and not toan exponential catastrophe.
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Gamow vectors and Breit-Wigner distributions
At this point (and as a first contact withthe proper mathematics) we shallintroduce another tool to understandGamow vectors. That is the analogous ofDirac’s spectral theorem and the nuclear spectral theorem (also called Maurin-Gelfand-Vilenkin theorem). This will be our first exposure to the concept ofRigged Hilbert Spaces (or Gelfand’striads).
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Dirac spectral theorem
In the infinite dimensional Hilbert space we can define an orthonormal system of eigenvectors ofan operator with a discrete set of eigenvalues(the Hamiltonian operator, for instance), suchthat
Then, every vector of the samespace can be expanded as:
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In scattering problems the Hamiltonian has a continuousspectrum (in addition to bound states), and this part ofthe spectrum can be added to the expansion
To show that this is indeed a correct expansion we shall introduce, in addition to the Hilbert space (of normalizable, integrable functions) a subspace of all integrable functions in the energyrepresentation. We think of these functions as “ well behaved”(infinitely differentiable and rapidly decreasing in the energy rep) (technically speaking they are elements of the Schwartz space).
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We also need another space, which shouldaccomodate the antilinear mappings of thesefunctions (something is antilinear ifF(ax+by)=a*F(x)+b*F(y)).
We then have:
a)The Hilbert space of regular vectors
b)The space (Schawrtz) of test functions
c)Its antilinear mapping.
Under these conditions, Gelfand defines thetriads (or Rigged Hilbert Spaces, or triplets) as the construction
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Nuclear spectral theorem:
Let H be a self-adjoint operator in the Hilbertspace. Then it exists in the subspace
a set of elements with the property
Such that any function of (b) can be written in the form
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Let us see how these notions apply in the case ofGamow vectors
A particular generalized eigenvector with complexeigenvalues can be defined by:
which is a functional over well behaved functions
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Properties and conditions on these vectors:
1) (Generalized eigenvalue equation)
2) (Time evolution)
(Probability of detecting a givenvalue of the energy E)
3)
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Proof of the properties
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(use Cauchy integral formula):
The integral is calculated over a closed contour(real energy axis) and an infinite semicircle in thelower half of the complex plane, leading to
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since
vanishes on the infinite semicircle in thelower half of the complex plane only fort >0.
More generally, since there is one (pair of ) S-matrix pole at E, then every well behaved vector can be given by the generalizedexpansion ( A. Mondragon has shown it first, and then with E. Hernandez) we shall come back to this result later on)
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The approximation to the exponential decaylaw
• The exponential decay law is a consequence of the choice of the Breit-Wigner energy distribution (a natural choice, indeed).
• Influence of the direct integration overthe physically positive energyspectrum: it affects the decay law
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It seems natural to think of the Breit-Wigner energy distribution as the result ofthe composition between to branches, like:
Where the function f(E) has no poles (Krylov) to ensure that the only poles are those at thepositive and negative half-planes.
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Then, if we integrate a givenamplitude, like
in the real axis, and use Cauchy formula, we get, for the relevant part of the integral
that the main contribution comes from the pole locatedat the lower half-plane, at it yields:
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this result can be generalized easily by considering a semibounded spectrum (thatis : the real positive set of eigenvalues)
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where the functions K are modifiedBessel functions of imaginary argument. The term by term expansion of A(t) reads
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Then, the first term already gives the expecteddependence (decay law) as a function of theimaginary part of the complex energy, and it isvalid provided t>>1/Real part of (E).
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The same result can be obtained by applying the steepest descent method, by re-writting A(t) as
where
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then
and
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from which
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and with the modified Bessel functions
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finally
which is, again, the expected time dependence of the amplitude A(t)
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Gamow vectors: a tour from theelementary concepts to the (more elaborate) mathematical concepts
Some references:
R de la Madrid and M. Gadella ; Am. J. Phys. 70 (2002) 626
R de la Madrid, A. Bohm, M. Gadella ; Forstchr. Phys. 50 (2002) 185
O. Civitarese and M. Gadella; Phys. Report. 396 (2004) 41
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-We shall compare the description of Gamowvectors
1)in the scattering problem,
2)the S-matrix formalism, and
3)in the rigged Hilbert space framework
All are equivalent way of introducing Gamowvectors and their properties, but some are more illustrative than others, as we shall see in thefollowing notes.
