The Islamic University of Gaza
Deanery of Graduate Studies Faculty of Education
Department of Curricula and Methodology
Levels of Reflective Teaching among the Student
Teachers of English in Gaza Universities
By Mamdouh Khader Ferwana
Supervised by:
Prof. Ezzo Afana
Dr. Awad Keshta
A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Education, The Islamic
University of Gaza, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for
the Degree M. Ed. 2006
-i-
بسم اهللا الرمحن الرحيموقضى ربك أال تعبدوا إال إياه وبالوالدين إحسانا أما يبلغن عندك الكرب (
أحدهما أو كالهما فال تقل هلما أف وال تنهرهما وقل هلما قوال كرميا )24(
واخفض هلما جناح الذل من الرمحة وقل رب ارمحهما كما ربياني صغريا
ســورة اإلســــراء )25(
“And your Lord has decreed that you worship none but Him. And that you be dutiful to your parents. If one of them or both of them attain old age in your life, say not to them a word of disrespect, nor shout at them but address them in terms of honour (24) And lower unto them the wing of submission and humility through mercy, and say: “My Lord! Bestow on them Your Mercy as they did bring me up when I was young (25).”
-ii-
Dedication I would like to dedicate my work to My Father’s Soul, who had sacrified everything in his life for my brothers and me, so that we may have a better future. My Mother, who has always been encouraging me and sacrificing to bring me where I am. My brothers and sisters, who have been supporting and encouraging me. My wife, who supported me and raised my spirit whenever I felt tired or bored. My three lovely children Mosa’ab, Mohammad and Mohanad.
-iii-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all I am awarding my great thanks for the Almighty ALLAH Who all the time helps me and grants me the power and courage to finish this study and give me the success in my life (Alhamdu lillah).
I am grateful to the Islamic University, Deanery of Graduate Studies and Deanery of Faculty of Education for giving me the opportunity to undertake this study.
My gratitude and respect are paid to my supervisors, Prof. Ezzo Afana, Professor of Curriculum and Methodology and Dr. Awad Keshta, Assistant Professor of Curriculum and Methodology for their devoted efforts, valuable advice, continuous encouragement and their constant motivation that push me to finish this study, and above all for granting me the honor to become one of their students.
My gratitude and respect are paid to the two examiners Dr. Walid Amer and Dr. Sanaa’ Abou Dagga for their valuable notes and recommendations.
I would like to express my deep thanks and appreciation to my teacher and my cousin Mr. Sadeq S. Ferwanah for his considerable advice and notes that much contributed to improving the study.
Special thanks and gratitude to my teacher Prof. Mohammad Asqoul, Vice present of the University for Academic Affairs, for his valuable remarks and suggestions that helped me at the beginning of this study.
I would like to express my deep thanks and appreciation to my teacher Dr. Nazmy Al-Masri for his valuable notes that much contributed to improving the study.
I express my sincere acknowledgement to Mr. Mahmoud Mattar for his efforts in doing statistics for this study.
My appreciation and gratitude are paid to the panel of professors (juries of the tools of the study) for their valuable and intellectual notes and suggestions.
I also thank all supervisors and teachers in schools who helped me in gathering needed data for this study.
Many thanks are due to the student teachers who participated in filling the test and the questionnaire of the study. I also thank all my friends who love and support me.
-iv-
ABSTRACT Levels of Reflective Teaching among the Student Teachers
of English in Gaza Universities By: Mamdouh Khader Ferwana
Supervised by: Prof. Ezzo Afana and Dr. Awad Keshta
This study aims at measuring the level of reflective teaching among student teachers of English in Gaza universities (The Islamic University of Gaza and Al-Azhar University 2004 -2005) by answering the following questions:
1- What is the level of background about the reflective teaching approach among the student teachers of English in Gaza universities? 2- What do the student teachers of English in Gaza universities think
about the values (importance) of the reflective teaching in their teaching performances?
3- What is the Level of practicing the reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza Universities?
4- Are there differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between the levels of background about the reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in the two Gaza universities (The Islamic University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the university variable?
5- Are there differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between the levels of thinking about the values (importance) of the reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in the two Gaza universities (The Islamic University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the university variable?
6- Are there differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between the levels of practicing reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in the two Gaza universities (The Islamic University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the university variable?
To fulfill the aims of the study, the researcher followed the descriptive analytical approach. He used different tools to collect the needed information. He prepared a test is to know to what extent the student teachers are familiar (having background) with the reflective teaching approach, questionnaire to know what the student teachers think about the reflective teaching and its values and an Observation card to measure the level of reflective teaching among the Student teachers of English in Gaza Universities. The researcher applied the tools of the study on 66 student teachers as a random sample. Percentages, means, Pearson correlation formula, Alpha Cronbach, Kuder-Richardson Formulas 21 ,Cooper Test, T test and Mann Whitney test were used for analyzing the data statistically. The results of the test show that the student teachers of English in the two universities (The Islamic University of Gaza and Al-Azhar University) had a little educational background about the reflective teaching approach.
-v-
The results of the questionnaire show that the student teachers of English in the two universities (The Islamic University of Gaza and Al-Azhar University) had positive thinking about the reflective teaching approach. The results of the Observation card showed that the student teachers of English in the two universities (The Islamic University of Gaza and Al-Azhar University) had a low level of practicing the reflective teaching approach. There were not statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of levels of background about, levels of thinking about, and levels of practicing the reflective teaching among student teachers of English in Gaza universities due to the university variable.
The study concluded with some relevant recommendations for trainee teachers and teachers of English, universities and faculties of Education, supervisors and schools principals (headmasters and headmistresses) and the Palestinian Ministry of Education and Higher education. The most significant recommendations were as follows:
- Teachers should look again into their work and try to employ the reflective approach. - Teachers should know that reflective approach is one of the keys of their advancement in their work. - Teachers should think deeply in their performance and try to develop it. - Teachers should be cognizant of the idea and the importance of the reflective teaching approach as a fruitful approach. - Universities should highlight the importance of the reflective teaching approach - Universities should make sure that the reflective teaching approach is under focus in methodology syllabuses.
- Supervisors and school principals should encourage collaborative and cooperative professionalism and promote the adoption of the reflective teaching approach.
- Supervisors and school principals should recognize this approach, its principles and its role in improving education and the teaching process in Palestinian schools. - Supervisors and school principals should encourage and recompense the successful and the active reflective teachers. - The Ministry of Education should motivate researchers to focus on the importance of reflective teaching of other branches of sciences. - The Ministry should provoke and help teachers to look critically at their work and try to give them some hints to employ this approach. - The Ministry should recognize that applying the reflective teaching approach means a step towards positive changes in higher education teaching towards the Total Quality Management.
-vi-
Table of contents
Title Page
Dedication ii
Acknowledgement iii
Abstract in English iv
Chapter I 1
1.1 Introduction: 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 7
1.2.1 Research Questions 7
1.3 Research Hypotheses 8
1.4 Purpose of the study 9
1.5 Significance of the Study 9
1.6 Definition of Terms 11
1.7 Limitations of the Study 12
1.8 Summary 13
Chapter II 14
Section “A”: The Theoretical Framework 14
2.1 Introduction: 14
2.2 Reflective Practice: The Beginning 18
2.3 What is reflective practice teaching? 19
2.4 Why reflections? The benefits of reflective teaching 20
2.5 Types of reflection 24
2.6 Levels of reflection 26
-vii-
Title Page
2.7 Reflective practice process: Steps of reflections 27
2.8 Collecting data (information) 30
2.9 Characteristics of a reflective teacher 45
2.10 Characteristics of reflective practice 47
2.11 Reflection as an Islamic concept 49
2.12 Reflective practice: Criticisms and cautions 53
2.13 Difficulties with reflective teaching: 54
2.14 Summary 55
Section “B”: Literature Review 56
introduction 56
Summary 82
General Comment on the Previous Studies 85
Chapter III : Methodology 87
introduction 87
3.1 Population of the study 87
3.2 Sample of the study 88
3.3 Tools of the study 88
3.3.1 The first tool: The test 88
3.4 The second tool: The Questionnaire 93
3.5 The third tool: The Observation Card 96
3.6 Procedures of the study 101
3.7 Statistical analysis 102
3.8 Summary 102
Chapter IV : Results of the Study 103
-viii-
Title Page
introduction 103
4.1 The Answer of the First Question 103
4.2 The Answer of the Second Question 105
4.3 The Answer of the Third Question 106
4.4 The Answer of the Fourth Question 110
4.5 The Answer of the Fifth Question 112
4.6 The Answer of the sixth Question 113
4.7 Comment on the results of the last three questions and hypotheses: 114
4.8 Summar 115
Chapter V: Discussion and Recommendations 116
Introduction 116
5.1 Discussion 116
5.2 Recommendations 119
References 124
Appendix (1): The test 131
Appendix (2): List of experts 134
Appendix (3): The questionnaire 135
Appendix (4): The observation card 136
Appendix (5): Instructions of the observation card 138
Appendix (6): permissions to apply the study 142
Abstract in Arabic 147
-ix-
List of tables
Table Page Table (1) The population of the study 87
Table (2) The sample of the study 88
Table (3) Difficulty coefficient of each question of the test 89
Table (4) Discrimination coefficient of each question of the test 90
Table (5) Correlation Coefficient of the Test 92
Table (6) Discrimination Validity of the test 92
Table (7) Correlation Coefficient of the Questionnaire 94
Table (8) Discrimination Validity of the questionnaire 95
Table (9) Correlation Coefficient of the first phase (Planning) 97
Table (10) Correlation Coefficient of the second phase (operations and roles) 98
Table (11) Correlation Coefficient of the third phase (Analysis and reactions) 98
Table (12) Correlation Coefficient of the Phase and the Whole Observation card 98
Table (13) Discrimination Validity of the Observation card 99
Table (14) Levels of background about the reflective teaching 103
Table (15) Levels of thinking about the value of reflective
teaching
105
Table (16) Levels of practicing the reflective teaching 107
Table (17) Differences in the levels of background about the reflective teaching 111
Table (18) Differences in the levels of thinking about the reflective teaching 113
Table (19) Differences in the levels of practicing the reflective teaching 114
-1-
Chapter I
1.1 Introduction: Language is one of Allah’s signs for man “He (Allah) taught him (man)
eloquent speech” (The Holy Quran “Ar-Rahman/3”) and “And among his signs
(Allah) is the creation of the Heavens and the Earth, and the difference of your
(peoples’) languages and colors. Verily in that are indeed signs for men of sound
knowledge” (The Holy Quran Ar-Rum/22”).
Man needs language in as much as he needs air, water, and food. No one can
imagine life without language, as it is the basic means of communication among
individuals, groups and peoples.
Every nation has its own language; there are a number of languages
belonging to different world peoples by which they interact, convey messages and
transmit ideas and thoughts. Every nation seeks to keep its language alive because it
is the main sign of unique history, culture and civilization. Also, language can unify
people to be one nation.
However, there are a lot of languages over the world, each one belongs to
some societies, countries or nations. There are many differences between languages
due to their usage by peoples, their complexity and their comprehensiveness.
English has, lately, established itself as the most popular language in the
world. It may be considered the first world language. “Although English is not the
language with the largest number of natives or (first) language speakers, it has
become a lingua franca. A lingua franca can be defined as a language widely adopted
for communication between two speakers whose native languages are different from
-2-
each other and where one or both speakers are using it as a second language”
(Harmer 2001, p.1)
English is a universal language: the language of communications across
countries in the international world of trade, business, communications, air
transportation and technology. As such, the many “Englishes” of the world do not
belong to any single country, but are adaptations of standard forms accepted as
models or archetypes of “good English”. Therefore, learning and teaching English
are very important in Arab and Muslim countries in general and in Palestine in
particular, as our need for English is of radical importance to better understand the
world peoples and best address them about our concerns. Al-Ghunaimi (2003: p 1)
states that “Recently, it [English language] has been the language of “globalization”.
Therefore, English as a foreign language has been of considerable interest in
curriculum in most Arab countries to enable students to cope with modern life and
develop their countries”. Consequently, the Palestinian National Authority (PNA)
tries to focus on developing the teaching process in general and the teaching of
English in particular.
The Israeli occupation was responsible for several problems especially in the
education field. Mortaga (2004 p.20) says “the discussion has centered the problems
that faced the Palestinian educational system in the Gaza Strip under the Israeli
occupation as well as poor syllabuses, poorly trained school teachers, low salaries,
school closures as a result of the political situation, poorly-equipped schools and
crowded classes”
The PNA has taken right and brave steps to improve education in the
Palestinian territories (the Gaza Strip & the West Bank) in general, and teaching of
-3-
English in particular. It tries to overcome all the problems which faced Palestinians
during Israeli occupation period. “English as a second language is to be taught from
the first grade rather from the fifth grade as was the case in the old curricula. Pupils
will receive twelve years of English instruction instead of eight. This emphasis is to
equip high–school graduates with a higher level of competence in English so as to
achieve two aims: greater openness to world culture in which English occupies a
prominent position, and better competitiveness on the labor market”. (Mortaga, 2004
p.20). The PNA made great contributions to improve school teachers’ proficiency
and updating their background knowledge by holding a number of in-service teacher
training courses (either in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank or abroad) that focus on
English language in general or on the skills of teaching English in particular.
In the light of this situation, it becomes clear that useful methods of teaching
English should be in focus in order to achieve the utmost goals for students and
teachers. However, the question “what is the perfect method of teaching English?”
remains without answer. Teaching depends on many factors such as individual
differences, class environment, teacher’s and learner’s abilities and the lesson subject
matter. These factors and others enforce teachers, who are aware of the fact that there
is no standard and perfect teaching method to follow, to seek a suitable approach to
present their lessons. These factors invite teachers to improve their abilities and
develop their performance.
Reflective teaching “can positively affect professional growth and
development by leading to greater self awareness to the development of new
knowledge about professional practice” (Imel 1992). Reflective teaching means
“looking at what we - as teachers - do in the class and thinking why we do it”
-4-
(Farrell, 2004 p.72). In other words, it is a process of self-observation and self-
evaluation by collecting data about what is going on in our classroom and then
analyzing and evaluating data to lead us to positive changes and improvements in our
teaching.
Finally the researcher hopes that this study be a guide for teachers who seek
better performance and better results in both their achievement and in their students’.
The reflective approach for teaching is “one in which teachers and student
teachers collect data about teaching, examine their attitudes, beliefs, assumptions and
teaching practices and use the information obtained as a basis for critical reflection
about teaching” (Richards, 1997 p 1). Teachers can collect such data by keeping a
diary or a journal, using a tape recording, or a video recording or taking notes from
external observers. All of these resources and others can give teachers information to
make critical judgments about their teaching and can be the basis for improving it
When teachers have the abilities to observe themselves and the skills of
collecting data about their performance, they could then analyze the situations and
data they collected. Gaining the benefits of observations and collection of data are to
promote the teachers’ critical inquiry and sense judgment of their performance.
(Ruth 1992) “Engaging in reflective teaching takes time and efforts but the
rewards can be great. The following list summarizes reflective teaching processes:
- Questioning what, why, and how one does things and
asking what, why and how others do things.
- Seeking alternatives.
- Keeping an open mind.
- Comparing and contrasting.
- Asking “what if …?”
- Considering consequences.
- Seeking, identifying and resolving problems ”
-5-
Reflective teaching is a useful method for teachers and student teachers to
generate and explore their concerns about the quality of their teaching and their
students learning. The outcomes of the adoption of this approach are fruitful.
“There is evidence that serious attention to reflective
teaching in college courses pays off. A study at Ohio
State University, reported by Appalachian Educational
Laboratory, examined two groups of teachers in the
graduate school of education. Members of the first group
were instructed to reflect weekly on what they were
learning and record their thoughts in a journal. Those in
the second group also kept journals, but in addition, they
were taught structured ways of reflecting were
encouraged to discuss their reflections with other
teachers. Researchers who compared the content and
style of the journals from both groups concluded that the
second group demonstrated a higher level of
understanding about reflective teaching and had more
thoughts about ways to put new ideas into classroom
practice”. (Black 2001)
It becomes obvious that the teaching process should be activated by
improving teachers’ performances and developing their practices. Teaching process
really needs a positive change. Because there is no perfect teaching method, it is
therefore important to think realistically about the practicalities of change. In
thinking through the changes the teacher would like to make, it is useful to ask
-6-
oneself, what is important to me? Who needs to be involved? What is the time-scale?
How do I communicate the need for action? And other similar questions.
Most teachers seek to evolve their performance in order to do their
best towards their students either in schools or universities. Therefore, this
research is supposed to focus on the reflection in the teaching process, its
values, and why and how it is employed?
Islam asserts on the notion of reflection. The Holy Quran contains a
lot of instructions for man to think deeply in his life, and his behaviors. Islam
invites Muslims to be active in their life and to seek for good, so it stimulates
them to reflect on their actions and behaviors in order to be controlled by
right Islamic directions.
It is worth mentioning that the reflection process in teaching is a very
famous approach among western and non-Arab teachers either in schools or
universities. Thus, our school and university teachers need to pay the utmost
attention to their practices in their pursuit for bettering their performance and
experience.
The researcher hopes that this study be a guide for the teachers who
seek better performance and better results in their achievement and in their
students’. The researcher chooses this topic depending on some justifications
which are as follows:
- No research (at least in the Gaza Strip) has been dealt with the
reflective teaching approach.
- Improving teaching practices is important with regard to rapid
development.
-7-
- Reflective teaching approach teaching approach is not used in a
standard form at schools and universities. This makes it necessary to
shed light on it
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The problem of the study will be addressed in the following major question:
What is the level of reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in
Gaza Universities?
The following minor questions emanate from the above major one:
1.2.1 Research Questions:
1- What is the level of background knowledge regarding the reflective
teaching approach among the student teachers of English in Gaza
universities?
2- What do the student teachers of English in Gaza universities think
regarding the value (importance) of the reflective teaching in their
teaching performances?
3- What is the Level of practicing the reflective teaching among the
student teachers of English in Gaza Universities?
4- Are there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level
between the levels of background knowledge regarding the reflective
teaching of the student teachers of English in Gaza universities (The
Islamic University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the
university variable?
-8-
5- Are there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level
between the levels of thinking regarding the value (importance) of the
reflective teaching of the student teachers of English in Gaza
universities (The Islamic University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University)
due to the university variable?
6- Are there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level
between the levels of practicing reflective teaching of the student
teachers of English in Gaza universities (The Islamic University of
Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the university variable?
1.3 Research Hypotheses
The primary research hypotheses of this study are:
1- There are no statistically significant differences between averages
in the background knowledge regarding the reflective teaching of
the student teachers of English in Gaza universities (The Islamic
University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the university
variable.
2- There are no statistically significant differences between averages
in levels of thinking regarding the value (importance) the reflective
teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza universities
(The Islamic University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the
university variable.
3- There are no statistically significant differences between averages
of levels of practicing the reflective teaching of the student teachers
-9-
of English in Gaza universities (The Islamic University of Gaza –
Al-Azhar University) due to the university variable.
1.4 Purpose of the Study:
1- To describe and measure the level of the background knowledge
regarding the reflective teaching approach among student teachers of
English in Gaza universities.
2- To describe and measure the level of the thinking regarding the
value (importance) of the reflective teaching approach among
student teachers of English in Gaza universities.
3- To describe and measure the level of practicing the reflective
teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza universities.
4- To measure if there are statistically significant differences between
averages in the levels of background knowledge, the levels of
thinking and the levels of practicing the reflective teaching among
the student teachers of English in Gaza universities (The Islamic
University of Gaza – Al-Azhar University) due to the university
variable.
1.5 Significance of the Study:
Teachers seek to evolve their performance to do their duties efficiently and
professionally. In order to achieve this goal, teachers try to employ some approaches
or methods in teaching. Some western scholars of education advise teachers to
exploit reflection processes in their teaching to get more benefits and more positive
-10-
results in their job. On the contrary, the Arab world in general, and Palestine in
particular seem to lack studies in this approach.
This study is supposed to focus on the importance of positive changes in the
teaching process by exploiting reflective teaching, by which teachers can develop
their professions and performances as well as evolving their students’ performances.
Therefore, the study will give a clear idea about the approach and its benefits in
developing the teaching process concerning the following groups:
a) Student Teachers and In-service Teachers:
The study is supposed to stimulate and help them to look critically at their
performance in the classrooms and try to give them some hints and signs to employ
this approach, reorganize their beliefs, and to reveal their roles in improving
education and teaching in the higher education institutions.
b) Faculties of Education in Universities:
The study is supposed to help them to increase their foci on this useful
approach in methodology courses.
c) Supervisors and Mentors:
The study is supposed to raise supervisors’ and mentors’ awareness of the
advantages of implementing this approach in our schools and their roles in this
process.
d) Palestinian Ministry of Education and Higher Education:
The study is supposed to explain this approach, its principles for teachers and
its role in improving the teaching process and the curricula of Palestinian schools.
-11-
1.6 Definition of Terms:
- Reflection:
“ Is a careful thought about a particular topic ” (Collins Co-build Learner’s
Dictionary, 1996 p 918)?
- Reflective Teaching:
“Is a mode that integrates or links thought and action with reflection. It involves
thinking critically and analyzing one’s actions with the goal of improving one’s
professional practice” (Imel, 1992)
- Reflective Teaching:
Gierlinger, (1996) defined reflective teaching as “ is essentially grounded in action
research whose principal features are change and collaboration between researchers
and those researched ”
The Researcher Definition:
Taking the above definitions into consideration, the researcher would define
reflective teaching as “Taking time to think deeply about what we do in the
classroom as teachers. We (as teachers) can simply collect information by many
ways to form a clear and real idea about this, and then analyze and evaluate this
information in order to make some decisions which lead us to changes and
improvements in our teaching”
- Teaching Skills:
They “ are techniques that contribute to the academic development and perfection of
the individual. As techniques these skills have a procedural and functional
perspective.” (Mukalel, 1998 p.155)
-12-
- Evaluation:
It is “ a systematic process of determining the extent to which instructional objectives
are achieved by pupils” (Nunan & Lamb, 2000 p. 230)
- Self-evaluation:
It is “ the ability of teachers to judge their own teaching honestly and to see clearly
how much learning is taking place in the class” (Doff, 1995 p. 278)
- Diary:
It is a “ book sometimes used in school by teachers as an account of class work and
homework done by pupils. The record is written either by teacher to describe the
collective work of the children…. ” (Page & Thomas, 1989 p. 104)
- Student Teacher:
A male or female student who will graduate from the faculty of education and
candidate to be a teacher in schools.
- Gaza Universities:
Institutions offer higher education for Palestinian students in the Gaza Strip and grant
Bachelor and master degree in most of science fields.