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-Resonances for a square barrier potentialSince we have already discussed the case in thefirst lecture, we shall review here the main results andexpressions for a later use. We shall start with
Schroedinger equation in the Dirac notation. When theenergies belong to the continuum spectrum of H, thevectors are Dirac’s kets and they are not vectors in theHilbert space (they are not square integrable). However, we can use them to expand the space of wave functions
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We are searching for solutions ofthe equation
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in spherical coordinates it reads
with
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The solutions are
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Boundary and continuity conditions
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they are of the form
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with solutions
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Thus, the zero angular momentum solution reads
with
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the expansion of the wave function will then be
and from it one has (in bra and kets notation)
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S-matrix
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the probability-amplitud of detecting an out-state(superscipt -) in an in-state (superscript +) is
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the S-matrix, in the energy representation, iswritten
the continuation of S is analytic except at itspoles, which are determined by
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that is
the solutions come in pairs of complexconjugate values of the energy,
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Decaying resonance energies (square well potential)
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Growing resonance energies (square well potential)
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-resonance wave numbers (for the square wellpotential)
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Gamow vectors
The time independent Schroedinger equation iswritten
and the radial part of the zero angular momentumGamow vector is given by
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with the complex wave number
and
![Page 80: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
the boundary conditions are:
notice the purely outgoing conditionat infinity
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the purerly outgoing boundary condition(impossed to Gamow vectors) is often written
next, we have to solve the equations to calculate theradial wave functions explicitely, in matrix notationsthey read
![Page 82: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
where
![Page 83: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
the determinant of the system is then written
leading to the dispersion relation
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Then for each pair of complex energies we findthe decaying
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and growing radial solutions
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Green function method
the formal solutions are
![Page 87: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
where the functions entering the definition ofG are the solutions of the radial equation whichvanishes at the origin
or fulfills a purely outgoing boundary condition
and their wronskian
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The boundary conditions for the outgoingwave are
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With solutions given by
the wronskian is of the form
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the structure of the Green function is, therefore
With residues at the poles (whichare the same poles of S)
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Complex vector expansions
From the amplitude
We can extract the contribution of resonances by making an analytic continuation of the S-matrixand by deforming the contour of integration
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From it, one gets
and a similar expression holds for the out-state
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Contribution from decaying Gamow vectors
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Contribution from growing Gamowvectors
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Time asymmetry of the purely outgoingboundary condition:
for kd=Re(k)-iIm(k); with Re(k), Im(k)>0 (fourthquadrant) we write
and
![Page 98: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
In the same fashion, for the growing vectorswe have for kg=-Re(k)-iIm(k); (with Re(k), Im(k)>0, third quadrant )
and
![Page 99: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/99.jpg)
Leading to the probability densities
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and
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Rigged Hilbert Space treatment of continuumspectrum
• Mathematical concepts• Observables
Reference: O. Civitarese and M. GadellaPhys. Rep. 396 (2004) 41, and references quoted
therein.