1.7 Limitations of the Study:
The study will be applied on and limited to male and female
student teachers of English in the faculties of Education in Gaza
universities (The Islamic University and Al- Azhar University Al-
Aqsa University) in the academic year 2004 – 2005.
-13-
The researcher put aside the sample of Al-Aqsa University as he faced many
problems to apply his study on it. He thought that it would be difficult to apply the
study tools on Al- Aqsa University sample for the following reasons:
- The observer visited every student teacher just two times during the
year, so he/she will not be able to observe the student teacher twice
as the study required.
- Although the researcher obtained a permission from the Palestinian
Ministry of Education to allow cooperative teachers to observe the
student teachers in their schools, he thinks that it would be
impossible to obtain accurate data in such situations.
- The researcher tried to observe the students teachers by himself,
but he found that he must visit about twenty schools, so it would be
very difficult for the researcher to do that.
The main concern of this study is to explore the reflective teaching among
student teachers of English in Gaza universities in their performances.
It is worth mentioning that it can not be claimed that student teachers in this study
are representative of all sttudents at Gaza universities. Therefore, the generalizability
of the results are limited.
1.8 Summary This chapter viewed the background of the study by viewing an introduction,
statement of the problem of the study. In addition to that it focused on the hypothesis,
purposes and significance of the study. Finally, it mentioned the limitation of the
study and the definition of its terms.
-14-
Chapter II
Section “A”
The Theoretical Framework
2.1 Introduction:
No one can deny the importance of the foreign language study in our life as a
society of students and teachers. It has great influences on their intellectual abilities.
Language study offers many benefits to learners in terms of improved
communicative abilities, cognitive development, cultural awareness, and job
opportunities.
Teachers seek to develop their abilities and improve their practice by using
reflective approach as a means of developing the classroom teaching process “over
the last decade there has been increasing interest in reflection as a tool for improving
practice in education. Numerous scholars have developed rationales,
conceptualizations and methods for encouraging reflection as an integral part of
classroom teaching and teacher education” (Merryfield 1993)
It could be said that the utmost end of the teaching process is to make student
learning possible. So, teachers should do their best to achieve this great goal.
Teachers who like to better their practice think of positive change continuously.
Thinking must be deep and directed as well as continuous in order to get the real
benefits. Thinking may also force or lead teachers to ask themselves very critical
questions such as What is important to me? Who needs to be involved? What
-15-
resources do I need? What is the time scale? How do I communicate the need for
action?
It is known that teaching is a highly personalized job, no two teachers teach
in the same way. Every teacher has his/her own way, which can be developed, when
the teacher intends to do that. So, it could be said that any program for teachers’
development will not be useful unless the teachers intend to develop their practices .
Experience alone does not lead to effective teaching, as teachers need to activate this
experience during their job in order to be effective teachers. It may be useful for
teachers to try reflection as an approach to enhance their abilities and possibilities.
This shows us the important interplay between experience and reflection. This
interplay “influenced by the time of reflection, which has a dramatic impact on what
can be seen and acted on. Anticipatory retrospective and contemporaneous reflection
demand different skills and framing abilities and interact with experience in a variety
of ways” (Loughran 2002)
Changing for better situations is not a difficult mission. It requires an honest
intention, organized plan for change and then support from others who are involved
in teaching process. Teachers as human beings have natural intentions for change, so
it is easy for them to start change for good situation. Joyce (1997 p.397) says, “The
need to grow is built into the fiber of our being. We are impelled upward in a
developmental sense”. According to that, it becomes clear that intention to change
existed but it can not be activated without a complete and coherent plan and a
positive support in order to get the utmost benefits from change.
-16-
The first gate for teacher to start change is observation, which leads to
evaluation, and then takes decision for change. Observation is a very useful process
to take a true and real picture of the situation and then evaluate it. Teachers need
observation in all its kinds during their practice. “We [as teachers] need to ascertain
the present and future significance, value or quality of our process work after
carefully studying the good and bad features of particular options” (Woodward, 1991
p. 217)
Student teachers always need to be under supervision, by expert teachers in
order to know their positive and negative practices. By supervision experience can be
transferred to the trainee who will be a teacher for real situation. “The aim [of
supervision] is usually to improve the trainees’ teaching skills and develop their
awareness of how student learn” (Gower and Philips, 1995 p. v)
Trainee teachers should accept to be under observation during their practice in order
to get the utmost benefit of training because observation is considered as the first
step to reach the excellence level. Trainee teachers should know more and more
about the methods of teaching and think continuously of improving those methods.
So, they should learn methodology in advance. Most colleges of education in most
universities designed a syllabus of methodology to enhance the concept of “HOW
TO TEACH” in order to make teachers more practical and more flexible to choose
the suitable way for teaching and then think to develop this way.
Teachers should plan to change for better to get rid of routine procedures in
teaching, (Stern, 1993 p. 25) asserts “sometimes students come to the language class
with very fixed ideas of what to expect from a teacher and what they think teaching
-17-
should be like. Their view may be quite different from the self image that teachers
themselves wish to project”
Finally, it may become obvious how teachers need to learn about teaching,
improve their teaching ways and then put plans depending on the results of
observation, supervision and reflection.
If teachers test and observe their practice in order to advance their performance in the
classroom, they will be led to adopt the reflective approach. “Becoming reflective
[teacher] forces us to adopt a critical attitude to ourselves as individual foreign
language teachers to challenge our espoused personal beliefs about teaching”
(Richards and Nunan 1995 p. 213)
To develop any situation is a natural action for man. So active teachers try to
be main factors in the developing process as a result of their natural feeling “when
they produce their own materials, it is a response to the feeling that what is available
is not enough for the needs of their class” (Yalden 1994 p. 7)
Development in teaching field is not an easy process; it needs abilities and
possibilities that enable teachers to lead the process itself. It requires teachers to be
able to criticize themselves, evaluate their performance, observe their practice and
accept any change or criticism. “Development may be brought about by breaking our
own teaching rules or norms as a way of challenging what we have taken for granted.
It may involve trying out new ideas or changing the ways we use old ones. It may
involve investigating something that puzzles us or that we do not know about”
(Harmer 2001 p. 344)
Doubtless, adopting reflection in teaching makes teachers more active and
openminded. It will enforce them to seek overcome the problems they face and
-18-
improve the situation they are involved in. “During the last decade the slogan of
reflective teaching has been embraced by teachers. Reflection can be seen as a
reaction against the view of teachers as technicians who narrowly construe the nature
of the problems confronting them and merely carry out what others want to do”
(Zeichner and Liston 1996 p. 4). It is worth mentioning that the development process
is a continual one. It lasts throughout the teachers’ jobs in order to get professional
growth. It has also become widely recognized that “the professional development of
teachers should be a continuous long-term process undertaken for and by all
teachers” (Tickle 1994 p.1)
Teachers will not get benefit from this process if it is not continuous because it is an
accumulative process; in other words, it means that every event relates to another
and depends also on another.
2.2 Reflective Practice: The Beginning
According to Zeichner and Liston (1996 p. 8), it is difficult to say when and
where exactly reflective practice for teachers originated, but the work of the
American educator John Dewey (1933/1958) greatly influenced an increase in its
popularity for US teachers. Dewey made many major contributions to educational
thinking. He was one of the first educational theorists in the United States to view
teachers as reflective practitioners, as professionals who could play very active roles
in curriculum development and educational reform.
“In the United States of the late 1970s and early 1980s, the idea of reflective
practice became fashionable through the works of Van Maren (1977), and Schon
(1983-1990) and Goodman (1984)” (Farrell 2004 p.16). In 1990s educators began to
-19-
study and investigate the content of reflection, its principles, how teachers think
about their practice, and the features of reflection of various teachers.
It becomes clear that John Dewey and Donald Schon have a great influence
on the work concerning reflection theories and practices “Schon has written widely
about reflective practice highlighting its uses in several fields” (Zeichner and Liston
1996 p. 8).
2.3 What is Reflective Practice Teaching?
According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1992)
“Reflect,” means “think deeply about or remind oneself of past events.
“Reflection” means “thought or memory of past events.
“Reflective” (of a person, need, etc) means “thoughtful”
According to Collins Co-build: Essential English Dictionary (1994)
“Reflect” over something “you think deeply about it”
“Reflection” “is thought, you can refer to your thoughts about something as your
reflections”.
According to Collins Co-build: Learner’s Dictionary (1996)
“Reflect” means “think deeply about something”
“Reflection” “is careful thought about a particular topic”
Reflective teaching “in which teachers and student teachers collect data about
teaching, examine their attitudes, beliefs, assumptions, and teaching practices and
use the information obtained as a basis for critical reflection about teaching”
(Richards and Lockhart 1997 p. 1)
-20-
Reflective teaching is“ systematic and structured process in which we look at
concrete aspects of teaching and learning with the overall goal of personal change
and more effective practice” (Farrell 2004 p. 27)
2.4 Why Reflections?
The Benefits of Reflective Teaching
Many teachers already think about their teaching, they may talk with
themselves or with others “the lesson went well” “students seem to understand” or
“students have shown bad behaviors today”. However, with some focusing on or
discussing what has happened, they may conclude about why things happened.
Teachers may begin a process of reflection as a response to a particular
problem that has arisen in their classes, or simply as a way of finding out more about
their teaching. As a result of that they may decide to do something in a different way
or decide that what they are doing is the suitable way.
Reflective teaching “can positively affect professional growth and
development by leading to greater self awareness to the development of new
knowledge about professional practice” (Imel 1992). When teachers apply reflection
ideas during their work, they will overcome some problems, such as lack of time,
lack of expertise, lack of continuous support and fear of being weak teachers. “For
teachers who share these worries (problems) reflective teaching can provide a
potentially more private, and more manageable professional development alternative
[s]” (Bailey & Nunan 1996)
-21-
All novices or experts teachers can benefit from becoming reflective ones.
They think about what they wish to accomplish in the classroom, why they have
chosen these goals or those, and how they wish to achieve these goals. So, they think
of these questions and do their best to achieve a satisfactory situation in teaching.
Reflection is not limited or applied to a specific discipline; some scholars
“have written about teacher reflection in science education and social studies”
(Merryfield 1993). In other words, reflection can be suitable to be applied in teaching
for any scientific discipline including teaching language. So, every teacher regardless
of what he/she teaches can get benefit from reflection in his/her teaching process.
Also, reflection can be a very effective means in improving practice in
teacher education. “Numerous scholars have developed rationales, conceptualizations
and methods for encouraging reflection as an integral part of classroom teaching and
teacher education” (Merryfield 1993).
Reflection practice improves quality of teacher’s work. So, in the recent
years, many educational programs of colleges have been interested in this approach
as a means of professional development. Reflection can take many forms, and deals
with an endless variety of issues. Teachers can use reflection for any situation in or
out of the class. They can think about their actions in a correct way in order to make
correct decisions.
There is a strong connection between reflection and professional development
especially among pre-service teachers, so many universities focus on reflection in
their pre-service teacher programs. This opportunity for the pre-service teachers
improves the quality of teaching. So “future teachers will enter their professional
lives with the skills necessary to continually ask themselves how they are meeting
-22-
the needs of their students” (Ross 1998) as a result of focusing on reflection in their
educational programs during their studies in university.
The role of such programs is to assist pre-service teachers to identify and
diagnose practical problems and then help them to formulate their own solutions to
these problems, and thus assisting them to improve the quality of their work. In many
programs, efforts may be made for pre-service teachers to reflect upon their practice
as teachers at workshops or formal courses, pre-service teachers are asked:
* to reflect upon a particular aspect of their work (for example. a change process)
* to describe it (what the change was, how it was affected)
* to analyze it (in terms of a given framework).
* to share their descriptions and analyses with their fellow participants.
* to summarize their collective understanding of this aspect of their work (in other
words, the nature and experience of change) (Marshall 1998)
Doubtless, reflective teaching can facilitate pre-service teachers’ selection
from many ideas, help them to “confront and challenge their conception of teaching
and learning and their worldview, and assist them in learning how these affect their
professional development and classroom decision making” (Rodriguez 1998)
Pryke (2003) mentions that Schon cites four reasons to be put forward in
support of the notion that reflection interferes with action:
-There is no time to reflect when we are on the firing line, if we stop to think we are
dead.
-23-
- When we think about what we are doing, we surface complexity which interferes
with the smooth flow of action. The complexity that we can manage unconsciously
paralyses us when we bring it to consciousness.
- If we begin to reflect-in-action, we may trigger an infinite regress of reflection on
action, then on reflection on action, and so on.
-The stance appropriate to reflection is incompatible with the stance appropriate to
action. (Pryke, 2003)
Richards concludes some benefits for reflection in teaching:
- It can help to achieve a better understanding of one’s own assumptions about
teaching as well as his/her own teaching practice.
- It can lead to a richer conceptualization of teaching and better understanding of
teaching and learning processes.
- It can serve as a basis for self-evaluation.
- It can be an important component of professional development.
- It enables teachers to feel more confident in trying different options and assessing
their effects on teaching.
- It helps teachers to discover whether there is a gap between what they teach and
what their learners learn. (Richards, 1997)
Reflection process can lead teachers to formulate their own theories depending on
past knowledge and present experiences. Zeichner emphasizes that “reflection also
signifies a recognition that the generation of new knowledge about teaching is not the
exclusive property of colleges, universities…etc. It is a recognition that teachers have
-24-
ideas, beliefs and theories too, that can contribute to the betterment of teaching for all
teachers” (Zeichner & Liston 1996 p. 5)
2.5 Types of Reflection:
As mentioned earlier, there are several definitions of reflection and reflective
practice in the field of education. Some of those definitions did not take social
influence into consideration, and others included the influence of the social political
context of the teaching process as well as the schools and communities in which they
teach. Also, some educators say that teachers should reflect only in their classroom
whereas other educators say that teachers should reflect in and outside the classroom.
So it would be acceptable to find many types of reflection depending on points of
view of different educators.
Farrell (2004, p.22) concentrates on the actions of teachers towards their
classrooms, so he puts some types of reflection as follows:
a) Anticipatory Reflection:
Allows teacher to plan, decide a course of action and anticipate future
consequences of the actions.
b) Active or Interactive Reflection:
Allows teacher to make immediate decisions during class as events unfold.
c) Recollective Reflection:
Allows a teacher to make sense of past experiences and give new, deeper
insight into the meaning of those experiences.
d) Descriptive Reflection:
Involves describing a situation or problem.
e) Comparative Reflection:
-25-
Involves thinking regarding the situation from different perspectives.
Teachers try to solve a problem while also questioning their values and beliefs.
f) Critical Reflection:
Involves teachers looking at all the different perspectives of a situation or
problem and at all of the players involved: teachers, students, the school and the
community.
The researcher summarizes and compares four major approaches to the study of
reflective practice:
g) Reflection-in-action:
Making decisions about events in the classroom as they happen. This practice
requires that the teachers employ a kind of knowing-in-action. This action triggers
spontaneousness, which means routine responses.
h) Reflection-on-action:
Thinking regarding one’s teaching after the class, giving reasons for one’s
actions and behaviors in class. This type involves thinking back on what was done to
discover knowing-in-action, may have caused an unexpected action. (Farrell, 2004 p.
28). Teachers in this type reflect on their actions after they have finished teaching
classes.
i) Reflection for Action:
It is a proactive thinking in order to guide future action. This type is different
from the previous types of reflection in that it is proactive in nature. It is the desired
outcome of both previous types of reflection. “It guides teachers to future actions.
Teachers can prepare for the future by using knowledge from what happened during
class and what they reflected on after class” (Farrell, 2004 p. 28) .
-26-
j) Action Research:
Investigating in detail one topic related to one’s classroom teaching. Action
research and reflective teaching practice are closely connected. Action research is
one answer to the problematic reality that teacher’s voices are absent from the
research literature on teaching. Teachers should be as professional thinkers who can
pose and solve problems according to their educational practice. They can do that by
entering into a reflective cycle.
2.6 Levels of Reflection:
Once teachers have chosen a particular type of reflection, the next step or
question is to what extent do or should they reflect? Farrell (2004) asserts that
educators split reflective practice into three hierarchical levels as follows:
Level 1: Is action in the classroom. When teachers plan at the level of action, they
are concerned only with what they do in their classrooms.
Level 2: involves analyzing the reasons for the actions taken. It is also called
reflection at contextual level, what teachers focus on the theory behind their
classroom practices. They can then look into alternative practices they might prefer
to use depending on their students’ needs.
Level 3: encourages teachers to justify the work they do and reflect within the
broader context of society.
Other educators mentioned the same levels, but gave them different names, such as:
Level 1 called technical rationality, when teachers focus on their behaviors and skills
within the classrooms.
-27-
Level 2 called reflection at contextual level, when teachers focus on the theory
behind their classroom practices. They can then look into alternative practices they
might prefer to use, depending on their students’ needs
Level 3 called critical or dialectical reflection, when teachers focus on the moral,
ethical and social issues associated with their practice.
It may be possible for teachers to reflect on different levels at the same time,
depending on the topic of reflection. Some new teachers may find themselves
reflecting at level 1 (the level of action – technical rationality) because they may not
have enough experience to reflect at level 2 (conceptual level) or level 3 (moral
level). The researcher thinks that level 1 is a normal level for new teachers. In time,
they will find themselves reflecting at each of the various levels.
2.7 Reflective Practice Process:
Steps of Reflections:
As mentioned earlier, reflective teaching means looking at what teachers do
in the classroom, thinking why they do it, and thinking if it works. By collecting
information about what goes on in the classroom, and by analyzing and evaluating
this information, teachers identify and explore their own practices, and this may lead
to positive changes and improvements in their teaching.
Many teachers think about their work, and may talk with colleagues about it.
They can decide “the lesson went well or not” or “their students understood the
lesson or not”. Reflective teaching implies a systematic process for thinking
regarding such matters and then going onto making changes.
-28-
A teacher may begin a process of reflection in response to a particular
problem that has arisen in the classroom, or he/she decides to focus on particular
students, or look at a feature of his/her teaching. Reflective teaching is a cyclical
process because once the teacher starts to implement changes, then the reflective and
evaluative cycle begins again.
As a result of teachers’ reflection, they may decide to do something in a
different way, or they may decide to change something, or decide that what they are
doing is the best way. The goal of reflective practice is not necessarily to address a
specific problem, but to observe and refine practice in general on an ongoing process.
Many scholars and educators set some steps of reflection. All of them concentrate on
fundamental steps such as collecting data, analyzing it, reflecting on it and then
taking decision for positive change. The researcher tried to summarize the steps of
reflection in four steps. The first step is collecting descriptive data. Teachers need
detailed information on what is happening in the classrooms. They collect these data
through some data collection tools.
The second step is analyzing data. After they have collected data, teachers
can analyze them according to their attitudes, beliefs and goals. They may find
unexpected or surprising results. Teachers should be fair and objective when they
analyze these data. The third step is considering how the situation or activity could
have been different. Teachers need to examine how others solve or deal with similar
situations, and generate alternatives. Teachers should ask at this stage “what if…?”
this question would push and stimulate teachers to broaden their thinking and
reflection beyond the data they have collected. The last step is creating a plan that
incorporates new insights. Teachers must link information and insights, which were
-29-
gained after analyzing the data, to changes they are making in the classroom. The
important thing is that teachers should incorporate their new insights in their ongoing
planning and continue in the reflective process.
Imel (1992) states that Peters describes a process called DATA that consists
of four steps: describe, analyze, theorize, and act. The first step is describing the
problem or the activity and the aspect of the practice which the teacher wants to
change or modify. The second one is analyzing the descriptive data identifying all
internal or external factors that affect the teaching process. The third step involves
theorizing alternative ways of teaching by taking the theory derived from the
previous step and developing it into a new one. In this step the teacher can develop
and adopt his/her own new theory. The last step is to act and try the new theory in the
teaching process. This will only occur through more thoughts and reflection.
When the teacher decides to investigate a problem. He/she starts to plan how
to investigate the ways of the problem solving. The teacher begins to know the
background of the problem, and then plans to collect data. When the data have been
collected, the teacher analyzes and reflects on them. After going through this process,
teachers will take more responsibility for the decisions they make in their classes.
Dinkelman (2003) summarizes the process on the light of Dewey’s theory of
reflective thinking. He asserts that the process of reflection represented by the steps
of confronting a puzzling situation, identifying the problem posed by that situation.
The teacher then forms a hypothesis about what might be done to solve that problem,
and then tests the hypothesis against the realization of desired ends.
Richards and Nunan (1995) set a number of principles that guide a process by
which teachers can become reflective. The researcher summarized them as follows:
-30-
- The issue upon which the teacher reflects must be connected with its social contexts
- Teachers must be interested in the problem to be solved.
- Reflection involves problem solving from the teaching situation.
- Systematic procedures are very necessary.
- Collected information must be derived from the teacher’s experience of teaching.
- The teacher’s ideas need to be tested through the practice of teaching.
- Ideas about teaching must lead to some course of reflexive action.
Hence, reflexive action may be transformed into new concepts or understandings and
redefined practice in teaching. (Richards and Nunan 1995 p. 207)
Therefore, it can be concluded that reflection consists of systematic process. It is not
random actions. It consists of overlapped steps and actions which lead teachers to
their professional development.
2.8 Collecting Data (Information)
The reflective process depends completely on descriptive data collected by
teachers about a certain problem the teacher focuses on. So, collected data are the
core of the reflective process, as without data teachers can do nothing or find nothing
to deal with. “The reflective process can be facilitated in two important respects. The
first respect is in terms of how the professional action can be recalled so that it is
available for reflection. The second respect is in terms of how the professional action
can be most fruitfully analyzed as part of the reflective process.” (Wallace, 1994 p.
60)
Teachers can use several techniques to gather necessary information.
Gathering information needs experience and correct steps which teachers should
follow. The research focuses on all of these techniques which are as follows:
-31-
* Teaching portfolios
* Teacher’s diary or Teacher’s Journal.
* Reflective Group Discussions.
* E-mail in discussion group.
* Lesson report.
* Reflective feedback.
* Audio or/and video recordings.
* Classroom Observation.
2.8.1 Teaching Portfolios:
The teaching portfolio is a narrative document in which the teacher concisely
organizes details of his/her teaching efforts and situations. It “offers selected
information about a teacher’s assigned responsibilities, philosophy, methods,
materials, classroom experiments, participation in workshops and other development
efforts and teaching goals” (Zubizarreta 1994). Teaching portfolio may also include
evaluation from students, peers, and supervisors as well as self-evaluation.
Zubizarreta (1994) asserts that teaching portfolios are becoming, perhaps, the
most effective tools in improving the instruction of both novice and experienced
teachers and in providing them with a supportive and convincing method of
evaluation.