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The Hilbert space of scatteringstates
We can write the Hilbert space of a self-adjoint (central) Hamiltonian as the direct orthogonal sum of the discrete (d) and continuous (c) subspaces
And, moreover, we can decompose the continuoussubspace into two mutually orthogonal parts (absolutelycontinuous (ac) and singular continuous (sc) parts)
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Scattering states are not-bound regular states andthey belong to to the ac part of the spectrum, otherstates are contained in sc (fractal section of thespectrum of H), thus
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The Moller operatorWe assume that any scattering state isasymptotically free in the past. For any scatteringstate , φ it exists a free state ψ such
As the limit in a Hilbert space is takenwith respect to its norm, this is equivalent to say that
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Since the evolution operator is unitary, we have:
Then, we can de<ne an operator which relates eachscattering state with its correspondingasymptotically free state
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Analogously, we also assume that any scatteringstate is asymptotically free in the future. Thismeans that for any scattering state, thereexists a free state such that
then, there exists an operator
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These operators are the Moller wave operators
with the properties
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Proof:
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The evolution of the state, from the initialprepared state to the scattered state is given by
Then it seems natural to define the S matrix in terms of Moller operators
so that
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With this choice
Which is equivalent, in infinitesimal form, to
Analytic continuation of S(E)->S(p=+√2mE) (complex p-plane or k-plane)
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(i) Single poles in the positive imaginary axis of S(z) that correspond to the bound states of H.(ii) Single poles in the negative imaginary axis thatcorrespond to virtual states.(iii) Pairs of poles, in principle of any order, in thelower half-plane. Each of the poles ofa pairhas the same negative imaginary part and the samereal part with opposite sign. Thus, if p is one of these two poles the other is −p*(complex conjugation). These poles arecalled resonance poles and in general there is aninfinite number ofthem
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Rigged Hilbert spaces (RHS)
We shall define resonance states as eigenvectors of H with complex eigenvalues, located at the resonance poles.
As self-adjoint operators in Hilbert spacesdo not have complex eigenvalues, resonantstates cannot be vectors on a Hilbert space.
They belong to certain extensions ofHilbert spaces which are the rigged Hilbertspaces (RHS).
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We start with a definition of RHS:
A triplet of spaces is a rigged Hilbert space (RHS) if:
The intermediate space H is an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space.
Is a topological vector space, which is dense in H (we call this space left-sail space ofRHS)
Is the anti-dual space of
(we call this space : right-sailspace of RHS)
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RHS are useful, among other applications, for:
1. Giving a rigorous meaning to the Diracformulation of quantum mechanics .
In this case,it is customary to demand that thevector space on the left be nuclear(e.g.; obey theNuclear Spectral Theorem, according to which
every observable, or set of commutingobservables, has a complete set of generalizedeigenvectors whose corresponding eigenvalues
exhaust the whole spectrum of theobservable. This is in agreement with the Dirac
requirement
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2. Giving a proper mathematical meaning tothe Gamow vectors, i.e., vector states whichrepresent resonances3. Extending quantum mechanics toaccommodate the irreversible character ofcertain quantum processes such as decayprocesses.4. Dealing with physical problems requiringthe use of distributions. In fact, distributionsare well known to be objects in the dual of a nuclear locally convex space
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Rigged Hilbert spaces have the followingproperties:
Property 1. Let A be an operator on H. If we define the domain (D) of its adjoint, then the followingconditions are fulfilled:(i) The domain contains the left-sail space of theRHS.(ii) For each function belonging to the left-sailspace the action of the adjoint operator on it alsobelongs to the left-sail space.(iii) The adjoint operator is continuous on the left-sail space . Then
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Property 2. Let A be an operator with the propertiesdescribed in Property 1. A complex number λis a generalized eigenvalue of A if for any function φbelonging to the left-sail space and for some non-zero F belonging to the right-sail space we have that
then
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Property 3. A result due to Gelfand and Maurinstates the following: Let A be a self-adjointoperator on H with continuous spectrum σ(A). Although it is not necessary, we may assume thatthe spectrum is purely continuous. Then, thereexists a RHS, such that(i) A can be extended by the duality formula
to the anti-dual right-sail space.(ii) There exists a measure dµ. on σ(A), which can be chosen to be the Lebesgue measure if thespectrum is absolutely continuous, such that foralmost all λ Є σ(A) with respect to dµ, thereexists a nonzero functional F(λ) of the right-sailspace such that
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This means that the points in the continuousspectrum of A are eigenvectors of the extensionof A into the right-sail space. However, theseeigenvectors do not belong to the Hilbert space.
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From the previous properties of RHS wehave that for all φ and ψ (of the left-sailspace)
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Then, in Dirac notation:
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where(i) The integral over the negative axis refers tothe negative axis in the second sheet of theRiemann surface.(ii) C is the semicircle, in the lower half-plane ofthe second sheet, centered at the origin withradius R, which does not contain any pole of S(E).