Teachers who use teaching portfolios can take more responsibility for their
career development. Thomas Farrell (2004) describes the teaching portfolios as an
album, much like photo album, containing many aspects of teacher’s efforts, skills,
abilities, achievements, and contributions to student, colleagues, institutions,
academic disciplines and community.
-32-
A teaching portfolio might include lesson plans, students’ projects, class
newsletters, annual evaluations, and letters of recommendation. It should be
remembered that the teaching portfolio is not one time snapshot of the present
position of teachers but it is a growing and continual gathering of selected and
recorded experiences, thoughts and goals. After collecting necessary information the
teachers must reflect on what they have put together and assess and evaluate their
current and future teaching plans.
2.8.1.1 Why Using Teaching Portfolios?
It is clear that a teaching portfolio is very important for teachers in their
development process. Some educators mentioned some benefits of teaching
portfolios, which the researcher summarizes them as follows:
1- “Teaching portfolios can provide teachers with opportunities for self reflection
and collaboration with colleagues in addition to opportunities to plan individual
professional development path” (Farrell 2004 p. 88)
2- “Novice teachers become more intentional in generating actual products of good
teaching, which makes students the real benefactors of the work that goes into a
portfolio” (Zubizarreta 1994)
3- “Portfolios have become the preferred way of getting an overview of teaching
quality and of making claims to take an approach to teaching. (Knight 2002 p.182)
4- “It provides insight into the nature of classroom and helps in modifying teachers’
behavior” (Chauhan 1995 p.139)
5- Teaching “portfolios help student teachers to remember classroom events more
fully and accurately, and focus their reflection on contents of specific aspects of their
teaching” (Borko & Michalec 1997)
-33-
The researcher can add some benefits of teaching portfolios, such as:
- Teaching portfolios offer teachers a chance to get truly good looks at themselves, as
if they were looking into a mirror.
- They allow teachers to review the content; they can reflect on where they were,
where they are now and where they want to go.
- They are a resource of directions: They are considered a starting point for
development, as teachers create a plan for the future and set goals.
- They cultivate reflection and self-assessment.
2.8.1.2 Types of Teaching Portfolios:
Teaching portfolios comprise the following types,
a) The Working Portfolio:
Teachers use a working portfolio to document progress and development
regarding performance standards. The materials included in this type of portfolio are
intended to reflect work in progress and growth over time.
b) The Showcase Portfolio:
Teachers use this type to literally showcase a collection of exemplary
documents that highlight their best performance. Teachers can use this type to share
information about themselves with colleagues and administrators
c) The Critical Incident Portfolio:
Teachers use critical incident portfolio to document events they found and
faced. It may contain the event that happened and then the rationale for choosing this
topic and its solution. After that, teachers should document their reflective statement
concerning this critical incident.
-34-
2.8.2 Teacher’s Diary or Teacher’s Journal:
Teaching journals are excellent tools to aid reflection. They are simple to
create and can promote the development of reflective teaching. Teachers as
individuals, pairs or groups can use teaching journals when reflecting on their work.
Teachers can write in their journals at any time of the day, during their attendance at
institution or after that. They can record criticism, frustration, questions, doubts,
suggestions and experiments.
A teaching journal records what happens in teacher’s life both inside and
outside of the classrooms. Teachers can revise these events later to make sense of
them so that they can better understand themselves as teachers.
2.8.2.1 Why Keep a Teaching Journal?
Educators have stated benefits of the teaching journal in their writing; the
researcher summarizes them as follows:
Lally and Veleba (2000) believe that:
- A reflective diary can help improve the normally poor communication between
student teachers and supervisors.
- Because the diary is a chronological record, any changes in goals and attitudes can
be traced through sequential entries.
- By keeping a concrete record of otherwise fleeting thoughts the student teachers
were able to organize and verbalize ideas for improving both their immediate and
future teaching.
Richards and Lockhart (1997) believe that:
- Writing a journal allows them to compare different reactions and re-evaluate the
predictions that were made based on what actually happened.
-35-
- Writing a journal can provide an access to hidden effective variables that influence
the way teachers teach and students learn.
- Writing a journal provides a means of generating questions and hypotheses.
The researcher can add the following benefits of the teaching journal:
- Writing about teaching in a diary or journal can help organize teachers’ thoughts
into more systematic reflection about their work.
- It helps teachers to know themselves better and allow them to shape and reshape
themselves.
- It helps teachers to recognize and define the problem and then respond and solve it.
This will lead them to professional development.
- It gives teachers long enough time to reflect on their work.
2.8.3 Reflective Group Discussions:
Reflection on teaching can be done by individuals, pairs, and groups. It is the
teacher’s option. Some teachers prefer individual or personal reflection, which is a
basis for professional progress. Personal reflection is a quite spontaneous and
informal process. When the teacher has nothing to occupy his mind, certain actions
that happened in the classroom come to his mind and he starts puzzling about what to
do towards these actions.
It should to be clear that reflective group discussion has many expressions to
be mentioned. Some educators use several terms such as teachers’ group, group
talking, reflective conversation, collaborative discussion, and reflective
communications. On the opposite side, group discussion occurs when several
teachers come together to reflect on their work. When they are sitting for discussion,
it is important to address the issue or the problem which needs discussion.
-36-
It is important for group to have a leader who orients the discussion, and addresses
the issue to be discussed. The leader of any sitting is the teacher who sets the topic to
be discussed by the group. In sitting of reflective group discussion all members are
encouraged to express their views in order to get benefit and reflect on their work.
Group discussion provides opportunities for teachers to stimulate their thinking and
increase their knowledge.
“They could come together to design their investigation, and to decide how it
is to be implemented and monitored in their different classrooms” (Allwright &
Bailey 1991 p. 199). Also, Harmer (2003 p. 349) asserts that “teachers’ group is one
of the most supportive environments for teachers where real teacher development can
take place in the small teachers’ group”.
As a group discussion is an informal discussion with colleagues who have
good relationships with each other, a teacher feels easy to contribute and share them
in discussion.
Any related topic can be discussed. When a teacher shares in discussion, they
may “wish to find a solution to a problem, confide a failure, get an idea to how to
teach something” (Ur, 1997, P. 320)
2.8.3.1 Why Group Reflective Discussion?
Based on mentioned above, reflective practice is a means for teachers to
examine their values and teaching ways, and then they must be presented with
opportunities that enable themselves to carry out the reflections correctly. One of
these opportunities is the reflective group discussion in which teachers talk to other
teachers on one or many topics related to their classes, teaching practice or their
-37-
students. Teachers may find it more beneficial for them to share groups or teams to
discuss their teaching especially if the discussion occurs in a supportive atmosphere.
Educators have pointed out some benefits of reflective group discussion which the
researcher summarizes as follows:
- Faculty members can collaborate in a variety of ways (like group reflective
discussion) to enhance their teaching (Quinlan 1998).
- Tickle (1994 p.147) lists some benefits of reflective group discussion as follows:
Teachers can get great benefits from sharing the reflective group discussion. They
can be able to:
- Manage the unpredictable, considering options for action knowledge.
- Predict the outcome of actions learning.
- Make decisions in unfamiliar situations.
- Develop new teaching strategies.
2.8.4 Using E-mail in Discussion Group:
Teachers from many places can discuss their practices for reflection with
each other by using e-mails. Using e-mails in discussion reduces the vast distance
between the participants in discussion and save their time and efforts.
Although there are some obstacles preventing some teachers from sharing
groups, such as being ashamed, shy, nervous, having weak characters or not fluent in
presenting their issues or opinions, using e-mail in discussions overcomes them. By
using e-mail, ashamed teachers may feel comfortable to discuss their questions or
problems.
Besides the above advantages of using e-mails in the reflective group
discussion, the researcher can add additional advantages as follows:
-38-
- They encourage ashamed, nervous, weak and not fluent teachers to share in
discussions.
- Any teacher can log on at any time to present his/her issue or to ask questions.
- Teachers from different places can discuss a topic via e-mail.
- Teachers may have good chance to arrange their ideas and to present them
consequently.
- Teachers can be in contact when their institutions are closed.
- E-mails can be used as documents to put them in teaching portfolios, in order to
revise them in case of need.
2.8.5 Lesson Report:
A lesson report describes what actually happened in the class in a certain
period from the teacher’s point of view. It differs from lesson plan because the lesson
plan mentions what teachers intend to do during a lesson. “A lesson report is a
structured inventory or list which enables teachers to describe their recollections of
the main features of a lesson” (Richards and Lockhart, 1997 p. 9)
Lesson report serves teachers as a useful record of many important features of
the lesson. Teachers should write lesson report as the lesson went. They should write
just what happened in the class with concise comments in order to get benefits in
another position.
2.8.6 Reflective Feedback:
As mentioned earlier, the reflection process depends completely on collected
information about the teaching process. Getting or asking for feedback is one of the
procedures of collecting information.
-39-
Some teachers may find difficulty to accept the feedback that relates to the
real situation. Teachers should accept feedback even it contains negative points
towards them. “The feedback may be difficult for you at the first time, but the end
result of increased honesty, openness and mutual respect will almost certainly have a
great long-term benefit” (Scrivener, 1998 p. 196)
Brinko (1993) mentioned “teachers can get feedback from two sources. They
may get feedback from individuals who make an evaluative judgment on the teacher,
such as students, peers, colleagues and supervisors. They also may get it from data
which were generated by their performance such as audio and video recordings,
objective observation, students achievement scores”.
Teachers can get feedback from their students by asking them what they
really think about the lesson or the teacher himself/herself. In most cases students
can give a real picture about the teaching process which contains evaluation of
teaching methods and the teacher behaviors.
Harmer (2001 p. 346) suggests interviewing some students about activities,
materials, techniques and procedures, in order to get feedback. Nunan and Lamb
(2000, p. 244) mentioned a technique that they have used successfully. This
technique called “action meeting” was conducted by members of the class without
the teacher being present in order to review the progress of their course, to record
what they liked as well as what they would like more in the future.
The teacher can also get feedback from colleagues by asking them to come in
class and observe some of his/her lesson, and do an exchange observation with them,
not to judge each other but to learn from each other.
-40-
Some educators mention that some aspects of teaching could be investigated
through carrying out a survey or administering a questionnaire (for example.
investigation of students’ attitudes towards group work). “Questionnaires and
checklists can help to externalize the teaching process and provide objective data on
the teaching process” (Nunan and Lamb, 2000 p. 236). “Survey and questionnaires
are useful ways of gathering information about affective dimensions of teaching and
learning, such as beliefs, attitudes, motivation, and preferences. They enable teachers
to collect a large amount of information relatively quickly” (Richards and Lockhart
1997 p. 10)
Brinko (1993) mentions some characteristics and practices relative to the source of
feedback which tend to increase the effectiveness of feedback. The researcher
summarizes them as follows:
v Feedback is more effective when information is gathered from a number of
sources.
v Feedback is more effective when information is gathered from oneself as well as
from others.
v Feedback is more effective when the source of the information is perceived as
credible knowledgeable and well-intentioned.
v Feedback is more effective when the source of feedback is lower or equal in
status to the feedback recipient.
v Feedback is more effective when mediate by a consultant.
v Feedback is more effective when the consultant is authentic, respectful,
supportive, empathic and able to keep consultations confidential.
v Feedback is more effective when conveyed in a variety of modes,
-41-
v Feedback is more effective when it contains accurate data and irrefutable
evidence.
v Feedback is more effective when it contains concrete information.
v Feedback is more effective when it contains specific data.
v Feedback is more effective when it is focused.
v Feedback is more effective when it focuses upon behavior rather than on the
person.
v Feedback is more effective when it is descriptive rather than evaluative.
v Feedback is more effective when it contains model for appropriate behaviors.
v Feedback is more effective when given as soon as possible after performance.
2.8.7 Using Audio or/and Video Recordings:
A teacher can carry out observation alone, with another teacher or with a
group of teachers. Teachers may need to use some equipment such as tape recorders
or video recorders to observe their own teaching in the class. “Videotape and
audiotape are especially useful precise observation tasks since they allow us to watch
and/or listen to events repeatedly”. (Harmer, 2003 p. 346)
Audio and video recordings can provide teachers with a vast amount of
information about classroom events. Teachers “can use the video for any level and
use a whole range of techniques to make the most of it, but (they) should not over-
use the video” (Riddell, 2001 p. 234)
Video or audio recordings of lessons can provide very important information
for reflection. Many spontaneous events can only be observed by video or audio
recordings. These recordings can give a real and objective picture of what really
-42-
happens in the class. Teachers can observe themselves in their classes, they may do
things in class they are not a ware of, or there are things happening and the teachers
do not see them.
Some educators advise teachers to see the recordings of their class
immediately to observe themselves “the process (seeing the recordings) is best
carried out immediately after the class in question, so that events are as fresh in the
memory as possible” (Wright, 1988 p. 153)
Like any procedures, audio or/and video recordings have some advantages
and disadvantages. Some educators mentioned some advantages. The researcher
summarizes the audio and videotape advantages as follows:
- They can be transcribed totally or partially.
- They give teachers a better chance of observing patterns in their teaching.
- They help teachers explore all aspects of their teaching.
- They provide opportunity to identify exactly who says what, and how teachers and
students interact with each other.
- They help teachers to gauge the effects of the change, when teachers decide to
change something for the sake of variety.
- They can be used easily, and a recording process can be carried out easily too.
On the other side, using audio and video recordings has disadvantages. Richards
and Lockhart (1997) mention two of these advantages as follows:
- It can’t be possible to capture all events in the class; where as other events are very
necessary but not recorded.
- This type of activity can never become an activity continued on a day-to-day basis.
It will only be applied on special occasions.
-43-
Farrell (2004) mentions other disadvantages as follows:
- Both teacher and students may need some time to get used to having a video
camera in the classroom.
- Teachers should place a video camera in each class for a significant period of time.
- If teachers and students do not get comfortable with the camera, the gathered data
could be heavily influenced by bad effects.
2.8.8 Classroom Observation:
It is known in the previous topics that there are many methods and sources to
gather information. Classroom observation is one of the rich and important sources
for gathering information about class events. “Observation involves visiting a class
to observe different aspects of teaching”. (Richards and Lockhart, 1997 p.12).
Observation by supervisors may cause fear or negative feelings for some teachers. “It
seems that many teachers go on the defensive when they hear that they are going to
be observed while teaching” (Farrell, 2004 p. 59)
On the other side, there are many teachers who like to be observed, as they
will receive valuable feedback on their teaching that will help them grow as teachers.
The researcher think that to get rid of teachers’ fear or bad feelings, observers should
take care in gathering descriptive information about teaching methods rather than
making evaluation or judgments. “The observer cannot, nor does he/she wants to
observe them all. He/she pays attention only to those events that are significant from
his/her point of view” (Stern, 1990, P. 493)
Richards and Rodgers (1995 p.161) assert “Observational data refer to
recorded observations of methods as they are being taught”
-44-
Brown and Atkins (1988) mention some roles of supervisors that can take
them in observation methods. The researcher summarizes them as follows:
- Director (determining topic and method, providing ideas)
- Facilitator (providing access to expertise)
- Adviser helping to resolve problems, suggesting alternatives
- Teacher (of research techniques)
- Guide (giving feedback on progress)
- Critic (of interpretations of data)
- Freedom giver (helps teachers to make decisions and support them)
- Supporter (gives encouragement, shows interest)
- Friend (concerns on non academic aspects of teacher’s life)
- Manager (gives systematic feedback and plan work)
(Brown and Atkins 1988, P. 120)
Allwright (1993) asserts that “systematic classroom observation came into
teacher training originally as an answer to the problem faced by supervisors who had
to evaluate their trainees’ classroom performance”.
2.8.8.1 Purposes of Observation:
There are a number of different purposes for observation. Wajnryb (1993)
mentioned several purposes. The researcher summarizes them as follows:
- Giving teachers some guidance to the professional growth and development
- Helping teachers gain a better understanding of their own teaching.
- Teachers become more aware of what they actually do in the class.
-45-
2.8.8.2 Types of Observation:
a) Self-observation
Any teacher can carry out the classroom observation alone. Teachers can
observe themselves by looking at what goes on in their classrooms. Individual
teachers can only observe themselves by using audio and/or video recordings. Later,
they can describe, analyze and interpret the information they have recorded.
“In order to evaluate themselves, teachers must learn to observe themselves
by careful planning before the lesson, followed by careful reflection after the lesson
on what actually took place “ (Doff, 1988, p. 278)
b) Peer Observation
When teachers become more confident in observing their classes with using
audio or video recording, they may want to share their findings with other teachers
by discussing what they observed or noted.
Such discussion can lead to peer observation. Peer observation occurs when a
teacher invites a colleague to come into class to collect information about his/her
lesson, and observe him/her carefully. In this case observation should have a focus.
“The value of observation is increased if the observer knows what to look for”
(Richards & Lockhart 1997 P. 24)
2.9 Characteristics of a Reflective Teacher:
Norton (1997) states that Pollard & Tann identify some characteristics of a
reflective teacher. The researcher summarizes them as follows:
1- An active teacher concerns with aims and consequences, both in classroom
practice and beyond including social and political situation, which has great
influence on teaching process.
-46-
2- A teacher has competence in the techniques of classroom enquiry,
particularly the competence of gathering information, analysis and
evaluation.
3- A teacher has key personal characteristics, which contribute to the
commitment of the teacher. He/she is an open-minded, responsible and
wholehearted teacher.
4- A teacher judges himself/herself by self-reflection and insights from across
the whole educational spectrum.
5- A teacher collaborates with colleagues, collaboration produces discussion
and action together with reflection.
6- A teacher looks at classroom problems from many perspectives.
7- A teacher involves in willingness to engage in constant self-appraisal and
development.
8- A teacher realizes the right connection between school and real life.
9- A teacher develops a sense of community among their students.
10- A teacher reflects critically on the moral, political, social and economic
dimensions of education.
11- A teacher perceives mistakes as developmental, part of the process of trial
and error leading to success.
12- A teacher who is able to develop collaborative professional relationships.
13- A teacher who is more independent, he/she is self-directed teacher.
14- A teacher has long-term views.
15- A teacher differentiates between teacher’s roles and learner’s.
16- A teacher who is a strategic and an imaginative thinker.
-47-
17- A teacher who is able to make right decisions.
18- A teacher assists less experienced teachers with their professional
development.
19- A teacher prefers to work with group as a team.
20- A teacher is expected to continue with professional growth.
21- A teacher can look back on events and make judgments about them.
22- A teacher may have positive influence on the educational system in which
he/she works.
23- A teacher reflects on his/her theories, values and beliefs about teaching.
24- A teacher engages in group reflective discussions.
25- A teacher reads what others have said about various aspects of teaching.
26- A teacher who is curious about some aspects of the practice sitting.
27- A teacher frames the aspects in terms of the particulars of the setting.
28- A teacher reframes that aspect in the light of past knowledge or previous
experience.
29- A teacher develops a plan for future actions.
30- A teacher attempts to solve dilemmas in classroom.
31- A teacher who is attentive to the institutional and cultural context in which
he/she teaches.
32- A teacher takes parts in curriculum development and involves in school
change efforts.
2.10 Characteristics of Reflective Practice
Educators suggest the following characteristic modes as performance
standards for teaching and assessing knowledge, skills and dispositions that can
-48-
reasonably and validly be associated with the nature of reflective practice: The
researcher summarized them as follows:
1- The mode of reflective practice is technical; the reflective process avails itself
of technology as a way of knowing means for discovering, collecting and
analyzing.
2- The mode of reflective practice is inferential; empirical research beyond
descriptive studies is valuable in deriving technical knowledge of teaching
effectiveness.
3- The mode of reflective practice is intuitive; it involves inductions as a mental
process and the disposition to look beyond simplistic or routine explanations
and answers.
4- The mode of reflective practice is deliberate; professional knowledge and
professional experience are mediated through the context and understandings
of the actual professional situations.
5- The mode of reflective practice is dialectical; it helps educators recast,
reframe past understandings so as to generate fresh appreciations of research
knowledge.
6- The mode of reflective practice is critical; understands diversity in terms of
social relations, equal treatment and equal opportunity as a function of
teaching and learning.
7- The mode of reflective practice is ethical; it is valuing and respecting for all
people, it embraces diversity.
8- The mode of reflective practice is active; it embodies praxis, the complete
and effective use of theory and experience directed into effective practice.
-49-
2.11 Reflection as an Islamic Concept
As Islamic culture covers all aspects of life and deals with all thoughts and
concepts, reflection is one of these concepts which Islam focuses on it as a means of
development for individuals as well as for all Muslims.
As development does not come without intention for change, Islam motivate
us to modify our beliefs, minds, tendencies and emotions to be in the right way, in
order to gain pleasure in both life as well as in the doomsday. So, it can be noticed in
the Holy Quran when Allah says “Allah will not change the (good) conditions of a
people as long as they do not change their state (of goodness)” (The Holy Quran -
Ar ra’d/10) which means that Allah will not change man's situation (either bad or
good) unless he/she wants to engage in the change process. This verse focuses on the
main role of man in his development towards better situations.
A lot of verses in the Holy Quran stimulates man to think deeply in main
topics, such as how Allah creates him, the earth, the sky, the mountains, and the seas.
“Those who remember Allah (always, and in prayers) standing, sitting, and
lying down on their sides, and think deeply about the creation of the heavens
and the earth, (saying): “Our Lord! You have not created (all) this without
purpose, glory to You! (Exalted are you above all that they associate with You
as partners). Give us salvation from the torment of the Fire” (The Holy Quran -
Al-Imran/191) and says “Do they not think deeply (in their ownselves) about
themselves (how Allah created them from nothing, and similarly He will
resurrect them)? Allah has created not the heavens and the earth, and all that is
between them, except with the truth and for an appointed term” (The Holy
-50-
Quran - Ar-Rum/8). So, man is required to reflect on these topics to increase his faith
and to be in harmony with universe.
As it is mentioned earlier in the theoritical framework that reflection notion
depends on self-evaluation, which means how man looks at himself, how he appraise
his actions and deeds. Islam asserts on the concept of self-evaluation, as "one of the
instruments of character building and perhaps the most valuable is Ihtisab or self-
appraisal and self-criticism" (Abu Ameenah).
Our prophet Mohammad (may the blessing and peace of Allah be upon him)
motivates Muslims to appraise themselves according direction of the Holy Quran as
well as his directions "Sunnah". Abu Ameenah says "In appraising our behaviors we
should be harsh on ourselves while being lenient on others. The best method of self-
criticism… is to devote just two or three minutes before going to bed each day for
evaluation". Also, Umar Ibn Al-Khattab (may Allah bless him) says “Hold yourself
accountable before you are held accountable and weigh your deeds before they are
weighed for you”
The researcher thinks that Muslims should ask themselves critical questions
in order to evaluate themselves. Such as, did they offer their five daily prayers
(Salah) on exact time? Are they satisfied with the quality (khusho') of their prayers
(Salah)? and they can ask another questions related to different duties, and then they
can know and measure their levels of practicing and their quality level of these
practices.
Muslim, also is required to offer advise for others, and to accept their ones.
Our prophet Mohammad (may the blessing and peace of Allah be upon him) said:
“Religion is sincerity. We said: To whom? He said: To Allah and His Book, and His
-51-
Messenger, and to the leader of the Muslims and their common folk”. (related by
Muslim),(An-Nawawi, 1979 p.44) It means that Muslim should give guidance for
the other, which the researcher can call it as peer observation which is considered as
a tool of gathering information for self-reflection. In addition to that the Holy Quran
warns Muslims who do not accept the others’ advise “And when it is said to him
“Fear Allah”, he is led by arrogance to (more) crime” (The Holy Quran - Al-
Baqarah/206). It means if the advise is good in its content and presented in a good
way, Muslim has no choice except to accept it, so we can remember Omar Ibn Al-
Khattab when he said “May Allah be merciful towards man who tells me my faults”.
So, it can be said that Islam asserts on observation and its results in order to reflect
on one's behaviors to be changed to the better.
Islam motivates Muslims to correct their behaviors in the light of islamic
rules. So, all Muslims are required to get rid of bad beliefs, bad actions and bad
behaviors and they have to have right and sound ones. Reflection in order to correct
is very necessary in Muslim life, because he/she will be in harmony with the
universe, people and his/her self. Our prophet Mohammad (may the blessing and
peace of Allah be upon him) used to to observe his companions continuously in
order to teach them, to develop their behaviors. He ((may the blessing and peace of
Allah be upon him) tried to correcttheir mistakes and faults either directly or
indirectly.
Abu Daff (2005) mentioned some characteristics of correctness (of man’s
actions and behaviors) in Islam. The researcher summarizes them as foolows:
-52-
- It depends on obligation and commadment, it means that there is choice for
Muslims except to control and correct their behaviors as well as their
families’.
- It depends on self-initiative, it means that every Muslim should evaluate and
better his/her behaviors before asking any one else to do the same.
- It is istant, it indicates that Muslims should correct their wrong behaviors or
faults immediately. The researcher thinks that is similar with “reflection-in-
action” which means the teacher corrects or solves the problem
immediaately in the class.
- It is a collaborative process, that mentions to all Muslims are supposed to
cooperate with each other to correct and modify their actions and behaviors.
- It depends on scientific directions, it means that only knowledge and
experience control it. It does not depend on haphazard directions
Thinking and planning are important principles in Muslim's life. Our prophet
Mohammad (may the blessing and peace of Allah be upon him) advised Muslim to
utilize all possibilities and abilities to better his life. He said "Take advantages of five
things before five others happen: your youth before your grow old, your health
before your fall sick, your money before your become poor, your leisure before you
become busy, and your life before you die" The prophet Mohammad (may the
blessing and peace of Allah be upon him) said this according to Amr Ibn Maymun
as recorded by Tirmidli). This Hadith shed the light on the importance of reflection
and planning. How Muslim should plan for their lives, how they got benefit from
what they have meanwhile the others have not. The researcher thinks that this is a
-53-
clear invitation from our prophet Mohammad (may the blessing and peace of Allah
be upon him) for us to be reflective in our life.
The researcher thinks that Ramadan (month of Fasting) is a very effective
station for reflection. Most of Muslims used to rearrange their life in Ramadan. The
researcher thinks that they try to establish resolutions and habits that they hope to
keep. If they want to continue those habits, they need to take a careful look at
themselves and evaluate where they have been, where they want to go and how to get
there. It can be said that Ramadan is a time of self-evaluation; during it Muslims can
assess their present state in different aspects of life and how they can improve them.
The researcher can conclude that Islam asserts on the reflection nation as a
means for positive change, development for individuals and groups and advancement
in all life aspects. (Ahmed, 2003) asserts that " Islam places a great deal of emphasis
on self-development where an individual takes the responsibilities for understanding
the purposes of human life, and for shaping that life in the best possible manner, for
one's own benefit and the benefit of the society at large; Islam also provides
comprehensive guidance to achieve this goal" . Islam determines that “human
development consists of processes of growth and change that takes place from birth
to the end of life” (ahmad, 2003).
2.12 Reflective Practice: Criticisms and Cautions:
Black (2002) asserts that reflection without an understanding of the rules or
techniques that constitute good practice may lead to a repetition of mistakes, whereas
reflection without philosophical awareness can lead to a preoccupation with
techniques”
-54-
Farrell (2004) asserts that “a number of scholars have urged caution as to the
applicability of reflective practice in education”. Farrell mentions that Jackson argues
that “if they (reflective teachers) did possess the skill for reflection, it is doubtful that
they would perform with greater efficiency in the classroom”.
The researcher can conclude that having the skills of reflection process does not
mean having the key of success. It depends on different factors. So, it should be clear
for teachers who want to develop their practice that they must have skills for
reflection as well as skills for being good teachers.
2.13 Difficulties with Reflective Teaching:
There are many difficulties with reflective teaching to be applied or achieved.
Some scholars mentioned some difficulties. The researcher summarized them as
follows:
v The major problems in reflective teaching would be an over emphasis on
the technical aspects of action research. It almost distracts from the central
questions of the purpose. “Technique of analyzing teaching behavior has been
involved to improve classroom teaching” (Chauhan 1995, p. 139)
v The teachers’ personal and public theories about language teaching may
not harmonize with each other. “I recognize myself as a changing individual
in a changing world; I change my thought as my thought changes me”
(McNiff 1995 p. 15)
v Professional weakness of some teachers may stop them to try reflection in
their performance. “Teacher should have lots of knowledge, not only of his
subject” (Harmer 1998, p. 2)
Gierhinger (1996) mentioned some difficulties as follows:
-55-
v The routine of teaching process (the same school, the same textbook, and
the same level of knowledge) can influence negatively on teachers’ desire to
start reflection.
v Some teachers see reflective teaching as a one-off project not as series of
reflective cycles in which each step is planned with a realistic and local goal
in mind.
v Frustration of some teachers prevents them from involving in any
activities including reflection in their teaching.
v Discouragement of non-reflective teachers may force reflective teacher to
be frustrated.
v Some teachers see reflective practice as another overload job, which
requires time and efforts. This view may force some teachers not to reflect.
v Carelessness of institution administrators or Ministries of Education with
reflection as a valuable approach may force teachers to be more negative
towards it.
2.14 Summary
In the section, the researcher attempts to shed the light on the theoretical
framework of the present study. At the beginning of this section, the researcher
mentioned to the history of the reflective practice and benefit of reflection, its types,
its levels, and its steps. Also, techniques and methods of collecting data were
discussed. In addition to that, the researcher attempts to summarize the
characteristics of reflective teaching as well as reflective teaching. Also, reflection
from Islamic perspective was discussed. At the end of this chapter some criticisms
and difficulties and cautions regarding applying this approach were discussed.
-56-
Section “B"
Literature Review
Introduction
This section aimed at reviewing 21 previous studies related to the current
study. Through investigation, the researcher found that these studies deal with
reflection teaching as a concept and its importance and effects, while the other deal
with its impact of its techniques or tools of gathering information.
Dinkelman’s (2003) study “Self-study in Teacher Education: A Means and
Ends Tool for Promoting Reflective Teaching” advanced a five-part theoretical
rationale for the use of self-study to promote reflective teaching, while selectively
drawing on the experiences of teacher educators and researchers who have reported
results of studying their own practice.
Self-study means an intentional and systematic inquiry into one's own
practice. Included in this definition is inquiry conducted by individual teacher
educators as well as groups working collaboratively to understand problems of
practice more deeply. In this study, an attempt is made to build a broader case
grounded in more than anecdote. The study asserts that self-study is a powerful tool
that can be employed to serve any number of purposes in the preparation of teachers.
The rationale described in this study suggests that self-study by teacher
educators serves some ends better than others. This argument for self-study builds on
the claim, that the ability of teacher educators to support reflective practice in
schools is dependent on the extent to which they operate as reflective practitioners
-57-
themselves. Self-study systematizes, channels, and gives form to such reflection.
Understood in this sense, there is little surprise that the growing interest in self-study
of teacher education practices has paralleled the increasing popularity of reflective
teaching among those educating new teachers.
Giovannelli’s (2003) study “Relationship between Reflective Disposition
toward Teaching and Effective Teaching” determines if a relationship exists
between teacher candidates' reflective disposition toward teaching and the extent to
which they exhibited effective teaching behaviors in the classroom.
Hence, the main research question underlying this study was: Do elementary
education undergraduate teacher candidates who exhibit a reflective disposition
toward teaching also exhibit effective teaching behaviors as perceived by their
university field instructors? The working hypothesis of this study then is that teacher
candidates who use a reflective disposition toward teaching are considered to be
effective teachers by their university supervisors.
The sample for this study comprised elementary education undergraduates
(from a major Urban Public Midwestern University) who were teacher candidates
completing their last semester of work prior to receiving their bachelor of arts degree
in elementary education and becoming certified teachers. The program represented a
2-year commitment. The initial sample consisted of 69 undergraduates.
The study was based on a theoretical framework that explores the possibility
that a reflective disposition toward teaching is related to effective teaching. The
reflective disposition variable for this study was defined as making decisions and
formulating ideas about educational goals, practices, and outcomes that are subjected
-58-
to careful reconsideration in the light of the information from the current theory and
practice.
The results of this study suggest that a reflective disposition toward teaching
made a small but statistically significant contribution to effective teaching. However,
in terms of the standardized coefficients in this study, which were all relatively large,
results suggest that reflective disposition had a fairly strong influence on effective
teaching.
Nonetheless, this study contributed to the literature by affording a better
understanding of the nature of reflective disposition toward teaching and its
relationship to effective teaching and by providing a way in which this can be
measured and facilitated.
Pryke’s (2003) study “Education Officers as Reflective Practitioners”
draws on research literature to address the question: would reflective practice make
education officers more effective in supporting school improvement? Can deep and
rigorous reflection in action, leading to defining of operational methods in action,
add sufficient value to the work of education officers for it to become an element of
their continuing professional development?
The study asserts that Education officers and other professionals do reflect,
without apparent paralysis, as they act. In this way they reinforce their knowledge-
in-practice. Thus they sustain and develop their professionalism
From this it can be argued that practical wisdom is at the heart of the work of
the education officer. Development of that wisdom may be possible through
reflective practice
-59-
If education officers are to gain their proper role in the new scheme of things
and to increase their effectiveness we should explore all avenues, including reflective
practice. In this way, like the carp, education officers could achieve optimum
interaction with their environment.
Stiler and Philleo’s (2003) study “Blogging and Blogspots: an Alternative
Format for Encouraging Reflective Practice among Preservice Teachers”
explored the advantages of experimenting with an online journal. It was the
researchers’ opinion that online journaling offered the following options: a state-of-
the art format that may increase student enthusiasm in journal writing; an increase in
both the quality and quantity of student output; an increased potential for teacher-
mediated input; and the potential for future extensions to include the addition of links
to illustrative websites and other options offered by web-based learning.
After some exploration, an innovative, no-cost online web log service called
Blogger was selected. This study describes the background and approach used in this
initiative, a student evaluation of Blogger, an assessment of student outcomes, and
suggestions on how these experiences may benefit students and preservice educators.
The researchers effort to offer an online journal for preservice teachers came as a
result of our prior experiences with technology-based options.
Journal writing can be a difficult and painful process. The researcher stated
that one of the main objectives of teacher-mediated journaling is to help students
overcome the fear of writing. Once the initial fear is reduced, other objectives of
subsequent importance may be achieved. These objectives include efforts to enhance
student ability to reflect critically on teaching and learning and to promote journaling
-60-
as routine reflective practice. With regard to the application of Blogger to these
objectives, several options are suggested as outcomes of this initial assessment.
Loughran’s (2002) study “Effective Reflective Practice: in Search of
Meaning in Learning about Teaching” examines the value of reflection as a
meaningful way of approaching learning about teaching so that a better
understanding of teaching and teaching about teaching might develop. For reflection
to lead to valuable learning outcomes for teacher educators and their students, the
researcher believes that it must be effective reflective practice.
The study asserts that how a student teacher engages with his or her actions
within the practice setting, through reflection on those actions, must shape the
possibilities for seeing as a result of experience. Reflection on experience enhances
learning through experience such that divergent rather than convergent learning
outcomes are encouraged.
Effective reflective practice involves careful consideration of both "seeing"
and "action" to enhance the possibilities of learning through experience.
This study has attempted to show how an appropriate focus on experience in teacher
education can be influential in the development of effective reflective practice and
how effective reflective practice might be important in the development of one's
professional knowledge.
Challenging this distinction between theory and practice is important, and a
conceptualization of effective reflective practice is one way of beginning to help
teacher preparation programs integrate in meaningful ways.
-61-
Mastrilli and Sardo-Brown’s (2002) study “Novice Teachers' Cases: A
Vehicle for Reflective Practice” proposed that novice teachers would benefit from
the use of cases, which contain a brief description of the practical problems and
related decisions they face as they commence their careers
The purpose of the present study was to contribute to the knowledge base
regarding novice teachers' cases. Recent research has suggested the period of novice
teaching should be considered to span the first five to seven years of practice
The 17 novice teachers who participated in the study all attended the same
mid-sized state university. All 17 attended a three-credit graduate workshop in
educational psychology in which they were required to write case dilemmas during
the summer of 1999.
In the survey the sample shared how this activity could be utilized to aid
novice teachers in their transition into the teaching profession. The survey also asked
the sample to share advice for other novice teachers involved in case dilemma
writing as well as recommendations for how to modify the present assignment.
With regard to how the writing and discussion of case dilemmas could help
novice teachers during the first years of teaching, the sample's most common
response entailed using the dilemmas as a vehicle for discussion between novice
teachers and their assigned mentor teachers. Several subjects of the sample also
proposed that case dilemma writing and discussion could be utilized by a teaching
team in the process of developing strategies for working with difficult students or in
cross-departmental meetings to heighten teacher awareness of issues particular to
certain content areas
-62-
This study seems to indicate that novice teachers may often encounter a wide
variety of dilemmas during the novice period of their careers. If replicated with
larger samples, the nature of these dilemmas may often involve behavioral
management concerns, interventions with students in academic difficulty, and
negotiating with parents who disagree with school policy. These data also suggest
that while novice teachers may be most likely to employ behavioral solutions to the
dilemmas they face, they are more likely than student teachers to involve both other
school personnel and parents in the implementation of these solutions.
The significance of these findings is that in-service teacher educators need to
address the use of multiple solutions to common dilemmas which go beyond the use
of behavioral strategies such as the use of brain-based learning strategies These data
also indicate that in-service programs should stress how to foster better
communication with parents and other school personnel. In addition, it may be useful
for in-service teacher educators to promote the use of culturally relevant techniques
as solutions to classroom dilemmas
This study also suggested that having novice teachers both write and discuss
case dilemmas might serve to facilitate relationships between novice teachers and
mentor teachers.
In addition, this activity may improve decision-making involving either teams
of teachers or teachers and other school support staff. Future studies might
investigate the efficacy of using case dilemmas written by novice teachers in
conjunction with planned in-services as well as the use of case dilemmas to
document longitudinal changes in teacher growth during the first years of teaching.
-63-
Klenowski’s (2000) study “Portfolios: Promoting Teaching” based on the
findings of a study that examined the use of portfolios for assessment and learning
purposes in an initial teacher education course in the Hong Kong Institute of
Education. Progressive refocusing of the research led to an investigation of the extent
to which the use of portfolios for such purposes promoted the development of
reflective practice and teaching skills. Six principles that underpin the use of
portfolios for assessment purposes, that emerged from an analysis of the research
data and findings, are briefly described.
This study has investigated the process of implementing portfolios in pre-
service teacher education for assessment purposes and their impact on teaching and
learning. It started from an assumption that the use of portfolios aligned with the
intended learning outcomes for pre-service teachers.
Analyses were made of documents such as portfolio contents, course outlines,
lecture notes, assessment guides and grade descriptors. Video recordings were made
of performance assessments and to track the skill development of pre-service
teachers throughout the study.
The intermediate phase of data analysis occurred during the compilation of
databases for each source of data. These included: interviews of pre-service teachers
and their lecturers; video recordings of performance assessments; documents;
observations of lectures and teaching sessions; questionnaires.
The study asserts that:
- The use of portfolios in teacher education has benefits for the individual.
-64-
- It is clear that colleagues from the research team are interested in continuing the use
of portfolios for assessment purposes in the development of essential learning
outcomes for pre-service teachers.
-The use of portfolios is a new concept for some staff and for all pre-service teachers
at the Hong Kong Institute of Education. Therefore, there is likely to be increased
interest, motivation and participation of subjects because they find themselves
engaged in new assessment practice.
- The pre-service teachers who were interviewed indicated that the use of portfolios
had helped them to develop reflective thinking.
- Some pre-service teachers indicated that the development of a portfolio, and the
related performance assessments, impacted on their development of classroom
teaching skills. The majority of respondents agreed that the portfolio process
encouraged the development of self-evaluation skills and promoted their thinking
regarding the way they learn. Some pre-service teachers also believed that they were
developing independence in their learning.
- Some pre-service teachers indicated that their lesson planning skills had improved.
The majority of respondents also strongly agreed that there was an impact on their
development of presentation, questioning and teaching skills and strategies for
managing students' behavior in the classroom.
Lally and Veleba’s (2000) study “Language Teacher Observation and
Reflective Diaries: An Alternate Perspective” clarify the actual teaching
experience, and became an agent of behavioral change. It discussed the role of
reflective diaries in teachers’ development.
-65-
It asserts that;
- Observation of student teachers and graduate teaching assistants in the second
language classroom has long-been an essential component of teacher
preparation and assessment. However, the guidance and support given to
novice teachers during the teacher-preparation program is unfortunately a
limited commodity.
- The diary is distinctly suited to the novice teacher because it acknowledges
the fact that we must develop techniques of self-knowledge and self-
discovery that extend beyond the practicum
- Reflective diary can help improve the "normally poor communication
between student teacher and supervisor" by providing an additional channel
of communication.
- A diary can allow the student teachers to identify and examine their attitudes
and beliefs about language learning and provide participants with the
opportunity of identifying areas for further investigation in their own
classroom.
- Reflective diary entries introduce the student-teachers to the complexity of
second-language teaching by helping them to reflect upon the various roles of
the second language teacher, as well as serve as a means of training,
providing student teachers with new skills and methods, and heightening self-
awareness.
- Because the diary is a chronological record of the student teacher's personal
response to the teaching act and environment, any changes in goals and
attitude can be traced through sequential entries.
-66-
- The diary enforces the student teachers to engage in auto- observation by
reflecting upon the teaching experience at the end of each school day.
- Use of the diary also improved communication between the student teachers
and their supervisors, because the diary served as an additional channel of
communication and the diary contained information not only about the
classroom, but about pre- and post-teaching events as well.
- The diary-keeping experience offered the student teachers an opportunity to
identify aspects of teaching and learning that they might want to investigate
in future teaching.
- By keeping a diary the student teachers were able to organize and verbalize
ideas for improving both their immediate and future teaching,
Collier’s (1999) study “Characteristics of Reflective Thought during the
Student Teaching Experience” suggests that novice teachers' thoughts reveal
various reflective dispositions. This study focuses on the nature and character of
novice teachers' thinking and reflective capacities during their student teaching. It
considers reflection in any category important. One main objective that guided this
study is to provide multiple opportunities for interns to examine themselves, their
attitudes, values, and beliefs about teaching. One research question was critical in the
study: What reflective characteristics do four elementary school student teachers
exhibit during their 8-weeks clinical field placement?
The following conclusions emerge from the findings:
* Reflective practice is a unique and individual developmental process.
-67-
* Reflections revealed that three of the four participants typically function from a
reactive versus a proactive stance.
* Student teachers are subjective in their perceptions of clinical experiences. In the
culminating reflections, they indicate a probable personal bias toward certain
teaching characteristics.
* Given multiple and varied opportunities for reflection, all student teachers
demonstrated at least two levels of reflection over the course of the placement,
regardless of their epistemological orientation.
* Given opportunities to write and speak reflectively, student teachers became aware
of the sound and the character of their own voices and learned how they think and
how they convey what they think to others through their words and actions.
The study sets some recommendations for Teacher Education
- If novice teachers can be guided to understand their personal experiences through
the mind of a learner first, they may be more likely to assimilate their understanding
into the process of teaching.
- Teacher educators must sensitize novice teachers to the self-monitoring necessary
to functioning as active, critical, and progressive thinkers.
- Building of a high level of awareness before the student teaching experience by
making self-monitoring an explicit issue is critical.
- Students must have many early opportunities to develop an appreciation for how
their personal concerns fit into the larger context of teaching, learning, and
development.
-68-
Hyatt and Beigy’s (1999) study “Making the Most of the Unknown
Language Experience: Pathways for Reflective Teacher Development” considers
a particular aspect of initial English language teacher education programs and its
potential for the development of reflective teacher education trough the learner-
teachers’ reflective interaction with a previously unknown foreign language.
This investigation was stimulated by the desire to create a learner-teacher
centered and reflective syllabus for the unknown language element of the Trinity
College Certificate initial teacher education course.
If a key aim of reflective approaches is to foster a notion of critical reflection,
then it is appropriate to consider such an approach in light of less supportive
perspectives. The notion that reflecting on practice through writing or discussion will
automatically result in better teachers has been criticized
The findings have been linked as closely as possible to the language-learning
element. It is, however, recognized that this component does not exist in isolation
and other aspects of the course affect the learner-teachers development. The journals,
assessments, feedback and interviews provided rich data which were analyzed for
evidence of the impact of the language experience in raising awareness of major
issues in language learning/teaching and how this awareness was applied to course
participants own teaching.
There needs to be a clear outline of the purpose and aims of the unknown
language experience element, together with explicit statements of the reflective
methodological approach to this teacher development, in order to make such a
language experience a valid one for the learner-teachers.
-69-
Cady’s (1998) study “Reflective Practice Groups in Teacher Induction:
Building Professional Community via Experiential Knowledge” discussed
teacher’s reflection in a collaborative environment enhances professional
development and planning. Members of sample were asked to share a difficult
situation involving students and life in classrooms. The process attempted to
accomplish two primary goals. The first was to unburden teachers from their
unsettling dilemmas in a supportive environment focused on professional growth. A
second goal was to probe and reflect on the following professional practice issues:
1 What are my teaching practices?
2 What are the teaching theories, which drive these practices?
3 How did I come to teach this way?
4 What are my options to better assist students?
The Reflective Practice Group process gave the participants an opportunity to engage
with each other on two distinct but overlapping levels. The participants revealed
examples of classroom events/interactions in which the teacher often appeared
vulnerable or unsure. The group participants then helped each other as they analyzed
the incident
The Reflective Practice Groups (RPGs) provided a systematic way to process
classroom events in a supportive environment focused on professional growth.