(iii) The sum ofthe residues extends overall poles of S(E) in the region limited by the contour [-R,R]
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Normalization and mean values
• The problem: how to evaluate mean value of operators, like theHamiltonian, on Gamow vectors?. Since the inner product (scalarproduct) of Gamow vectors is not defined, we have severalpossibilities, namely:
• The mean values are zero (N. Nakanishi, Prog.Theor.Phys. 19 (1958) 607)
• The mean values are complex (M. Gadella, Int. Journal. Theor.Phys. 36 (1997) 2271.
• The mean values are real (on the RHS, A. Bohm and M. Gadella, Dirac kets, Gamow vectors and Gelfant triplets; Springer-Verlag(1989))
• The mean value are the result of interferences between capturingand decaying vectors (T. Berggren; Phys. Lett. B 373 (1996) 1.)
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The mean values are zero
If we define the action of the Hamiltonian on the Gamowvector as:
Comment: the object
Is not defined, since the vectors do notbelong to the Hilbert space of H.
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•The mean values are complex
Comment: physically un-acceptable, sincewe cannot determine simultaneously thereal and imaginary part of the expectationvalue
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The mean values are real
For a mapping of analytic functions (like projections on thepositive real semi-axis) the norms are finite,
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Changing variables to
the integral transforms like
Thus we find
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The mean value are the result of interferencesbetween capturing and decaying vectors
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In momentum space (Berggren) one has
This is Berggren’s main result.
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To better understand the previous results we shallstart from T. Berggren’ work , and compare it withour own work
Delta-function normalization in momentum space, for a continuum wave function
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For a given operator
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If we replace in the expectation value
then
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Finally,
From where it reads
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Following Berggren’s interpretation
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In our approach
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and
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As an example, let us explore the consequencesof the procedure for an arbitrary self-adjointoperator
then
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This value is real, since:
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In Berggren’s formalism
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Summary• The quantum mechanical expectation value of a
hermitean operator, when the system is in a resonantstate, may be derived from the corresponding valuesdefined for the continuum states having energies closeto the resonance energy. (Berggren’s result)
• When resonant Gamow states are constructed in a rigged Hilbert space, starting from Dirac’s formula, theexpectation value of a self-adjoint operator acting on a Gamow state is real. (Our result)
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Some applications of Gamowvectors
• Illustration of resonances in a simple quantum mechanical problem
• Zeno paradox in quantum theory• Alpha decay (revisited)• The Friedrichs Model• Nuclear structure and nuclear reactions
with Gamow vectors
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Some illustrative references• H. Massmann ; Am.J.Phys 53 (1985) 679• A. Peres; Am. J. Phys. 48 (1980) 931• B. Holstein; Am. J. Phys. 64 (1996) 1061• M. Baldo, L. S. Ferreira and L. Streit; Phys. Rev. C 36
(1987) 1743• E. Hernandez and M. Mondragon; Phys. Rev. C 29
(1984) 722• R. J. Liotta et al; Phys. Rev. Lett. 89 (2002)042501
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and several other references fromother authors and from myself… too lazy to compile them here, sorry…Iwill quoted them in the writtenversion of the lectures….