The data strongly point out the need for shared reflection as an accepted norm within
the profession. It means that reflection supports teacher growth.
Secondly, the data demonstrate that Reflective Practice Groups provide a structure
by which to probe and reflect on professional practice for all educators--new
teachers, veteran teachers, administrators, and teacher educators. The RPG process
-70-
can build on and extend the preservice development in teacher reflection and
develops professional insights that strengthen and support effective instruction
planning
Rodriguez and Sjostrom’s (1998) study “Critical Reflection for
Professional Development: A Comparative Study of Nontraditional Adult and
Traditional Student Teachers” compares the professional beliefs and teaching
behaviors of traditional and nontraditional adult teacher candidates. Using weekly
student autobiographical critical reflections during student teaching, they built trust
and established authentic needs and purposes for coaching novice teachers in their
professional development.
The study describes major characteristics of the professional development of
a sample of traditional and nontraditional adult teacher candidates during student
teaching. They used critical reflection as a teaching, metacognitive tool to facilitate
their ability to understand how one acquires professional knowledge, develops
teaching practice, and becomes a teacher.
Forty-five elementary education preservice teacher candidates enrolled in a
student teaching course at Rowan University volunteered to participate in the study.
The group ranged in age from 20 to 47 years and included 3 male students and 42
female students; 2 African Americans, I Asian, 1 Latina, and 41 White students.
The study suggests that university supervisors and cooperating teachers
should employ a developmental perspective in which student teachers pass through
stages of growth as they mature professionally.
-71-
The researchers found that critical reflection on autobiographical classroom
experiences was a clear, concise, and authentic process for teaching future teachers
to become reflective practitioners. College and university supervisors must work
more closely with cooperating teachers in providing them with background
information about the differences in the process for the two groups in order to coach
them differently toward professional development; college and university supervisors
must prepare traditional and nontraditional student teachers for the differences,
obstacles, and enhancers in the process of professional development in order to
provide realistic expectations, optimal development, and efficacy for both groups;
and teacher educators must become acquainted with the adult education literature to
better understand the experience of the nontraditional students.
Using critically reflective teaching journal writing and pre- and post lesson
observation interviews, teacher educators can gain insight into the professional
development process of each teacher candidate rather quickly during the student
teaching experience.
Ross-Gordon and Ferry's (1998) study “An inquiry into Schon's
Epistemology of Practice: Exploring Links between Experience and Reflective
Practice” describes a qualitative study that documented the use of reflection-in-
action by adult educators in problematic situations. The focus of the study was to
explore aspects of Schon's theory. The results supported the basic assumption of
Schon's theory that reflecting practitioners use a constructivist decision-making
perspective while non-reflecting educators use an instrumental problem-solving
approach. The findings demonstrated that reflecting educators, whether novice or
-72-
experienced, use reflecting-in-action and reflecting-on-action as a means to develop
expertise. The presence of experienced educators exhibiting minimal reflection and
presence of one highly reflective novice indicates that experience alone is not the
"master teacher" of the reflective process
This study's focus was to investigate unobservable processes. For this reason,
qualitative interviewing using think-aloud problem situations were selected as the
data collection method. The target population of the study was purposely limited to
family living extension educators classified as novice (less than two years
experience) or experienced (more than ten years experience). The study's sample was
all female with similar subject matter teaching responsibilities. The study's novice
adult educators held organizational ranks of assistant and associate agents. The
study's experienced educators ranged from assistant (lowest) to senior agent
(highest). Both the reflecting and non-reflecting groups had assistant agent ranked
participants. All of the study's population had at least a Bachelor of Science degree,
with more of the reflecting and non-reflecting experienced educators having
completed a master's degree. Two of the novice group had completed a master's
degree. Three of the novice non-reflecting group had prior non-extension working
experience that ranged from twelve to twenty years.
A major focus of the research was to identify whether novices or experienced
practitioners exhibited reflection-in-action in their professional practice, thereby
adding to the clarification of Schon's theory and the role of experience in the
emergence of expertise. Analysis of the interview transcripts revealed greater
differences between those educators who were highly reflective and those who were
not, than between novice and experienced practitioners. The similarities between
-73-
novice and experienced reflecting-in-action practice are revealed in specific
categories that are reported here with descriptive illustrations from the participants'
interviews.
The intent of the study was to document the different ways novice and
experienced adult educators use reflection-in-action in resolving practice problems as
well as to provide validation for aspects of Schon's theory of reflection-in-action.
The findings of the study support claims by Schon and other researchers who
propose that practitioners who reflect-in-action use a profoundly different problem-
solving process than those who are non-reflecting. The reflecting educators fluidly
used Schon's reflection in-action decision-making process, while problem-solving for
the non-reflective practitioners was a job to be performed using the steps of a
scientific procedural problem solving approach, with as little personal involvement
as possible. The reflective practitioners were so actively involved in their decision-
making process that the process was viewed as an ongoing cycle, an ever-expanding
learning process that is built upon past experiences.
The study found that use versus non-use of reflection-in-action was a more
significant indicator of how individuals solved problems than years of work
experience.
The study's findings provide strong support for the significant role problem
definition plays in the reflecting educators' problem-solving process; however, it was
found to play a marginal role in the non-reflecting educators' problem resolution.
The study also provides insight into how practitioners deal with unexpected
outcomes to problem solution strategies.
-74-
The study found that not all experienced educators were using reflection-in-action
and that a novice reflective educator exhibited true artistry in his/her use of it
resolving problems.
Borko, Michalec, Timmons and Siddle’s (1997) study “Student Teaching
Portfolios: A Tool for Promoting Reflective Practice” discusses the teaching
portfolios which have recently received increasing attention as tools to promote
reflection among both experienced and novice teachers. The study asserts that
theoretical support for portfolios as reflective tools is strong. Portfolios provide an
opportunity and a structure for teachers to document and describe their teaching;
articulate their professional knowledge; and reflect on what, how, and why they
teach. Portfolios helped student teachers to remember classroom events more fully
and accurately, and focused their reflections on content and contents specific aspects
of their teaching.
The researchers’ plan was to investigate whether student teachers' construction of
portfolios would enhance their reflection on practice.
All 21 students in the fall 1994 cohort had bachelor's degrees; most graduated
from strong undergraduate programs with high grade point averages.
To guide reflection, the study provided a list of sample questions that focused
on issues such as why they selected particular materials for inclusion in the portfolio,
what they learned from the materials, and what the materials illustrated about them
as teachers.
In both written reflections and interview responses, participants commented
most frequently about the benefits of the portfolio experience. Any interpretation of
these positive comments must consider that we explicitly asked participants to
-75-
discuss what they learned from the portfolio experience. Several student teachers felt
strongly that the portfolio assignment competed with student teaching for their time
and energy.
Student teachers offered suggestions for refining the portfolio project in their
written reflections and interviews. The researcher reconceptualized the structure and
role of portfolio groups, taking into account the suggestions to have supervision
groups serve as portfolio groups and to allocate more time for portfolio work in
supervision group meetings and whole-class sessions
The study described the portfolio as a vehicle for advancing teachers’
professional development. The portfolio is intended primarily as a professional
development tool. A secondary purpose of the portfolio is to be used in teachers’
search for teaching positions.
Norton’s (1997) study “Locus of Control and Reflective Thinking in
Preservice Teachers” attempts to promote reflective thinking and teaching
strategies in programs of teacher education. Specifically, this study examined
reflective thinking in preservice teachers as it related to locus of control. Empirical
data from this study identified curriculum structures that may maximize changes in
reflective thinking in preservice teachers. Such information, hopefully, will assist
teacher educators in implementing the principles of reflective practice
A closer look at the study sample reveals the possibility of this assessment of
writing, rather than reflective abilities. Of the five preservice teachers seeking
secondary certification, two were concentrating on English, and three were focusing
on social studies.
-76-
The results of this study show that the sample, as a whole, became more
adept at higher levels of reflective inquiry. All of the participants agreed the
university was strongly committed to developing reflective practitioners, and a
number of components in the teacher education program may have contributed to
this increase in reflective thinking
In summary, the university's teacher education program, and particularly the
clinical field experience, attempts to coordinate and integrate several reflective
components into a complementary, cohesive whole. Each activity supports and
extends the others; each activity forges theoretical principles and experiential-
knowledge; and each activity stimulates and refines skills of reflective thought and
practice. These recommendations concerning the dialogue journals, weekly
university seminar, and faculty professional development seminar may be useful to
teacher educators in redesigning their program of study to meet constantly evolving
educational needs.
Hatton’s (1995) study “Reflection in Teacher Education: Towards
Definition and Implementation” was designed to investigate the nature of
reflection in teaching, to define specific forms of reflection, and to evaluate the
strategies outlined above in terms of the degree to which they facilitated particular
types of reflection in student teachers.
Reflection is claimed as a goal in many teacher preparation programs, but its
definition and how it might be fostered in student teachers are problematic issues. In
this study, a report is provided of a review of literature on reflection, in particular
focusing on strategies that assist its development in preservice programs. Next there
is outlined a research project where types of reflection have been defined and applied
-77-
to an analysis of student writing. Finally, the authors propose a framework for types
of reflection as a basis for further research and development in teacher education.
The researcher mentioned some problems associated with reflection. There
are a number of barriers which hinder the achievement of reflective approaches.
These include existing preconceptions about teaching as a profession, the essential
preconditions which allow student teachers to develop reflective capacities, and their
possible responses being required to undertake reflection.
First, problems can arise because reflection is not generally associated with
working as a teacher.
Second, in order to foster effective reflection, what is needed is time and
opportunity for development, so that the required essential metateaching and
metacognitive skills can be acquired
Third, likely reactions to demands for reflection require some attention.
Responses on the part of students’ part might include feelings of vulnerability, which
follow from exposing one's perceptions and beliefs to others, especially if the locus
of control is not seen to be with the individual, who may tend to self-blame for any
perceived weaknesses uncovered through reflection
Fourth, problems relate not just to the component parts of teacher education
programs, but to the structure and ideology of total programs, in order that the
development of reflection might be encouraged
Centra’s (1994) study “The Use of the Teaching Portfolio and Student
Evaluations for Summative Evaluation” investigated the possibilities and pitfalls
of using portfolios for summative evaluations. A dean and two peers evaluated the
-78-
portfolios prepared by faculty members at a college that required the portfolio for
contract renewal purposes. Because student evaluations were also collected for each
faculty member, this study was able to compare peer and dean judgments of teaching
based on the portfolio contents with appropriate student evaluation scales and items
The results of this study have significance for the construction and use of
faculty portfolios, particularly the descriptions and reflections on teaching, which are
a key aspect of a portfolio. This study also sheds additional light to the validity of
student, peer, and administrator evaluations of teaching.
The evaluations of the portfolios in this study would have undoubtedly
benefit from additional discussion among the evaluators about the criteria and
standard to apply. The ideal portfolio is put together by a teacher over a period of
several years Because of the college's need to make immediate use of portfolios as
part of a total faculty evaluation process, the faculty in this study did not have the
opportunity to do so. Thus the portfolio was more a snapshot of teaching
performance, albeit with much descriptive detail, than a longitudinal, documented set
of changes or results over time.
Nevertheless, when summative decisions are being made, even portfolio
procedures that are not ideally designed can assist evaluators of teaching
performance. When those evaluations are combined with assessments of teaching by
students, which research has shown to be related to student learning in courses, then
a multiple perspective on teaching effectiveness is provided.
-79-
Zubizarreta’s (1994) study “Teaching Portfolios and the Beginning
Teacher” focused on the benefits of the teaching portfolios for the novice teachers.
It asserts that:
- The teaching portfolio is a proven, constructive instrument worth serious
consideration
- Beginning teachers would be smart to stay ahead of a powerful trend in teacher
development.
- Teaching portfolios are becoming perhaps the most effective tool in improving the
instruction of both new and seasoned teachers and in providing a supportive,
convincing method of evaluation.
- Beginning teacher stands to gain even more from a teaching portfolio in that it can
serve as a catalyst for substantive improvement in one's teaching philosophy,
methods, and goals.
- The ability of the portfolio to provide outside evaluators with concise, selective,
evidence-based information from a wide variety of sources gives the novice
instructor a highly individualized, credible, and factual document for the purpose of
evaluation.
- Regardless of the features that make each portfolio unique, the process of putting
together the narrative body of a portfolio always provides teachers with the
opportunity to reflect on what, how, and why they teach. This critical process
culminates in an act of writing that itself enhances the teaching of both novices and
experts.
- Collecting the documentation that supports the narrative is also a valuable exercise
for the teacher compiling the portfolio.
-80-
- The instructor also learns the value of collaboration in defining responsibilities,
discussing values and methods, providing important supportive information, and
delineating goals.
- The beginning teacher becomes more intentional in generating actual products of
good teaching, which makes students the real benefactors of the work that goes into a
portfolio.
Gipe’s (1992) study “Reflective Thinking and Growth in Novices’
Teaching Ability” used field research methodology, specifically analysis of
reflective journals coupled with some descriptive statistics. Research on journal
writing supports the value of journals as a vehicle that promotes and documents
reflective thinking.
The participants were 23 female elementary education majors enrolled in two
reading/language arts methods courses designated as a nearly field experience. The
novice teachers received 6 semester hours of credit for successful completion of the
two courses.
The results of this study highlight the importance of the context of the field
placement with respect to promoting prospective teachers’ reflections about teaching.
A non-challenging field experience may provide few problems to solve. An overly
threatening field placement may promote negativism and stagnation. Reflection
becomes subordinate to survival concerns. A field placement that offers moderate
amounts of ambiguity and dissonance may provide opportunities for problem solving
through reflection and thereby enhance professional growth.
-81-
Griffiths and Tann’s (1992) study “Using Reflective Practice to Link
Personal and Public Theories” asserts that personal theory is too often left
unaffected by the processes of action research and the clue to why this is so is in the
level at which reflection should take place if it is to be most effective in changing
personal practice and public theory. The researcher argues that teachers need to
reflect upon their personal theory and prevailing practice at each of the five levels of
reflection. This will encourage them to articulate their own theory, critically examine
it, check for consistency, coherence and adequacy, compare it with alternative
theories and re-conceptualize it in order to increase the effectiveness of their own
professional thinking.
Gipe, Richards and Levitov’s (1991) study “Psychological and Personal
Dimensions of Prospective Teachers’ Reflective Abilities” discusses the
prospective teachers, which differ in their willingness and abilities to reflect on
teaching. Some novices seem to possess a natural ability to examine and critically
question themselves and their teaching as one novice’s first journal entry of the
semester demonstrates. Other prospective teachers initially appear unwilling or are
unaware of how to reflect about their work.
The results from this research indicate that there may be measurable
psychological and personal characteristics, which describe “reflectors”. The
reflectors in this study can be described as people who “make decisions by attending
to what matters to others, they have an understanding of people, a concern with the
human as opposed to the technical aspects of problems, a need for affiliation, a
-82-
capacity for warmth. Internal attributions and personal responsibility for classroom
events are to successful teaching”
Results of this study support the premise that there may be psychological and
personal characteristics of prospective teachers that distinguish reflectors and non-
reflectors. The results of this study also strongly suggest that teacher education
programs encourage and promote creativity according to Torrance. For Example,
brainstorming, divergent thinking, and problem solving activities in an overall
program, which helps students, develop their creative potential, are implied.
Critical analysis of both the practical and ethical dimensions of education
must be encouraged. Lastly, teacher educators must reevaluate their teacher
education programs to insure that they encourage development of reflective abilities.
Summary
In this section the researcher presented 21 related studies. Although that non
of them deals with measuring levels of the reflective practice, they were very helpful
to the researcher in conducting this study as they enriched his educational
background concerning the theoretical part of this study.
Moreover, they provided guidance in designing the procedures and steps of
the study, especially in preparing the suggested test, questionnaire and observation
card. Also, they were helpful in choosing the tools of the study and the statistical
analysis of the results.
-83-
The researcher categorized the previous studies as follows:
1- Studies discussed the importance of the reflection in teaching
process development.
Study of Giovannelli (2003) asserts that his study contributed to the
literature by affording a better understanding of the nature of reflective
disposition toward teaching and its relationship to effective teaching and by
providing a way in which this can be measured and facilitated. Pryke’s study
(2003) asserts that Education officers and other professionals do reflect, without
apparent paralysis, as they act. In this way they reinforce their knowledge-in-
practice. Thus they sustain and develop their professionalism. Loughran’s study
(2002) has attempted to show how an appropriate focus on experience in teacher
education can be influential in the development of effective reflective practice
and how effective reflective practice might be important in the development of
one's professional knowledge. Ross-Gordon and Ferry's study (1998) supports
claims by Schon and other researchers who propose that practitioners who
reflect-in-action use a profoundly different problem-solving process than those
who are non-reflecting.
2- Studies highlighted the importance and the role of the reflection
tools to enhance the teaching process.
- Studies of Klenowski (2000), Borko, Michalec, Timmons and Siddle (1997), Centra
(1994) and Zubizarreta (1994) mentioned the importance of using portfolio as a tool
for reflection. They described the portfolio as a vehicle for advancing teachers’
professional development. The portfolio is intended primarily as a professional
development tool.
-84-
- Studies of Stiler and Philleo (2003), Lally and Veleba (2000), Collier (1999), Hyatt
and Beigy (1999) and Rodriguez and Sjostrom (1998) discussed the rolt and the
benefits of journal or diary writing as an effective tool for reflection.
Thay asserts that:
- Journal writing increases both the quality and quantity of student teachers
output.
- A diary can allow the student teachers to identify and examine their attitudes
and beliefs about language teaching.
- By keeping a diary the student teachers were able to organize and verbalize
ideas for improving both their immediate and future teaching,
- The notion that reflecting on practice through writing or discussion will
automatically result in better teachers has been criticized.
- Using critically reflective teaching journal writing and pre- and post lesson
observation interviews, teacher educators can gain insight into the
professional development process of each teacher candidate rather quickly
during the student teaching experience.
- Studies of Norton (1997), Cady (1998) and Collier (1999) shed light on the
importance of reflective discussion with other(s). they concluded that :
- Given opportunities to write and speak reflectively, student teachers became
aware of the sound and the character of their own voices and learned how
they think and how they convey what they think to others through their words
and actions.
-85-
- The Reflective Practice Groups (RPGs) provided a systematic way to process
classroom events in a supportive environment focused on professional
growth.
3- studies discussed factors or causes which prevent some teachers to
reflect on their practice
- Studies of Stiler and Philleo (2003), Mastrilli and Sardo-Brown (2002), Hatton
(1995) and Gipe, Richards and Levitov (1991) attempted to find some obstacles
which hinder teachers to reflect on their performance. They mentioned that:
- There are a number of barriers which hinder the achievement of reflective
approaches. These include existing preconceptions about teaching as a
profession, the essential preconditions which allow student teachers to
develop reflective capacities, and their possible responses being required to
undertake reflection.
- There may be psychological and personal characteristics of prospective
teachers that distinguish reflectors and non-reflectors.
- Reflection process may take a lot of time and efforts, so some teachers
become frustrated as result of that.
- Reflection process may need bity high skills which some teachers have not.
General Comment on the Previous Studies
Most of the previous studies may share in the following points:
- They, approximately, followed the descriptive and experimental approach of
research in order to achieve their purposes.
- Most of them were similar in using questionnaire and test as tools of the
studies to achieve their goals.
-86-
- Most of their recommendations concentrated both on the importance of the
reflective teaching for teachers to achieve effective teaching and on the
importance of the reflective tools or procedures to achieve the same goals.
-87-
Chapter III
Methodology
Introduction
This study aims at measuring the level of reflective teaching among the
student teachers of English in Gaza universities. To fulfill this aim and other aims,
the researcher used different tools to collect the needed information. In this chapter,
the researcher will explain the population of the study, the steps that he followed and
the tools that he used to answer the study questions, statistical analysis, research
methodology and procedure of the study.
3.1 Population of the Study:
The population of the study consists of (286) students, who were enrolled on
“Teaching Practice “ or “Practical Training” in the first semester (2004-2005) in
Gaza universities (The Islamic university (IUG) - Al-Azhar university). Table (1)
shows the population of the study.
Table (1) The Population of the Study
Gender IUG AL
Azhar Total
Male 22 10 32
Female 193 61 254
Total 215 71 286
-88-
3.2 Sample of the Study:
The sample of this study consists of (66) male and female students. It was
a random selection, which means that every student has the same chance to
be a subject of this sample. The sample represents 23% of the population.
Table (2) shows the sample of the study.
Table (2) The Sample of the Study
Gender (IUG) AL Azhar Total
Male 4 8 12
Female 31 23 54
Total 35 31 66
3.3 Tools of the Study:
The researcher used three different tools to fulfill the aims of the study and to
answer its questions. These tools consist of a test, a questionnaire, and an observation
card. The test and questionnaire were developed to be answered by the student
teacher himself/herself. The Observation card was constructed to be filled by the
observer of the student teachers.
3.3.1 The First Tool: The Test
The aim of this test is to measure the level of background knowledge
regarding the reflective teaching approach among the student teachers of English in
Gaza universities.
-89-
3.3.1.1 Test Construction:
The researcher constructed the test based on his reviewing literature, and
consultation with specialists. The developed test consists of “12” multiple choice
questions, which cover the definition and the characteristics of reflective teaching
and reflective teacher, steps of reflection process, levels of reflection and steps for
gathering information. (See appendix 1)
3.3.1.2 Levels of Difficulty of the Test Questions:
To calculate the coefficient of difficulty of each question of the test, the
following formula was used:
Co. of difficulty = number of student who gave wrong answer x 100
Total number of students
After applying this formula, the difficulty coefficient of the test questions varied
between (20% & 80%) which indicated its suitability to be used as a tool of this
study. Table (3) shows the difficulty coefficient of each question of the test.
Table (3) Difficulty Coefficient of each Question of the Test
Question Difficulty Question Difficulty
Q1 0.62 Q7 0.78
Q2 0.71 Q8 0.32
Q3 0.35 Q9 0.68
Q4 0.46 Q10 0.70
Q5 0.44 Q11 0.49
Q6 0.52 Q12 0.53
-90-
3.3.1.3 Questions Discrimination:
To calculate the coefficient of discrimination of each question of the test, the
following formula was used:
Co. of discrimination = correct answers number in higher group- correct answers number in lower group x 100
Students’ number of one group
After applying this formula, the discrimination coefficient of the test
questions was more than 25%, which indicates that the test is highly valid to be used
as a tool of this study. Table (4) shows the discrimination coefficient of each
question of the test.
Table (4) Discrimination Coefficient of each Question of the Test
Question Discrimination Question Discrimination
Q1 0.41 Q7 0.36
Q2 0.29 Q8 0.45
Q3 0.38 Q9 0.31
Q4 0. 61 Q10 0.48
Q5 0.76 Q11 0.52
Q6 0.32 Q12 0.37
3.3.2 Validity of the Test:
validity of an instrument is considered to be an important issue that have been
discussed and stressed out by researchers in the field. Validity is defined as “ the
extent to which a measuring instrument measures what it supposed to measure”
(Thorndike, 1997)
-91-
several types of validity evidence were frequently discussed in this study.
They are as follows:
3.3.2.1 Content Validity (Experts Judgment)
Content validity is defined as “the extent to which a test reflects the variable it seeks
to measure” (Thorndike, 1997). So, content validity conducted before data
collections and measured in the terms of expert estimates of the relevance, clarity
and comleteness. Therefore, content validity is a subjective estimate of measurement
rather a statistical analysis, and applied to all relevant parts of the measured data. In
order to validate the instrument, the researcher sent the instrument including items
and operational definitions to ten experts (See appendix 2) including methodology,
TEFL, research and evaluation and linguistics, and asked them to estimate the
relevance, clarity of each item. A creterium of acceptance among experts were used
as a result, some items were modified and others were ommitted.
3.3.2.2 Costruct Validity
it examined the fit between the conceptual definition and the operational definition of
variables. In other words, construct validity discussed how will the instrument
operationalized and qualified.
The researcher used :
a) Internal Consistency Method:
This type of validity indicates the correlation of each question score with the
total scores of the test. The researcher used this method to calculate the correlation of
the test. The researcher used Pearson correlation formula to find the correlation
between the degree of each question in the test and the general degree of the whole
test. Table (5) shows the correlation coefficient of the test.
-92-
Table (5)
Correlation Coefficient of the Test
Question Correlation Sig. Question Correlation Sig.
Q1 .611 sig. at 0.01 Q7 .863 sig. at 0.01
Q2 .632 sig. at 0.01 Q8 .803 sig. at 0.01
Q3 .766 sig. at 0.01 Q9 .734 sig. at 0.01
Q4 .601 sig. at 0.01 Q10 .869 sig. at 0.01
Q5 .465 sig. at 0.01 Q11 .763 sig. at 0.01
Q6 .568 sig. at 0.01 Q12 .865 sig. at 0.01
According to table (5), it can be concluded that the test is highly consistent
and valid to be used as a tool of this study.
b) Discrimination Method (Group Differences):
To examine the test validity, the researcher used Mann Whitney Test. Table
(6) the discrimination validity of the test.
Table (6)
Discrimination Validity of the Test
Group N Mean Ranks
Sum of Ranks
U value
Z value
Sig.
High 10 15.50 155.00
Low 10 5.50 55.00
Total 20
55.00 3.824 Sig at 0.01
After applying the test, the discrimination coefficient of the test questions
proved to be statistically significant, which indicates that the test is highly valid to be
used as a tool of this study.
-93-
3.3.3 Reliability of the Test:
The researcher used Kuder-Richardson Formula 21 to examine the reliability
of this test. According to the result, the test is highly reliable, as coefficient reliability
of Kuder-Richardson Formula 21 is (0.9029)
3.3.4 Instructions of the Test:
The instructions of the test were clearly written in English on an attached
paper with the test. The instructions include the purpose of the test and guiding steps
for the student to answer the questions. (See appendix 1)
3.4 The Second Tool: The Questionnaire:
The aim of this questionnaire is to help the researcher to measure the level of
thinking of the student teachers regarding the value (importance) of the reflective
teaching.
3.4.1 Questionnaire Construction:
The researcher constructed the questionnaire based on his reviewing
literature, and consultation with specialists. The developed questionnaire consists of
ten items which cover some benefits of the reflective teaching and its positive
characteristics. (See appendix 3).
3.4.2 Validity of the Questionnaire:
To examine the questionnaire validity, the researcher used some ways to do
that. These are as follows:
-94-
3.4.2.1 Content Validity (Experts Judgment)
To examine the questionnaire validity, the researcher introduced it to a group
of specialists, including professors and highly qualified long experienced teachers of
methodology, from different universities. Juries modified this questionnaire by
adding, deleting or correcting its items. All juries approved the questionnaire, which
the researcher applied it in his study.
3.4.2.2. Construct Validity:
a) Internal Consistency Method:
This type of validity indicates the correlation of each item degree with the
total average of the questionnaire. The researcher used this method to calculate the
correlation of the questionnaire. The researcher used Pearson correlation formula to
calculate the correlation between the score on each item of the questionnaire with
total score of the questionnaire. Table (7) shows the correlation coefficient of the
questionnaire.
Table (7) Correlation Coefficient of the Questionnaire
Item Correlation Sig. Item Correlation Sig.
Item 1 .802 sig. at 0.01 Item 6 .824 sig. at 0.01
Item 2 .890 sig. at 0.01 Item 7 .843 sig. at 0.01
Item 3 .780 sig. at 0.01 Item 8 .867 sig. at 0.01
Item 4 .810 sig. at 0.01 Item 9 .838 sig. at 0.01
Item 5 .832 sig. at 0.01 Item 10 .860 sig. at 0.01
According to table (7), it can be concluded that the questionnaire is highly
consistent and valid to be used as a tool for this study.
-95-
b) Discrimination Method (Group Difference):
To examine the test validity, the researcher used Mann Whitney Test. Table
(8) the discrimination validity of the questionnaire.
Table (8) Discrimination Validity of the Questionnaire
Group N Mean
Ranks
Sum of
Ranks
U
value
Z
value
Sig.
High 10 15.40 154.00
Low 10 5.60 56.00
Total 20
56.000 3.891 Sig at 0.01
After applying the test, the discrimination coefficient of the questionnaire
items show a statistical significance, which indicates that the questionnaire is highly
valid to be used as a tool of this study.
3.4.3 Reliability of the Questionnaire:
“Cronbach Alpha is considered the most general form of reliability estimates
and it also, concerned with homogeneity of items compromising the scale”
(Thorndike, 1997). The researcher used Alpha Cronbach Formulas to examine the
reliability of this questionnaire. According to the results, the questionnaire is highly
reliable, as Alpha Cronbach coefficient is (0.9129)
3.4.4 Instructions of the Questionnaire:
The instructions of the questionnaire were clearly written in English on an
attached paper. The instructions included the purpose of the questionnaire and
-96-
guiding steps for the student teachers to choose the appropriate answer for every
item. (See appendix 1)
3.5 The Third Tool: The Observation Card:
The aim of the observation card is to measure the level of practicing the
reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza Universities.
3.5.1 Observation Card Construction:
The researcher constructed the test based on his reviewing literature, and
consultation with specialists. The developed observation card consists of three
phases as follows:
- The first phase (planning) covered the expected student teacher’s role
in preparation for the lesson. Its results showed to what extent the
student teacher followed the reflective approach in his/her planning.
- The second phase (operation and roles) covered the expected student
teacher’s role in the classroom. Its results showed to what extent the
student teacher applied the reflective approach in his/her teaching
performance.
- The third phase (Analysis and reactions) covered the expected
students teacher’s ability to judge the lesson and give clear
perspective concerning this matter.
Each item in every phase has a measuring scale from (1) to (5) where (1) represents
the lowest mark whereas (5) represents the highest one.
3.5.2 Validity of the Observation Card:
To examine the observation card validity, the research applied two types of
validity, the referee validity and internal consistency validity.
-97-
3.5.2.1 Content Validity (Experts Judgment)
To examine the observation card validity, the researcher introduced it to a
group of specialists, which included professors and highly qualified, and experienced
teachers of methodology from different universities. Juries modified this observation
card by adding, deleting or correcting its items. All juries approved of the
observation card, which the researcher applied in his study.
3.5.2.2 Costruct Validity
a) Internal Consistency Method:
This type of validity indicates the correlation of each item degree with the
total average of the phase it is related to. The researcher used this method to calculate
the correlation of the phases of the observation card. The researcher used Pearson
correlation formula to find the correlation between the degree of each item in every
phase and the general degree of the same phase. Table (9), (10) and (11) show the
correlation coefficient of each item in every phase and the general degree of the
same phase. Table (12) shows the correlation coefficient of each phase and the
whole observation card.
Table (9) Correlation Coefficient of (Planning) the First Phase Items
Item Correlation Sig. Item Correlation Sig.
Item 1 .414 sig. at 0.01 Item 6 .715 sig. at 0.01
Item 2 .786 sig. at 0.01 Item 7 .730 sig. at 0.01
Item 3 .786 sig. at 0.01 Item 8 .730 sig. at 0.01
Item 4 .767 sig. at 0.01 Item 9 .836 sig. at 0.01
Item 5 .512 sig. at 0.01
-98-
Table (10) Correlation Coefficient of (operations and roles) the Second Phase Items
Item Correlation Sig. Item Correlation Sig.
Item 1 .854 sig. at 0.01 Item 7 .819 sig. at 0.01
Item 2 .854 sig. at 0.01 Item 8 .570 sig. at 0.01
Item 3 .892 sig. at 0.01 Item 9 .819 sig. at 0.01
Item 4 .854 sig. at 0.01 Item 10 .860 sig. at 0.01
Item 5 .612 sig. at 0.01 Item 11 .647 sig. at 0.01
Item 6 .533 sig. at 0.01 Item 12 .895 sig. at 0.01
Table (11) Correlation Coefficient of (Analysis and reactions) the Third Phase Items
Item Correlation Sig. Item Correlation Sig.
Item 1 .419 sig. at 0.05 Item 5 .844 sig. at 0.01
Item 2 .641 sig. at 0.01 Item 6 .866 sig. at 0.01
Item 3 .844 sig. at 0.01 Item 7 .906 sig. at 0.01
Item 4 .906 sig. at 0.01 Item 8 .906 sig. at 0.01
Table (12) Correlation Coefficient of the Phase and the Whole Observation Card
Phase Correlation Sig.
Planning .921 sig. at 0.05
Operation .964 sig. at 0.01
Analysis .948 sig. at 0.01
-99-
According to the four previous tables (9), (10), (11) and (12), it can be
concluded that the observation card items are highly consistent and valid to be used
as a tool of this study.
b) Discrimination Validity:
To examine the observation card validity, the researcher use Mann Whitney
Test. Table (13) shows the discrimination validity of the observation card.
Table (13) Discrimination Validity of the Observation Card
Phase Group N Mean Ranks
Sum of
Ranks
U value
Z value
Sig.
High 10 15.50 155.00
Low 10 5.50 55.00
Planning
Total 20
55.000 3.842 Sig. at
0.01
High 10 14.40 144.00
Low 10 6.60 66.00
Operations
Total 20
66.000 3.231 sig. at
0.01
High 10 13.20 132.00
Low 10 7.80 78.00
Analysis
Total 20
78.000 2.401 sig. at
0.01
High 10 15.50 155.00
Low 10 5.50 55.00
Total
Total 20
55.000 3.826 sig. at
0.01
After applying this formula, the discrimination coefficient of each item of
every phase of the observation card, as well as the total of the three phases shows
statistical significance, which indicates that the observation card is highly valid to be
used as a tool of this study.
-100-
3.5.3 Reliability of the Observation Card:
The researcher used Cooper coefficient to examine the reliability of the
observation card. The following formula was used:
Reliability Coefficient = N 1 N1+N2
(N1) refers to the number of agreed mark for items between the observers,
and (n2) refers to the number of disagreed mark for items between the observers.
After applying this formula the results were as follows:
- Cooper coefficient for the first phase (Planning) was 92%
- Cooper coefficient for the second phase (operations) was 87%
- Cooper coefficient for the third phase (analysis) was 93%
- Cooper coefficient for the whole observation card was 90.6%
According to the results, every phase is highly reliable as well as the whole
observation card.
3.5.4 Instructions of the Observation Card:
The instructions of the observation card were clearly written in English and
Arabic (the researcher used Arabic to ensure that the instructions are very clear) on
an attached paper with the observation card. The instructions included the purpose of
the observation card and guiding steps for the observers to choose the appropriate
answer for every item, according to the student teachers’ performance. (See
appendix 5).
-101-
3.6 Procedures of the Study:
To fulfill the study, the researcher did the following:
- Collected and reviewed the previous related studies to get benefits
from their procedures, tools, results, thoughts, and recommendations.
- Subscribe at Questia Digital Library (www.questia.com) for three
months.
- Prepared the theoretical framework of the study through reading
some books and searching in previous related studies.
- Prepared the three tools of the study.
- Asked experts to review them and then give approval to be applied.
- Took some permissions to apply the study (See appendix 6)
- Applied the tools of the study on the student teachers of English in
Gaza universities (The Islamic University and Al Azhar University).
- Cooperated with school pricipals and some observers (2 – 3 observers
in every university ) to make sure that the test and the questionnaire
are answered and the observation process is going on.
- The researcher gave every observer clear instructions for his/her
observation.
- Collected the the study tool and corerect the test (giving one mark for
each correct answers and then calculate the marks out of 12 marks).
- cooperated with a statistician to analyse data statistically for the result
of questionnaire and the ibservation card., using SPSS v. 11.
- Concluded the final results of the three tools.
-102-
- Attempted to give some explanations for the results and find some
justifications and then give recommendations and suggestions.
3.7 Statistical Analysis:
To answer the first, the second and the third questions of the study, the
researcher used descriptive statistics like (means, standards deviation and range).
To answer the fourth, the fifth and the sixth questions of the study, the
researcher used T test and Mann Whitney test, because it is used when the sample is
less than 30 individuals.
3.8 Summary
In this chapter the researcher explored the population of the study, and its
tools that used to answer the questions of the study. He also presented the practical
steps of applying those tools in addition to the statistics used to treat the results of the
study.
-103-
Chapter IV
Results of the Study
Introduction
This study aimed to measure the level of reflective teaching among student
teacher of English in Gaza Universities. To achieve this aim, the study attempted to
answer six main related questions through using three tools (a test, a questionnaire
and an observation card). This chapter introduces the results of the study as
statistically treated in addition to the analysis and discussion of the results in the light
of the questions of the study.
4.1 Answer of the First Question
In answering the first research question, which is “What is the
level of background knowledge regarding the reflective teaching
approach among the student teachers of English in Gaza
universities?”, the researcher used a test to measure the level of their
background about the approach, and then analyzed the results of this
test statistically. Means, standard deviations, medians and ranges of
the two universities’ results were computed. Table (14) shows the
levels of background knowledge regarding the reflective teaching
among the student teachers of English in Gaza universities.
Table (14)
Levels of Background about the Reflective Teaching
Univ. N Mean Std.
deviation Median Range
IUG 35 6.31 2.0972 6.0000 9.00
Al Azhar 19 5.36 1.4985 6.0000 5.00
-104-
Total 54 5.98 1.9473 6.0000 9.00
The results of the test showed that the student teachers of English in the two
universities have a little educational background knowledge regarding the reflective
teaching approach. The general mean of this test was (5.98), in other words, it was
less than 50%, which indicates low level of educational background about reflective
teaching approach.
It is obvious from the table (14) that the level of background of student teachers
about the reflective teaching is low. All groups did not pass 50% out of the total. The
researcher justifies the low results for the following reasons:
1- Student teachers might not study this approach during their university
studies.
2- Teachers in universities might not mention this approach directly or
indirectly, during lectures of methodology.
3- Student teachers’ observers might not mention the characteristics or
the values of this approach.
4- Most of host teachers do not apply this approach; therefore they
would not advise student teachers to follow it as a means of teacher
development.
5- Most of materials of methodology courses do not deal with this
approach in depth.
6- Reflective teaching approach is considered as a fairly recent subject to
be a popular approach in methodology.
-105-
4.2 Answer of the Second Question
In answering the second research question which is “What do
the student teachers of English in Gaza universities think about the
value (importance) of the reflective teaching in their teaching
performances?” the researcher used a questionnaire to measure the
level of their thinking regarding the approach, and then analyzed the
results of this questionnaire statistically. Means, standard deviations,
medians and ranges of the two universities were computed. Table (15)
shows the levels of thinking regarding the value (importance) of the
reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza
universities.
Table (15)
Levels of Thinking Regarding the Value of the Reflective Teaching
Univ. N Mean Std.
deviation Median Range
IUG 35 40.25 4.7362 40.000 21.00
Al Azhar 19 36.57 11.6443 38.000 50.00
Total 54 38.96 7.9739 40.000 50.00
The results of the questionnaire show that the student teachers of English in
the two universities have positive thinking regarding the value (importance) of the
reflective teaching approach. The general mean of this questionnaire was (38.96), in
-106-
other words, it was about 78%, which indicates medium level of positive thinking
regarding the value (importance) of the reflective teaching approach.
It is obvious from table (15) that the level of thinking regarding the value
(importance) of student teachers of the reflective teaching is good. The researcher
thinks that there are some reasons justifying these positive thinking. The researcher
summarizes them as follows:
1- As the student teachers read about the reflective teaching approach
through answering the exam, they think that it is good or important.
2- Eight of ten items of the questionnaire are positive statements, which
means that the student teacher chooses the high mark for those items
as they indicate positive meanings, not because they are related to the
reflective teaching.
3- The student teachers may understand from questionnaire items that
these items indicate the characteristics of the reflective teaching
approach not as their real beliefs about the importance of this
approach.
4- The student teachers may not take care to express their exact beliefs
about the importance of this approach.
4.3 Answer of the Third Question
In answering the third research question which is “What is the
Level of reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in
-107-
Gaza Universities?” the researcher used an observation card to
measure the level of their practicing this approach, and then analyzed
the results of this observation card statistically. Means, standard
deviations, medians and ranges of the two universities results were
computed. Table (16) shows the levels of practicing the reflective
teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza universities.
Table (16) Levels of Practicing the Reflective Teaching
Univ. Planning Operations Analysis Total
N 35 35 35 35
Mean 27.62 37.01 23.34 87.98
Std.
deviation
7.3157 8.5444 10.0211 23.4396
Median 28.0000 37.5000 26.0000 91.5000 The
Isla
mic
Uni
vers
ity
Range 30.00 39.00 38.00 98.50
N 31 31 31 31
Mean 25.17 34.09 23.29 82.56
Std.
deviation
6.8575 9.2000 7.0896 22.1158
Median 23.5000 33.5000 22.5000 78.0000
Al A
zhar
Uni
vers
ity
Range 28.50 39.00 30.00 89.00
N 66 66 66 66
Mean 26.47 35.64 23.31 85.43
Std. deviation
7.1567 8.9110 8.7021 22.8159
Tota
l
Median 26.5000 37.0000 25.0000 87.0000
-108-
Range 30.50 43.00 38.00 100.00
The results of the observation card showed that the student teachers of
English in the two universities have a low level of practicing the reflective teaching
approach. The general mean of this observation card was (85.43), in other words, the
average weight was about (59%)* which indicates medium level of practicing the
reflective teaching approach.
1It is obvious from table (16) that the level of student teachers’ practicing the
reflective teaching is not high. All groups did not exceed 60% out of the total. The
researcher thinks that there are some reasons justifying these low results. The
researcher summarizes them as follows:
1- The student teachers do not have enough background knowledge
regarding the reflective teaching approach. Farrell (2004) mentions
that Jackson argues that “if they (reflective teachers) did possess the
skill for reflection, it is doubtful that they would perform with greater
efficiency in the classroom”.
2- They are in the training stage; they still have not the required
experience to practice this approach.
3- They and their teachers might not practice this approach during
methodology syllabuses.
* The researcher calculates the average weight by multiplication every total mean of every university
by its sample number and then divides the total of two results on two. Finally, finds the portion of the
result out of the total score. (87.98 × 35) + (82.56 × 31) ÷ 66 = 85.43 ÷ 145 × 100 = 58.9% = 59 %
-109-
4- Some of them might not be interested in teaching as a career.
5- Most of host teachers and their observers might not mention the
characteristics or the values of this approach.
7- Most of the student teachers may care for marks rather than caring for
the quality of their performance.
8- They may have differences between their theory and their pracice. As
(McNiff 1995 p. 15) mentioned that the teachers’ personal and public
theories about language teaching may not harmonize with each other.
Loughran (2002) asserts that “Challenging this distinction between
theory and practice is important, and a conceptualization of effective
reflective practice is one way of beginning to help teacher preparation
programs integrate in meaningful ways”.
9- The major problems in reflective teaching would be an over emphasis
on the technical aspects of action research. (Chauhan 1995, p. 139) ,
whereas the student teachers have not these technical aspects.
10- May the routine of teaching process (the same school, the same
textbook, and the same level of knowledge) can influence negatively
on teachers’ desire to start reflection.
11- Some teachers see reflective teaching as a one-off project not as series
of reflective cycles in which each step is planned with a realistic and
local goal in mind.
12- Frustration of some teachers prevents them from involving in any
activities including reflection in their teaching.
-110-
13- Discouragement of non-reflective teachers may force reflective
teacher to be frustrated.
14- They may were not in a good psychological case, as psychological
factor play a great role in reflection process. Gipe, Richards and
Levitov’s (1991) study support the premise that there may be
psychological and personal characteristics of prospective teachers that
distinguish reflectors and non-reflectors.
15- Some teachers see reflective practice as another overload job, which
requires time and efforts. This view may force some student teachers
not to reflect.
16- Professional weakness of some teachers may stop them to try
reflection in their performance. “Teacher should have lots of
knowledge, not only of his subject” (Harmer 1998, p. 2)
17- They may have not enough continuous priod to reflect, as time is
essential factor in reflection. Hatton’s (1995) says “in order to foster
effective reflection, what is needed is time and opportunity for
development, so that the required essential metateaching and
metacognitive skills can be acquired”
4.4 Answer of the Fourth Question
To answer the fourth research question which is stated as follows:
“Are there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level in the levels
of background knowledge regarding the reflective teaching among student
teachers of English in Gaza universities due to the university variable?” the
-111-
researcher formulated the first null hypothesis of the study which was stated
as follows: “There are no statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05)
level between averages of levels of background knowledge regarding the
reflective teaching among student teachers of English in Gaza universities
due to the university variable.
The researcher used Mann-Whitney Test to know if there are
statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of the
two universities in the levels of background about the reflective teaching. The
results of the tests were computed. Table (17) shows the differences in the
levels of background knowledge regarding the reflective teaching among the
student teachers of English in Gaza universities.
Table (17) Differences in the Levels of Background about the Reflective Teaching
Univ. N Mean Ranks
Sum of
Ranks
U value
Z value
P value
Sig.