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A simple example (from H. Massmann; Am. J. Phys. 53 (1985) 679))
Let the potential be a one dimensional delta-barrier
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with
![Page 161: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/161.jpg)
This is the dependence of the phase shiftwith the wave number; it increases by πgiving rise to resonances (kx=nπ )
![Page 162: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/162.jpg)
In this example, the ratio between theprobability of finding the particle in the insideregion and outside it (in an interval equal to theposition of the barrier) is given by
![Page 163: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/163.jpg)
For a finite value of α
Graph of the ratio R, as a function of the energy
![Page 164: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/164.jpg)
In terms of the S-matrix, the previousresults can be written as
and with the S-matrix defined as
It is found that
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with
and
Then, if ß->0 we get a resonance, that is the wave number adquires a “resonant value” , such that at the position of the barrier
![Page 166: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/166.jpg)
For k closer to a resonant value
Then, at lowest order in thedifference ∆k
with
![Page 167: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/167.jpg)
The, for isolated resonances the S-matrix can be written
Thus, we hare obtained again thecharacteristic Breit-Wigner structure. The agreement between the exactsolution and the approximated one, forisolated resonances, is shown in thenext figure
![Page 168: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/168.jpg)
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Another application: Zeno effect(suggested refs: A. Peres ;Am.J. Phys. 48 (1980) 931; and O.C. and M. Gadella; Phys. Rep. 396(2004)41)
We may say that, from common knowledge, a watched kettle never boils. But if you like toappear as an illustrated girl/man you may say in Quantum Mechanics an unstable system underconstant observation will not decay (Zeno’seffect)
![Page 170: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/170.jpg)
From the first lecture, we define thenon-decay amplitude at the time t
and the non-decay probability
1) for t=0 the derivative of P(t) respecto to t iszero, then for small values of t one has
![Page 171: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/171.jpg)
The proof of this relation, when the eigenvector isoutside the domain of the Hamiltonian (like a Gamowvector) is rather lenghty but we can, for the sakeof completeness, show a naive version of it, basedon the evolution of the system very near a resonance, such that the only significant part of theexponential behavior is given by the imaginary partof the energy. Under this restriction:
where ∆H≈Г
![Page 172: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/172.jpg)
hence
the left hand side tends to unity as n tendsto infinity, it means that if the time intervalis small enough (and the measurement isrepeated a large number of times during thetime interval) the survival amplitude is largerthan the exponential and the system does notdecay.
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2)for intermediate times, starting from a certaintime t1, smaller than the half-life, to a certain time t2, larger than the half-life, the non-decayprobability is exponential
The time t1 needed to begin with theexponential behavior is called the Zeno time.
3) For very large values of t
![Page 174: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/174.jpg)
Alpha decay revisited(ref: B. Holstein; Am.J.Phys. 64 (1996) 1061)
The alpha-decay rate is expressed
where σ is the WKB barrier penetration factor
ω/2π is the frequency at which the pre-formed alpha-particle strikes the barrier, and ξ is a factor of the order of unity.
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The potential is the sum of the nuclear potential and the Coulomb interaction. In thel=0 wave it looks like
![Page 176: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/176.jpg)
The radial wave functions are of the form
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With the wave numbers
The relation between the constants, as required by the matching conditiosare:
![Page 178: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/178.jpg)
Leading to the system
with solutions
![Page 179: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/179.jpg)
but, simultaneously
Which implies that the energies whichmay fulfill it must be complex. Theassociated dispersion relation
since the right hand side is suppressed, thisequation yields
![Page 180: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/180.jpg)
This is exactly the condition found in the firstlecture, in dealing with the definition of Gamowvectors for a single barrier.
Following the conventional WKB treatment(see Holstein) we define the probabilityflux and the decay rate as
![Page 181: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/181.jpg)
By impossing normalization
The decay rate is re-written
![Page 182: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/182.jpg)
Naturally, we can understand this result by explicitely writting for the complex eigenvalue
in
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then, we re-obtain, for the wave function in the external region, the result from theprevious lectures
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The Friedrichs model
The simplest form includes a Hamiltonianwith a continuous spectrum (eigenvalues in the real positive axis) plus an eigenvalueembedded in this continuum. The state isrepresented as
α is a complex number and φ(ω) belongs tothe space of square integrable functions onthe positive real axis
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The scalar product is given by
(restriction of the unperturbedHamiltonian)
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State vector for thebound state
Total Hamiltonian
interaction
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In order to describe resonances, we consider the reduced resolvent of H in the boundstate
which is given by
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is a complex analytic function with no singularities on the complex plane other thana branch cut coinciding with the positive semi-axis. It admits analytic continuations.The proof of this result is very technical andwe refer the interested reader to theoriginal sources (see Phys. Rep. 396 (2004) 41)
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The form of the analytic continuations is
The poles are determined by thezeros of the equations
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The Friedrichs model in RHS
(formal steps)
a) The spectral decomposition of the unperturbedHamiltonian
b)The decomposition of the interaction
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c)The state
d) orthogonality
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e) Scalar product (old notation)
Scalar product (new notation )
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f)interaction
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Here, we intend to get the explicitform of the Gamow vectors forthe Friedrichs model.