IUG 35 30.06 1052.00
Al-Azhar 19 22.79 433.00
Total 54
433.00
1.664
0.096
Not sig.
According to table (17), it is obvious that there are no statistically
significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of levels of
background knowledge regarding the reflective teaching among student
teachers of English in Gaza universities due to the university variable.
-112-
4.5 Answer of the Fifth Question
To answer the fifth research question which is stated as follows: “Are
there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level in the levels of
thinking regarding the value (importance) of the reflective teaching among
student teachers of English in Gaza universities due to the university
variable?” the researcher formulated the second null hypothesis of the study
which was stated as follows: “There are no statistically significant differences
at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of levels of thinking regarding the value
(importance) of the reflective teaching among student teachers of English in
Gaza universities due to the university variable
The researcher used Mann-Whitney Test to know if there were
statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of the
two universities in the levels of thinking regarding the value (importance) of
the reflective teaching. The results of the questionnaire were computed. Table
(18) shows the differences in the levels of thinking regarding the value
(importance) of the reflective teaching among the student teachers of English
in Gaza universities.
Table (18) Differences in the Levels of Thinking Regarding the Value (Importance)
of the Reflective Teaching
Univ. N Mean Ranks
Sum of Ranks
U value
Z value
P value
Sig.
-113-
IUG 35 29.21 1022.50
Al-Azhar 19 24.34 462.50
Total 54
462.50
1.090
0.279
Not sig.
According to table (18), it is obvious that there are no statistically significant
differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of levels of thinking regarding the
value (importance) of the reflective teaching among student teachers of English in
Gaza universities due to the university variable.
4.6 Answer of the sixth Question
To answer the sixth research question which was stated as follows:
“Are there statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level in the levels
of practicing the reflective teaching among student teachers of English in
Gaza universities due to the university variable?” the researcher formulated
the third null hypothesis of the study which was stated as follows: “There are
no statistically significant differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of
levels of practicing the reflective teaching among student teachers of English
in Gaza universities due to the university variable”
The researcher used T test to know if there are statistically significant
differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of the two universities in the
levels of practicing the reflective teaching. The results of the observation card
were computed. Table (19) shows the differences in the levels of practicing
the reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza
universities.
-114-
Table (19) Differences in the Levels of Practicing the Reflective Teaching
Sig. T.
Value
Std.
Deviation Mean N UNIV Fields
7.316 27.629 35 IUG Not Sig. 1.399
6.858 25.177 31 Al-Azhar Planning
8.544 37.014 35 IUG Not Sig. 1.335
9.200 34.097 31 Al-Azhar Operation
10.021 23.343 35 IUG Not Sig. 0.024
7.090 23.290 31 Al-Azhar Analysis
23.440 87.986 35 IUG Not Sig. 0.963
22.116 82.565 31 Al-Azhar Total
According to table (19), it is obvious that there are no statistically significant
differences at (α ≤ 0.05) level between averages of levels of practicing the reflective
teaching (in all three phases) among student teachers of English in Gaza universities
due to the university variable.
4.7 Comments on the Results of the Last Three Questions and
Hypotheses:
The results of the last three questions and the three hypotheses
showed that there no statistically significant differences in the levels of
-115-
background knowledge, in the levels of thinking and in the levels of
practicing the reflective teaching approach.
The researcher thinks that although the similarity of the two programs
of teachers education in both universities (The Islamic University of
Gaza – Al-Azhar University), nevertheless there are some differences
between the two groups. Regarding the reflective teaching there are
no differences because the reasons which mentioned before in pages
(104), (106) and (108).
4.8 Summary
This chapter answered the six questions of the study by presenting the results
of the three tools (the test, the questionnaire and the observation card). Regarding
these results within its conditions of application, it can be concluded that this study
reveals a low level of background and positive thinking regarding reflective teaching.
In addition to that it reveals a medium level of practicing the approach itself. All of
the results of the hypotheses of the study showed that there were not statistically
significant differences between the two universities in all what the hypothesis deal
with.
-116-
Chapter V
Discussion and Recommendations
Introduction
This study has been accomplished through five chapters aimed at measuring
the level of reflective teaching among the student teachers of English in Gaza
universities. In the light of the educational literature reviewed and discussed
throughout the study in addition to the practical experience of applying the tools of
the study, this chapter aimed at discussing the results of the study, giving
interpretation for them and providing valuable recommendations and giving further
researches.
5.1 Discussion
The descriptive analysis of the study results expressed that there were no
serious interests in the reflective teaching approach as an approach that helps student
teachers to develop their performance. The results of the test showed not high
background knowledge regarding the characteristics and the elements of this
approach. The questionnaire results revealed a positive thinking regarding the value
-117-
(importance) of such approach. The observation card which consisted of three
phases, showed a medium level of practicing reflective teaching approach.
The researcher thinks that these results are acceptable as a result of the state
of education (teaching and learning) in the Gaza Strip in general and the lack of
interests in methodology in particular.
If we want to focus on the causes of these levels, we should mention the level
of the teaching quality in Palestine in general, and in the Gaza Strip in particular.
There is no doubt that teaching quality in the Gaza Strip is not high especially in
schools. This is due to some factors which hinder teachers to improve their practice
and performance, such as carelessness of some teachers who are supposed to
improve their abilities and posaibilities, their economic situations they suffer from.
They may not apply the reflective teaching approach as a reuslt of frustration
“Frustration of some teachers prevents them from involving in any activities
including reflection in their teaching.” (Gierhinger, 1996) , or a reuslt of routine “The
routine of teaching process (the same school, the same textbook, and the same level
of knowledge) can influence negatively on teachers’ desire to start reflection.”
(Gierhinger, 1996). Many factors can sontribute to prevent or discourage teachers not
to reflect (see page )
During the researcher’s training period in schools and his visits to smany
schools to observe some student teachers , he noticed that most of teachers may not
care about their development as a result of the bad political and economic situations
they suffer from. Therefore they do not search for a suitable approach to improve
their skills and performance, in other words, they will not recognize the
characteristics and the importance of the reflective approach.Those teachers will be
-118-
in a stable performance level without any change, unless they intend to change, or be
forced to change by supervisors.
Supervisors and school principals also have a great role to better these bad
situations, since they can stimulate their teachers to apply the reflective approach in
their practice. The researcher thinks that the supervisors may not mention the
reflective approach during their supervision because most of them may not aware of
such valuable approach.
This study is supposed to formulate a clear picture for the reflective approach
as an approach for improvement, and development of the teaching process as well as
teachers’ performance. Reflective teaching “can positively affect professional growth
and development by leading to greater self awareness to the development of new
knowledge about professional practice” (Imel 1992).
The researcher expects that if this approach is applied on in our educational
institutions (colleges, schools), a distinguished step will happen in the educational
field. Some of the previous studies asserted the connections between applying
reflective approach with the teaching effectiveness. For example, Giovannelli’s study
(2003) contributed to the literature by affording a better understanding of the nature
of reflective disposition toward teaching and its relationship to effective teaching and
by providing a way in which this can be measured and facilitated.
So, it would be clear for teachers, school principals, supervisors and
educational principals that they should focus on this approach in order to improve the
teachers’ abilities and skills as well as the students' achievement and possibilities. All
of them should cooperate with each other to enhance the teaching process in addition
to the teachers practice. Besides that they should facilitate the reflection process and
-119-
do their best to get rid of th difficulties and the obstacles which face reflective
teachers.
The researcher, also thinks that this study is an announcement for every
interested person in the educational process (teaching and learning) to highlight this
approach, to hold workshops to discuss its impact, to read more about what the
scholars say about it and to apply this approach in our schools and colleges “These
recommendations concerning the dialogue journals, weekly university seminar, and
faculty professional development seminar may be useful to teacher educators in
redesigning their program of study to meet constantly evolving educational needs”
(Norton, 1997).
Finally, the researcher hopes this study gives sufficient information about the
reflective teaching, its characteristics and its impact. Besides, he hopes this study
gives a clear description about the level of this approach in Gaza Universities which
reflects approximately its existence in Gaza colleges and schools.
The researcher hopes all teachers of all syllabuses apply this approach and
learn more and more about it in order to develop their performances as well as their
students’. “Engaging in reflective teaching takes time and efforts but the rewards can
be great” (Ruth, 1992) The researcher is strongly convinced that the reflective
teaching approach should be inseparable from the teaching of English in the Gaza
Strip schools and colleges in order to get the utmost benefits for teaching English.
5.2 Recommendations
After exposing the teachers’ needs of English for the reflective teaching
approach and explaining its characteristics and values, the researcher finds it
important to give some recommendations for some groups.
-120-
5.2.1 Recommendations for Pre-service and In-service Teachers of
English.
-They should be more aware of their levels of their performance and look again into
their work and try to employ the reflective approach.
- They should assume their roles in improving education and teaching in their
institutions.
- They should know that the reflective approach is one of the keys of their advance in
their work.
- They should train themselves to work in pairs and groups to avail of their practice
and experiences and engaging in reflective group discussion or cooperative teaching.
- They should discuss and highlight the difficult problems in the class through
reflective thinking to solve them
- They should read a lot about methodology and to try models of different approaches
of teaching.
5.2.3 Recommendations for Supervisors and School
Principals.
- They should draw the attention of teachers and student teachers of English to the
positive utilities of reflective teaching in developing their performance.
- They should ask teachers and student teachers of English to become reflective ones
in English language teaching by critically reflecting on their teaching and taking
actions to improve their teaching.
-121-
- They should encourage collaborative and cooperative meetings to promote the
adoption of the reflective teaching approach and to make changes in teaching
practices and attitudes in a supportive environment.
- They should remove the obstacles or the causes of some difficulties to practice
reflective teaching.
- They should provide real motives for the teacher who seeks to develop his/her
performance and recompense the successful and the active reflective teachers.
- They should allow teachers and student teachers of English to exchange visits in
their classrooms to reflect on their performance in pairs or in groups and facilitate
their meeting in the school by decreasing the teachers’ load.
- They should allow the university professors of English to visit schools to hold
discussion with the teachers of English concerning recent and valid methods of
teaching including the reflective teaching approach.
5.2.2 Recommendations for Faculties of Education.
- They should draw the attention of student teachers of English to the advantages of
reflective teaching in their professional development by explaining the real meaning
of reflective teaching and its principles for them.
- They can invite teachers to attend or participate in conferences to keep them in
touch with the recent methodology studies.
- They should enable student teachers to become reflective ones in English language
teaching by critically reflecting on their training and taking actions to improve their
practice through examinations and analysis of their roles and responsibilities.
- They should help student teachers to engage themselves in analyzing, reflecting on
and suggesting changes in teaching practices in a supportive environment.
-122-
- They should motivate lecturers to teach the reflective teaching approach in
methodology courses and motivate the student teachers to practice it.
- They should motivate their teachers to discuss the reflective teaching approach with
each other to build positive attitudes towards it.
- They should reduce the academic loads of lecturers of English to give them
opportunity to be reflective teachers.
- They should ask for help from famous experts either in designing methodology
courses or in holding training courses related to the reflective teaching approach.
- They should contribute effectively in developing the competence of teachers and
student teachers in using reflective teaching approach by offering workshops,
conferences and training courses.
- They should motivate teachers to conduct some researches concerning the reflective
teaching approach either individually or group-works to investigate the possibilities of
applying this approach.
- Moreover they should supply the schools and Ministry of Education with empirical
researches to improve the teaching process.
5.2.4 Recommendations for the Palestinian Ministry of Higher
Education
- It should stimulate and help teachers to look again into their work and try to give
them some encouragements to employ this approach.
- It should recognize that applying the reflective teaching approach is a step towards
positive changes in higher education leading to the Total Quality Management.
-123-
- It should encourage teachers to conduct some researches to investigate the
possibilities of applying this approach and discuss its benefits.
- It should facilitate the process of teaching English by holding workshops and
training courses discussing the reflective teaching approach
- It should provide schools with needed equipment for self-reflection for teachers.
- It should encourage school principals to cooperate with their teachers to apply the
reflective teaching approach.
- It should link the schools with the local universities to enrich the experience of the
teachers in applying different valid and recent teaching methods including the
reflective teaching approach.
- It should reduce the academic loads of teachers to give them opportunity to be
reflective teachers.
-124-
REFERENCES The Holy Quran
v
Abu Daff, Mahmoud Khalil (2005) “Rectification in the Islamic Education Concept: Characteristics and Methods” Journal of Quality in Higher Education. Vol. 1 No. 2 Pages 46 – 58
v
An-Nawawi, Yahya Bin Sahaf Ad-Deen (1979) “An-Nawawi’s Forty Hadith” Translated by: Ezzeddin Ibrahim and Denys Johnson-Davies. Lebanon: Dar Al-Koran Al-Kareem
v
Al-Hilali, Muhammad & Khan, Muhammad (1997) “Translation of the meaning of The Noble Quran in English language” Madinah, K.S.A: King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Quran
v
Allwright, Dick & Bailey, Kathleen M. (1994) “ Focus on the language Classroom: An Introduction to Classroom Research for language Teachers” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
v
Allwright, Dick. (1993) “Observation in the Language Classroom” London: Longman Group Limited
v
Bailey, Kathleen & Nunan David (1996) “Voices from the Language Classroom: Qualitative Research in second Language Education” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
v
Brown, George & Atkins, Madeleine.(1988) “Effective Teaching in Higher Education” London: Routledge
v
Centra, John A.(1994) “The Use of the Teaching Portfolio and Student Evaluations for Summative Evaluation” Journal of Higher Education. Volume:
v
-125-
65. Issue: 5. Page Number: 555+ Retrieved June 11, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000278421 Chauchan, S. S. (1995) “Innovations in Teaching-Learning Process” New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD
v
Doff, Adrian. (1995) “Teach English: a Training Course for Teachers: Teacher’s Handbook ” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
v
Fareel, Thomas S. (2004) “Reflection practice in action: 80 reflection breaks for busy teachers” California: Corwin Press
v
Ghunaimi, Islah Abdul-Fattah. (2003) “The effect of a suggested Video Program on Developing the Communicative Skills of the 11th Grade Learners of English in Gaza Governorates ” unpublished master’s thesis: Al- Azhar University, Gaza
v
Gipe, Joan & Richards Janet C. (1991) “Psychological and Personal Dimensions of Prospective Teachers’ Reflective Abilities” Journal of Educational and Psychological Measurement,Vol 51, No:4 pages 913-922
v
Gipe, Joan & Richards Janet C. (1992) “Reflective Thinking and Growth in Novices’ teachers Abilities” Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 86, No: 1 Sep. & Oct. Pages 52-55
v
Gower, Roge, Phillips, Diane & Walters, Steve (1995) “Teaching Practice Handbook ” Oxford: Heinemann .
v
Griffiths, Morwenna & Tann, Sarah (1992) “Using Reflective Practice to Link Personal and Public Theories” Journal of Education for Teaching, Vol.18 No:1 pages 69-84
v
Harmer, Jeremy. (1998) “How to Teach English: An Introduction to the Practice
of English language Teaching ” Essex: Addison Wesley Longman Limited.
v
Harmer, Jeremy. (2003) “The Practice of English Language Teaching”. 3rd Ed. London: Longman Group Limited
v
Harper Collins Publishers (1994) “Collins Co-build: Essential English Dictionary” London: Harper Collins Publishers
v
Harper Collins Publishers (1996) “Collins Co-build Learner’s Dictionary” London: Harper Collins Publishers
v
Hatton, N.(1995) “Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation” Journal of Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 11 No. 1
v
-126-
Pages 33-49. Hyatt, David F. & Beigy Anne (1999) “Making the Most of the Unknown Language Experience: Pathways for Reflective Teacher Development” Journal of Education for Teaching, Vol. 25 No: 1 pages 31-39
v
Imel, Susan (1992) “Reflective Practice in Adult Education” ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education Columbus OH. ERIC Identifier: ED346319 ERIC Digest No. 122.
v
Joyce, Bruce & Weil, Marsha. (1997) “Models of Teaching” 5th ed. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.
v
McNiff, Jean. (1995) “Teaching as learning: An Action Research Approach” London: Routledge.
v
Mourtaga, kamal r. (2004) “Investigating writing problems among palestinian students studying english as a foreign language” unpublished doctoral Thesis,
v
Mukalel, Joseph C. (1998) “Creative Approaches to Classroom Teaching” New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.
v
Nunan, David & Lamb Clarice. (2000) “Self-directed Teacher: Managing the Learning Process” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
v
Nunan, David. (1999) “Language Teaching methodology: A Textbook for Teachers” New York: Phoenix ELT
v
Osborn, Terry A. (2000) “Critical and foreign language classroon” London: Bergin & Garvey Westport.
v
Oxford University Press (1992) “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary” Oxford: Oxford University Press
v
Page, G. Terry & Thomas, J.B. (1989) “International Dictionary of Education” London: The English Book Society and Kogan Page
v
Richards, Jack C. & Lockhart, Charles. (1997) “Reflective teaching in Second Language Classroom” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
v
Richards, Jack C. & Nunan, David (1995) “Second Language Teacher Education” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
v
Richards, Jack C. & Renandya, Willy A. (2002) “Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
v
-127-
Richards, Jack C. & Rodgers, Theodore S. (1995) “Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: A Description and Analysis” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
v
Richars, Jack & Nunan, David. (1990) “Second Language Teacher Education” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
v
Riddell, David. (2001) “Teaching English as a foreign/Second Language” UK: Teach Yourself Books.
v
Ruth Wajnryb (1992) “Classroom Observation Tasks: a resource book for teachers and trainers”. Cambridge University Press.
v
Scrivener, Jim. (1998) “Learning Teaching: A Guidebook for English Language Teachers” Oxford: Macmillan Heinemann.
v
Stern, H. H. (1990) “Fundamental Concept of Language Teaching” Oxford: Oxford University Press
v
Stern, H. H. (1993) “Issues and Options in Language Teaching” Oxford: Oxford University Press.
v
Tickle, les. (1994) “The Induction of New Teachers: reflective professional Practice” London: Cassell
v
Thorndike, R. (1997) “Measurement and Evaluation in Psychological and Education” 6Th .ed. Merril, Prentice Hall
v
Ur, Penny. (1997) “A Course in language Teaching: Practice and Theory” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
v
Wallace, Michael J. (1994) “Training Foreign Language Teachers: A Reflective Approach” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
v
Woodward, Tessa. (1991) “Models and Metaphors in Language Teacher Training: Loop Input and Other Strategies” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
v
Wright, Tony.(1988) “Rles of Teachers and Learners” Oxford: Oxford University Press
v
Yalden, Janice. (1994) “Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
v
Zeichner, Kenneth M. & Liston, Daniel P. (1996) “Reflective Teaching: An Introduction” New Jersy: Lawrence Erlbaum Assocites Publishers
v
-128-
References From Internet
Abu Ameenah, Bilal Philips (2005) “Self-Evaluation in Islam: The Concept of Ihtisab” Retrieve June 5, 2006 from http//:youngmuslims.ca/ymfn/archive_display.asp?ID=145
v
Ahmad, Syed Imtiaz (2003) “Principles of Self-Development in Islam” Retrieve June 5, 2006 from http//:www. Islamonline.net/english/contemporary/2003/11/article01.shtml
v
Black, Susan (2001) “Thinking about teaching: How teachers can put reflection at the heart of their teaching” National School Boards Association Vol. 188, No. 11 retrieved 8 June, 2004 from http://www.asbj.com/2001/11/1101research.html
v
Borko, Hilda & Michalec, Paul (1997) “Student Teaching Portfolios: A Tool for Promoting Reflective Practice” Journal of Teacher Education. Volume: 48. Issue: 5. Page Number: 345+ Retrieved Aug. 3, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&showHideToc=0&docId=5000551747&WebLogicSession
v
Brinko, Kathleen T. (1993) “The Practice of Giving Feedback to Improve Teaching: What Is Effective?” Journal of Higher Education. Volume: 64. Issue: 5. Pages: 574+ Retrieved Aug. 11, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000230612
v
Cady, Joan M.(1998) “Reflective Practice Groups in Teacher Induction: Building Professional Community Via Experiential Knowledge” Journal of Education. Volume: 118. Issue: 3. Page Number: 459+ Retrieved June 10, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001330256
v
Centra, John A.(1994) “The Use of the Teaching Portfolio and Student Evaluations for Summative Evaluation” Journal of Higher Education. Volume: 65. Issue: 5. Page Number: 555+ Retrieved June 11, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000278421
v
Collier, Sunya T.(1999) “Characteristics of Reflective Thought During the Student Teaching Experience” Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 50 Retrieved June 11, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001259669
v
Dinkelman, Todd (2003) “Self-Study in Teacher Education: A Means and Ends Tool for Promoting Reflective Teaching” Journal of Teacher Education. Volume: 54. Issue: 1. Page Number: 6+ Retrieved June 7, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000610490
v
-129-
Gierlinger, Erwin “Why reflective teaching is an important issue in language teacher development and why it is even more beneficial on an international levels” Retrieved June 11, 2004 from http://simsim.rug.ac.be/latpflat/CAR/gierlinger.html
v
Giovannelli, Marietta (2003) “Relationship between Reflective Disposition toward Teaching and Effective Teaching” The Journal of Educational Research. Volume: 96. Issue: 5.Page Number: 293+. Retrieved June 11, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001974584
v
Klenowski, Val (2000) “Portfolios: Promoting teaching” Journal of Assessment in Education. .Vol.7, Iss. 2; pages. 215, 23 Retrieved July 1, 2004 from http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:pqd&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journ al&genre=article&rft_dat=xri:pqd:did=000000059081080&svc_
dat=xri:pqil:fmt=html&req_dat=xri:pqil:pq_clntid=64121
v
Lally, Carolyn Gascoigne & Veleba, Kari (2000) “Language Teacher Observation and Reflective Diaries: An Alternate Perspective” Journal of Education. Volume: 121. Issue: 1. Page Number: 106 Retrieved June 25, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001116455
v
Loughran, J. John (2002) “Effective Reflective Practice: In Search of Meaning in Learning about Teaching” Journal of Teacher Education. Volume: 53. Issue: 1. Page Number: 33+ Retrieved June 11, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000686594
v
Marshall, Stephen J. (1998) “Professional Development and Quality in Higher Education Institutions of the 21st Century” Australian Journal of Education. Volume: 42. Issue: 3. Page Number: 321+ retrieved 8 June, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001403795
v
Mastrilli, Thomas & Sardo-Brown, Deborah (2002) “Novice Teachers' Cases: A Vehicle for Reflective Practice” Journal of Education. Volume: 123. Issue: 1. Page Number: 56+ Retrieved Aug. 3, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000653062
v
Merryfield, Merry. (1993) “Reflective teaching in Global Education: Strategies for Teacher Education ” Retrieved July. 23, 2004 from http://www.ascd.org/pdi/demo/globaled/merryfield1.html
v
Norton, Janet Lynn (1997) “Locus of Control and Reflective Thinking in Preservice Teachers” Journal of Education. Volume: 117. Issue: 3. Page Number: 401+ Retrieved July. 23, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000441999
v
Peter, Bodycott & Gayle, Whitson (1992) “Using Feedback and Reflection as v
-130-
Tools in Bridging the Theory-Practice Link in Language Teacher Training at the Primary Level” Retrieved July 18, 2004 from http://www.ericfacility.net/teams/Search.do?action=102 Pryke, Roy (2003) “Education Officers as Reflective Practitioners” Retrieved July 22, 2004 from http://www.virtualstaffcollege.co.uk/download/Exeter%20Paper%20MK2.doc
v
Quinlan, Jane & Clift, Renee T. (2001) “Playing It Safe as a Novice Teacher: Implications for Programs for New Teachers” Journal of Teacher Education Volume: 52. Issue: 5. Page Number: 365+. Retrieved Aug. 11, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000904995
v
Richards, Jack C. (1997) “Reflective teaching in TESOL Teacher Education” Retrieved July 24, 2004 from http://www.ericfacility.net/teams/Search.do?action=102
v
Rodriguez, Yvonne E. Gonzalez & Sjostrom, Barbara R. (1998) “Critical Reflection for Professional Development: A Comparative Study of Nontraditional Adult and Traditional Student Teachers” Journal of Teacher Education. Volume: 49. Issue: 3. Page Number: 177+ Retrieved July 17, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001339934
v
Ross-Gordon, Jovita M. & Ferry, Natalie M. (1998) “An inquiry into Schon's epistemology of practice: Exploring links between experience and reflective practice” Adult Education Quarterly Vol.48, Iss. 2; pg. 98, 15 pgs Retrieved 8 July, 2004 from http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:pqd&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&genre=article&rft_dat=xri:pqd:did=000000025691689&svc_dat=xri:pqil:fmt=text&req_dat=xri:pqil:pq_clntid=64121
v
Stiler, Gary M & Philleo, Thomas. (2003) “Blogging and Blogspots: An Alternative Format for Encouraging Reflective Practice among Preservice Teachers” Journal of Education. Volume: 123. Issue: 4. Page Number: 789+ Retrieved Aug. 7, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001961901
v
Zubizarreta, John (1994) “Teaching Portfolios and the Beginning Teacher” Journal of Phi Delta Kappan. Volume: 76. Issue: 4. Page Number: 323+ Retrieved Aug. 11, 2004 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000292955
v
-131-
Appendix (1) Test construction
Instructions of the test and the questionnaire (3 pages)
Dear trainee teacher
The researcher is working on a research that aims at measuring the level of reflective teaching among trainee teachers of English in Gaza Universities. As a trainee teacher, you are kindly requested to answer the questions of both the test and the questionnaire. The test aims at knowing to what extent the trainee teachers of English in Gaza universities are familiar with the concept of the reflective approach. The questionnaire aims at knowing what do the trainee teachers of English in Gaza universities think about the value of reflective practice in their teaching performance. Please, answer both the test and the questionnaire very carefully in order to help the researcher to obtain correct and true information. Be sure that all information which the researcher collect will be secret and for scientific purposes. Thank you very much for your kind help and serious cooperation. Researcher Mamdouh Khader Ferwana
-132-
Please circle the appropriate answer from a, b, c, and d 1) Reflection in teaching is a process that helps teachers to a) think only about what happened in the classroom. b) think about what happened in the classroom, why it happened and what else could have been do to reach their goals. c) think about what will happen in the classroom. d) think about why it happened in the classroom. 2) The real reflective teacher is a teacher who a) examines, frames and attempts to solve dilemmas in classroom practice. b) takes responsibility for his/her own professional development. c) is attentive to the institutional and cultural contexts in which s/he teaches d) a & b & c. 3) A reflective teacher does not a) discuss teaching events with expertise. b) believe that he can change to the better. d) connect emotion with the teaching events. c) spend much time thinking about new ideas for teaching 4) reflective teachers …… a) should be able to imitate other teachers b) can theorize from their own practice. c) can be provided with some theories, so they can apply them in real teaching situation. d) a & b 5) Active reflection allows teacher to a) plan, decide a course of action and anticipate future consequences of the action.
-133-
b) make sense of past experiences and give new, deeper insight into the meaning of those experiences. c) make immediate right decisions during class. d) b & c 6) Circle the letter of the most appropriate statement. a) there is only one level of reflection in teaching called "the level of teacher's action" b) there are three levels of reflection in teaching. c) there are two levels of reflection in teaching "the theoretical level and ethical/moral one". d) there is not any level for reflection in teaching 7) Which is not a reflective step? a) creating a plan that incorporate new insight b) considering how the situation or activity could have been different c) connecting between emotion and reflection for teaching events d) collecting descriptive data about teaching. 8) Observation of your teaching by yourself is …. a) useful to compare what you did in class with your beliefs about what you should do. b) beneficial to get positive feedback c) very useful to become more aware of what you actually do in the classroom d) a & b & c 9) "Peer observation …… a) is a means to collect only information about teacher's practice. b) I do not know what it means. c) is a very difficult process. d) is a means to develop teacher's practice. 10) Gathering information about teaching practice a) takes a lot of time and effort b) helps to motivate your memory c) is very essential for reflect teachers' practice. d) a & b 11) Are you used to discussing what happened inside the classroom with you colleagues? a) Yes, when we want to spend our spare time. b) Yes, because I follow the reflective approach. c) No, because it will be a tedious conversation. d) No, because I do not want anyone to know my weakness. 12) If you face a problem during teaching, you will a) think which is the best solution for it b) ask some students to solve it.
-134-
c) solve it immediately without thinking d) neglect it
Appendix (2) List of Experts
(1 page)
1. Akram Habib Ph.D in English Literature The Islamic University
2. Awad Keshta Ph.D in Methodology The Islamic University
3. Ezzo Afana Ph.D in Methodology The Islamic University
4. Kamal Mortaja Ph.D in TEFL The Islamic University
5. Mohamad hamdan Ph.D in Methodology Al Aqsa University
6. Nazmi Al Masri Ph.D in TEFL The Islamic University
7. Sadeq Ferwana M.A in TEFL The Islamic University
8. Sanaa Abou Dagga Ph.D in Research and Evaluation The Islamic University
9. Sara Philpot M.A in TEFL London University
10. Walled Amery PhD in Linguistics The Islamic University
-135-
Appendix (3) Questionnaire construction
(1 page) Please check (√) in the appropriate column.
No.
ITEM
Strongly agree A
gree N
o comm
ent D
isagree Strongly
1. Teachers can get a real picture about their performance by practicing reflection in their teaching.
2. Right reflective practice leads to better changes. 3. Professionalism is one on reflective practice aims. 4. Practicality and flexibility can be achieved by
implementing reflection in teaching.
5. when teachers combine experience with reflection, professional growth is certain resulting in effective teaching and learning.
6. there is a positive correlation between reflective teaching and teacher's effectiveness.
7. it is beneficial for teachers to devote time to sit down and think about what they do inside and outside their classroom.
-136-
8. students can benefit as a result of teachers' increased level of reflection.
9. Reflective practice takes time and efforts for little benefits.
10. it is useless to write down about teaching events you face
Appendix (4) Observation card construction:
(2 pages)
Observation card (The first/ second visit)
Student name: ………………….. University: ………………….. Level: ………………….. Date of visit: ………………….. 1- Planning Depending on the trainee teacher's lesson plan, it can be noticed that the trainee teacher…… No. ITEM 1 2 3 4 5 1. Gives a clear idea about the role s/he will take on
during this class.
2. Determines exactly what students should learn from this lesson.
3. Decides what activities will be included in the lesson.
4. Builds on students' previous experience with new material /aims/ challenges.
-137-
5. Organizes the lesson into stages or sections. 6. Determines sufficient time for every stage. 7. Use good evaluation methods to check on students'
understanding.
8. Has alternative plan(s) if problems arise at some phase of the lesson.
9. Makes good use of some past teaching events 2- Operations and roles The observer can attend a class for the trainee teacher and then he can notice that the trainee teacher …….. No. ITEM 1 2 3 4 5 1. Gives clear and easily-understood instructions. 2. Interacts openly with students. 3. Manages discussion and work groups effectively. 4. Has the skill of getting useful feedback. 5. Has the skill to improve his/her teaching according
to the feedback.
6. Directs questions to groups skillfully. 7. Takes some risks by posing provocative questions. 8. Asks students additional reflective questions. 9. Uses technique/s to gather information about his/her
performance. (Such as writing a diary, recording audio or video tapes, using portfolios… etc
10. Spends suitable time on each stage. 11. Can manage students with different ability levels in
the class.
12. Attempts to solve problems that arise in the classroom.
3- Analysis and reactions
-138-
Depending on a discussion with the trainee teacher, it can be noticed that the trainee teacher…… No. ITEM 1 2 3 4 5 1. He is able to judge lesson success or failure. 2. Can determine the strengths and weaknesses of the
lesson.
3. Has the ability to recall gathered information. 4. Has the ability to analyze gathered information. 5. Can benefit from gathered information to develop
his/her professional performance.
6. Decides whether s/he makes sufficient preparation for the lesson.
7. Is able to employ alternative teaching strategies each time he/she meets students.
8. follows supervisors' recommendations.
Appendix (5) Instructions of the observation card:
(4 pages)
بسم اهللا الرحمن الرحيم
السادة المالحظون في التربية العملية حفظهم اهللا السالم عليكم ورحمة اهللا وبركاته
مالحظة طلبة التربية العملية تخصص لغة إنجليزية/ الموضوع
: نجليزية بعنوان يقوم الباحث بإعداد بحث تكميلي لنيل درجة الماجستير في طرق تدريس اللغة اإل
" Level of Reflective teaching among trainee teachers of English in Gaza Universities"
"مستوى التدريس التأملي لدي الطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة"
-139-
حظـة إنه لمن دواعي سرور الباحث أن تكون أحد المالحظين الذين سيساعدون الباحـث فـي مال معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في كليات التربية في جامعات غزة ، والمـسجلين لمـادة ) طالب وطالبات ( الطلبة
.م2005م ـ 2004التربية العملية لهذا العام كما ويرجى التكرم بالعلم بأن الباحث قد أعد ثالث بطاقات ، تقيس كل منها أحد جوانب الدرس، وهي
:على النحو التالي ، ويقصد Planning وهي مرحلة ما قبل الدرس )analysis content sheet(ة تحليل للمحتوى بطاق -1
.بها التخطيط للدرس
، ويقـصد Operations and roles وهي مرحلة أثناء الدرس )observation card(بطاقة مالحظة -2 .بها تنفيذ خطة الدرس داخل الفصل
، ويقصد بها Analysis and reactionsا بعد الدرس وهي مرحلة م)meeting sheet(بطاقة مقابلة -3 .النظرة التأملية لما تم تنفيذه
وقد اهتم الباحث بأن تكون معظم بنود بطاقة المالحظة في المراحل الثالث السابقة كلهـا متعلقـة
)يمكن مراجعة مفهوم التدريس التأملي في نهاية هذا الخطاب( بأسلوب التأمل في التدريس
باستطاعة المالحظ تحديد مستوى التأمل لدى الطالب المعلم من خالل االطالع لمرحلة األولى اففي ، ومن ثم تحديد مستوى التأمل وبأي درجة تبعا للدرجات المعطـاة فـي بطاقـة سعلى دفاتر تحضير الدرو
.)analysis content sheet(تحليل المحتوى اخل الفصل أثناء الدرس ، ومن ثم تحديد مستوى التأمل ، فتكون المالحظة د المرحلة الثانية أما في
.)observation card(وبأي درجة تبعا للدرجات المعطاة في بطاقة المالحظة يمكن للمالحظ قياس المستوى التأملي لدى الطالب المعلم من خالل نقـاش المرحلة األخيرة أما في
مستوى التأمل وبأي درجة تبعا للدرجات المعطاة فـي وحوار يدور حول بنود هذه المرحلة ، ومن ثم تحديد )meeting sheet(بطاقة المقابلة
وبإمكان المالحظ تحديد مستوى التأمل لدى الطلبة المعلمين في المراحل الثالث الـسابقة مـن خـالل :الخيارات الخمس المتاحة في البطاقات ، وهي كالتالي
.بيرة جدا في أداء الطالب المعلم ويعني أن هذه البند متوفر بدرجة ك5رقم - . ويعني أن هذه البند متوفر بدرجة كبيرة في أداء الطالب المعلم 4رقم - . ويعني أن هذه البند متوفر بدرجة متوسطة في أداء الطالب المعلم 3رقم - . ويعني أن هذه البند متوفر بدرجة قليلة في أداء الطالب المعلم 2رقم - .لبند متوفر بدرجة قليلة جدا في أداء الطالب المعلم ويعني أن هذه ا1رقم -
، وذلك حتى تكون عمليـة كما وينبغي مالحظة كل فرد من الطلبة المعلمين مرتين في زيارتين منفصلتين
ويمكن للمالحظ حفظ بطاقة المالحظة لكل طالب في المرتين، وعليه يمكن كتابـة . المالحظة صادقة وثابتة
-140-
وكذلك ضرورة حتى يتم تجميع ومقارنة كل البطاقات الخاصة بكل طالبطاقة المالحظة على باسم الطالب ..اسم الجامعة ، الجنس والمعدل التراكمي) اختياري ( تعبئة البيانات المطلوبة مثل االسم
ويمكن االستعاضة عن األسماء باستخدام الرموز أو األرقام في حال وجود حرج أو إشكاليات معينـة عنـد .تخدام األسماءاس
أعـد كما ويود الباحث أن يلفت انتباه االخوة المالحظين واألخوات المالحظات بأن الباحـث قـد المفهوم ( سؤاال وذلك للتعرف على مدى معرفة الطلبة المعلمين بالتأمل في التدريس 12 مكونا من اختبارا
لبة المعلمون عن جدوى وأهمية تطبيق أسلوب التأمل لمعرفة ماذا يعتقد الط أعد استبيانا ، وكذلك ) والتطبيق .في التدريس وتأثيره على األداء المهني
ويتمنى الباحث أن يقوم الطلبة المعلمون باإلجابة على أسئلة االختبـار واالسـتبيان بكـل صـدق .ظةوموضوعية حتى يخرج الباحث بنتائج صادقة وموضوعية ومتناغمة ومنسجمة مع نتائج بطاقات المالح
وعليه يرجى التكرم بالتأكيد على الطلبة المعلمين بضرورة اإلجابة على أسئلة االختبار واالسـتبيان بكـل .صدق وموضوعية ، وذلك في أول لقاء فقط
..، اسم الجامعة، الجنس والمعدل التراكمي) اختياري ( وكذلك ضرورة تعبئة البيانات المطلوبة مثل االسم
هذه المالحظات موضع اهتمام من جميع المالحظـين والمالحظـات ، وأن يأمل الباحث أن تكون .تكون واضحة بما فيه الكفاية إلنجاح عملية المالحظة على أتم وجه
وال يسع الباحث في الختام إال أن يتقدم بخالص الشكر والتقدير لجميع االخوة المالحظين واألخوات
ائال المولى عـز وجـل أن يجعـل ذلـك فـي ميـزان المالحظات على ما سيذلونه من جهد مشكور ، س .ـن وأن يتقبل من الجميع صالح األعمال/حسناتهم
والسالم عليكم ورحمة اهللا وبركاته
/ الباحث ممدوح خضر فروانة
.يمكن االستزادة من التعرف على التدريس التأملي بقراءة هذه الفقرات
What does Reflective teaching mean?
1- 'Reflective teaching means looking at what you do in the classroom,
thinking about why you do it, and thinking about if it works - a process
-141-
of self-observation and self-evaluation. By collecting information about
what goes on in our classroom, and by analyzing and evaluating this
information, we identify and explore our own practices and underlying
beliefs. This may then lead to changes and improvements in our teaching.'
2- This term is used to describe the way teachers observe their own work and
develop a questioning attitude towards what they do. It encourages them to consider
modifying their teaching strategies, approaches and materials, and to take
responsibility for their own professional development
3- Reflection as process that "helps teachers to think about what happened, why it
happened and what else could have been done to reach their goals"
يعنى التدريس التأملي في األساس بالعملية التعليمية في مراحلها المختلفة ، إذ يعمد المدرس إلـى طريقـة ، ) المالحظـة الذاتيـة ( وضعه خطة الدرس بناء على تأمله لطريقة تدريسه وجمع المعلومات الكافية عنها
.يقة التدريس لديهومن ثم القيام بتحليل تلك المعلومات وتوظيفها في عملية تحسين طروهناك العديد من المهارات التأملية ومنها على سبيل المثال ، المهارة في كيفية جمع المعلومات عن طريـق كتابة وتدوين بعض المالحظات اليومية ، أو التسجيل الصوتي أو المرئي أو استخدام ملف للتوثيق لألمـور
الخ.... التي تحدث في الفصل . يفية إعداد خطة درس مرنة ، وتقسيمها إلى مراحل وإعطاء الوقت الكافي لكل مرحلة وهناك المهارة في ك
ومن المهـارات . وكذلك مهارة التواصل مع الطلبة وحسن استخدام التغذية الراجعة اآلنية في تحسين األداء يلهـا بـشكل المميزة للتدريس التأملي هي القدرة على استرجاع المعلومات عن كل ما حدث في الفصل وتحل
موضوعي على أن يتم االستفادة منها في وضع خطط وبرامج لتحسين األداء والتخلص من السلبيات وتنميـة .اإليجابيات قدر المستطاع
فالتأمل في التدريس البد من قياسه قبل وأثناء وبعد الدرس حتى يتم تحديد مـستوى التأمـل لـدى الطالـب ن ما يقوم به الطالب المعلم هو من خالل تطبيقه لمفهـوم التأمـل فـي المالحظ بدقة ، بحيث يتم التأكد من أ
.التدريس ، وليس تطبيقا عفويا
-142-
Appendix (6) Permissions for applying the study
Official Letters for applying the study (5 pages)
-143-
-144-
-145-
-146-
-147-
-148-
ملخص باللغة العربیة
"مستوى التدريس التأملي لدى الطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة"
ممدوح خضر فروانة/ الباحث إشراف
عوض قشطة/ عزو عفانة الدكتور/ األستاذ الدكتور
في جامعات غزة تهدف هذه الدراسة إلى معرفة مستوى التدريس التأملي لدى الطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية :وذلك من خالل اإلجابة على هذه األسئلة) الجامعة اإلسالمية ـ جامعة األزهر(
ـ ما مدى معرفة الطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة بالتدريس التأملي؟1 ـ ما اعتقادات الطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة حول التدريس التأملي؟2 وى التدريس التأملي لدى الطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة؟ ـ ما مست3 بين مستويات معرفة الطلبة معلمـي (α ≤ 0.05)ـ هل هناك فروق ذات داللة إحصائية عند مستوى 4
اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة بالتدريس التأملي؟ بين مستويات اعتقادات الطلبـة (α ≤ 0.05)ـ هل هناك فروق ذات داللة إحصائية عند مستوى 5
معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة حول التدريس التأملي ؟ بين مستويات ممارسة الطلبة معلمي (α ≤ 0.05)ـ هل هناك فروق ذات داللة إحصائية عند مستوى 6
اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة للتدريس التأملي؟اسـتعمل الباحـث أدوات مختلفـة لجمـع . ع الباحث المنهج الوصفي التحليلـي لتحقيق أهداف الرسالة ، اتب
فأعد اختبارا لإلجابة عن السؤال األول ، واستبانه لإلجابة عن السؤال الثاني ، وبطاقـة . المعلومات المطلوبة .مالحظة مكونة من ثالث مراحل لإلجابة عن السؤال الثالث
استخدم الباحث النسب . طالبا وطالبة ) 66(شوائية من الطلبة بلغت طبق الباحث أدوات الدراسة على عينة ع ، اختبار كوبر، اختبـار ت ، 21المئوية ، المتوسطات، معامل بيرسون ، ألفا كرونباخ ، كودر ريتشاردسون
.واختبار مان وتني ،وذلك لتحليل المعلومات إحصائيا : توصل الباحث إلى النتائج التالية
.لطلبة الجامعتين في مستوى معرفتهم بالتدريس التأمليوجود مستوى متدن - .وجود اعتقاد إيجابي مرتفع حول التدريس التأملي لدى طلبة الجامعتين -
.وجود مستوى متدن لطلبة الجامعتين في مستوى ممارستهم للتدريس التأملي في مراحله الثالثة -
ين مستويات معرفة الطلبـة معلمـي ب(α ≤ 0.05) ال يوجد فروق ذات داللة إحصائية عند مستوى - اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة بالتدريس التأملي
بين مستويات اعتقادات الطلبة معلمـي (α ≤ 0.05) ال يوجد فروق ذات داللة إحصائية عند مستوى - اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة حول التدريس التأملي
-149-
بين مستويات ممارسة الطلبة معلمي (α ≤ 0.05)وى ال يوجد فروق ذات داللة إحصائية عند مست - اللغة اإلنجليزية في جامعات غزة للتدريس التأملي؟
وقدم الباحث عدة توصيات هامة للطلبة معلمي اللغة اإلنجليزية بكليات التربية ، والمـوجهين ومـدراء :المدارس ، ولوزارة التربية والتعليم، وكان من أهم هذه التوصيات ما يلي
التـدريس ( ـ توجيه المعلمين أن يعيدوا النظر في طرق تدريسهم ، وأن يحاولوا تجريب هذا الطريقة 1 .في التدريس الصفي) التأملي
.ـ زيادة اهتمام المعلمين للتعرف على التدريس التأملي على أنه مفتاح لتقدمهم في عملهم2
في مساقات طـرق التـدريس الخاصـة ) التدريس التأملي (ـ تركيز كليات التربية على هذه الطريقة 3 .بإعداد معلم اللغة اإلنجليزية
ـ اهتمام الموجهين ومدراء المدارس بلفت انتباه المعلمين إلى التدريس التأملي ومزاياه وفوائد تطبيقـه 4 .في مجال التدريس
والوقـوف علـى ـ اهتمام وزارة التربية والتعليم بتكثيف األبحاث التربوية لتتناول التدريس التأملي، 5 .مدى أهمية تطبيقه في مدارسنا
ـ إدراك وزارة التربية والتعليم لفوائد التدريس التأملي كخطوة نحو التغييـر اإليجـابي فـي مهنـة 6 .التدريس للوصول إلى الجودة الشاملة في التدريس