Let x be an arbitrary positivenumber (x>0) and write the
eigenvalue equation
with
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By applying to it the complete Hamiltonian we get thesystem of equations
It yields an integral equation with one solution ofof the form
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This is a functional in the right-sailspace of the RHS. It admits a continuation to the lower half plane, with a single pole:
then
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which gives
then
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with the help of Taylor’s theorem
we get
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thus
This is the formal solution of the decayingGamow vector for the Friedrichs model . In the same way, we have for the growingGamow vector the expression
![Page 200: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/200.jpg)
Some applications to nuclear structure calculations
-Eigenvalue problem for Gamow vectors in N-N interactionsRefs: M. Baldo, L. S. Ferreira and L. Streit (Phys. Rec. C. 36 (1987) 1743
- Two particle resonant states in a many body mean field
Refs: R. J. Liotta et al; Phys. Rev. Lett 89 (2002) 042501
- The Friedrichs model with fermion boson couplingsRefs: O.C, M. Gadella and G. Pronko(J.Mod.Phys.E 15 (2006) 1273; ibid. 16 (2007)1.
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The extended Friedrichs model(a fermion interacting with a boson field which has a discrete and a resonant state
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which leads to the coupled system
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One can introduce each of these fields in theoriginal equations, to re-write the coupledsystem
![Page 205: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/205.jpg)
leading to the following system of equations
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With the quantities A, B, etc, givenby
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Then, on formal grounds, we have shown thatthe coupling of a bound fermion state with a boson field with has a resonant state yields a resonant behavior for the fermion.
This finding has some significance for nuclear structure calculations, where, like in Berggreen’s basis, the fermions include Gamowresonances and they are used to constructboson fields (like two-particle or particle-holeexcitations)
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some applications of the Friedrisch model to physical systems (Onley and Kumar; Am. J. Phys. 60 (19929 431:
We shall consider a system which consists of a particle wich can exists in a discrete state (particle-hole state) or in a continuum as a free massive boson, then applying our previous concepts we write the wave function of the free particle as
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The interaction between both sectors of the wave function can be written
The system is prepared at t=0 in its discrete state, in the particle-hole state, with the initial conditions
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The equation of motion (in the interaction picture)
Yields the equations for the amplitudes
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The, from both equations one gets
After a long time (t->∞) b(k,∞) is the probability amplitude to find the boson state and a(∞) is the survival amplitude in the p-hstate. If a(t<0)=0, its Fourier transform can be written
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and
To get the expression for f(ω) we integrate
and take Є->0
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therefore
This integral is transformed as an integral on complex energies
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In the complex energy plane the integration path is of the form
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since
![Page 216: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/216.jpg)
Since now we have an explicit expression for f(ω) we can write, forthe survival amplitude
Which may be solved, by integration, for an explicit structure of Z(ω)
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The proposed dependence of the interaction and of the density of states is
Where g is a coupling strength factor, m is the mass of the boson and b is a real value whose absolute value is smaller than the mass m
Under this assumption, the integral of Z yields
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And with it, we integrate the expression of the survival amplitude in the regions limited by the contour
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The contribution from the cut is a slowly varying function of the form
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The following are results given by Onleyand Kumar, and they illustrated rather nicely the transition from the linear to the exponential decay
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The decay is exponential up to 5 lifetimes (the time is given in units of the lifetime), but the regime changes at about 6 lifetimes due to interferences between the pole and the cut
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Survival for small fractions of the lifetime
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Dependence of the survival upon the coupling constant
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Onset of non-exponential decay, for the strong coupling case
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Line shapes (for the continuous
part of the spectrum,
for w_0 close to m
![Page 228: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/228.jpg)
Line shapes (for the continuous part of the spectrum, for w_0 1000 MeV
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Assisted tunneling of a metastable state between barriers (G. Kalbermann; Phys. Rev. C. 77 (2008) 041601 (R)
Problem: exposing a system to external excitations can enhance its tunneling rate.
Model:
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Initial non-stationary state
Stationary states (even and odd solutions)
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Normalization factors (even solutions)
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Normalization factors (odd solutions)
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External perturbation
Wave function
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Amplitudes:
![Page 235: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/235.jpg)
Matrix element of the external potential
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Then, the eqs. for the amplitudes read
(for even solutions)
(for odd solutions)
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Rescaling the variables:
The amplitudes are given by
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The normalization factors have zeros at the values
where j is the pole index, with
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with these expressions the poles are located symmetrically above and below the real momentum axis, with values given by
![Page 240: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/240.jpg)
In Kalbermann’s calculations, the pole structure is of the form:
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The first pole dominates the structure of the wave function, as of the decay constant, which is then given by (even states)
And (odd states)
![Page 242: Lectures on Physical and Mathematical aspects of Gamow States](https://reader030.vdocument.in/reader030/viewer/2022012508/6184fc2fa5db202c992e23c3/html5/thumbnails/242.jpg)
Then, from Kalbermann’s results it is seen that two main effects are due to the action of the external potential upon the decaying states, namely:
a) The decay constant is enhanced
b) The dominance of the first pole produces an extra damping
That is: the external field causes the acceleration of the tunneling (the wave function will tunnel faster)
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Two-Particle Resonant States in a Many-BodyMean Field (from PRL 89 (2002) 042501
“…The role played by single-particle resonances and ofthe continuum itself upon particles moving in the continuumof a heavy nucleus is not fully understood.One may approach this problem by using, asthe single-particle representation, theBerggren representation. One chooses the proper continuumas a given contour in the complex energy planeand forms the basis set of states as the bound states plusthe Gamow resonances included in that contour plus thescattering states on the contour…” (quoted from thepaper)
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One maythus think that the Berggren representation can also beused straightaway to evaluate many-particle quantities, asone does with the shell model using bound representations.Unfortunately this is not the case. The root of the problemis that the set of energies of the two-particle basis statesmay cover the whole complex energy plane of interest….”
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Then, the main contribution to the imaginary part ofthe energy of the many-body states is given by Gamow vectors in the single-particle basis, as expected, with no effects coming from scatteringstates. To illustrate this point we go to the nexexample (dispersion of neutrinos by a nucleus)
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Some applications to nuclear structureand nuclear reactions
refs: O.C, R. J. Liotta and M. Mosquera (Phys. Rev. C. 78 (2008) 064308)
We study theprocess (chargecurrent neutrino-nucleos scattering)
By assuming that the single particle states to be used in the calculations belong to a basis with bound, quasi-bound, resonant and scattering states.
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The proton-particle states are (al largedistances they behave as exp{ikr}):
a) bound states, for which Re(k)=0, Im(k)>0,
b)anti-bound states, for which Re(k)=0, Im(k)<0.
c) outgoing (decay) states for whichRe(k)>0, Im(k)<0,
d) incoming (capture) states for whichRe(k)<0, Im(k)<0.
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Proton states after the diagonalization of theWoods Saxon plus Coulomb potential
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The results of the calculations, show that:
1. the largest contributions to the consideredchannels of the cross section are given by nuclear excitations where bound and resonantstates participate as proton single-particlestates, and
2. the contribution of single-particle states in the continuum is, for all practical purposes, negligible.
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Some final words after theseexamples….
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Acknowledgements
I want to express my gratitude toour colleagues, who havecontributed to the developmentof the field and from whom I havehad the privilege of learning thetechniques presented in theselectures.
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Since these is a very long list, indeed, I warmly and gratefully thanks all ofthem in the persons of Profs. A. Bohm, M. Gadella, and R.J. Liotta
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Within few months three of the most outstandingphysicist of the twenty century: Aage Bohr (NBI), Carlos Guido Bollini (UNLP) and Marcos Moshinsky(UNAM) passed away.
I have had the privilege of knowing them. They hadin common the joy of thinking physics and thegenerosity of sharing their feelings with theirstudents and colleagues .
I hope that their trajectories andmemories will remain with us and with the youngergenerations of physicists in the years to come.
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Thanks are due, with pleasure, tothe organizers of this ELAF andthanks to all of you.
Pues nada!!!!