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Mager & Pipe’s Performance Analysis Flowchart
WHERE/WHEN
The Performance Analysis Flowchart (PAF) is a tool used to examine an identified performance gap. It should be used during the performance analysis phase of the Human
Performance Technology (HPT) approach to solving performance gaps.
Very often an HPT practitioner will receive a request for training of staff to address a performance problem. In many situations, however, training may not be the best solution to
address a performance issue. In fact, “What people identify as the problem often isn’t the
problem at all. It is merely a symptom of the problem.” (Mager and Pipe, 1984, p. 2) The
Performance Analysis Flowchart created by Mager and Pipe, shown below, is a process for exploring the cause of an identified performance gap. Through a series of questions and
decision points, the tool guides one through checking assumptions about the cause of a
performance issue and identifying potential solutions to improve performance results.
For best results, collect information from stakeholders such as the performer, managers,
and others impacted by the performance. When collecting information, have a conversation
with the individuals involved, but also observe the work environment and work flows to
discover potential impacts to performance.
WHAT/HOW
The PAF uses a standard flowchart format. It starts with identifying the performer and the
performance discrepancy. Early in the process, the question of worth is introduced. Is the performance discrepancy worth
improving? The possibility exists
that leaving performance as is,
while changing expectations of results, is a viable solution. Or, it
may be found that the cost for
fixing performance is greater than
the cost of leaving it as is, so one
might decide it is not worth it. If, instead, it is determined that it is
worth changing the performance,
the flowchart provides
opportunities to explore underlying causes and solutions to
improve the situation.
The PAF includes a number of decision points suggesting a
simple yes-or-no answer. While
the format suggests simplicity,
responses are likely to be more complex in nature. When using
the tool, it will be helpful to be
open to complex answers as well
as the possibility of using
additional tools for analysis. Doing so will create a more systemic
approach to solving performance
issues in an organization.
Figure 1. Mager & Pipe’s Performance Analysis
Flowchart (Rothwell, Hohne, & King, (2007) Figure 2-10, p. 66)
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To assist in the application of the PAF, Mager and Pipe (1997) created a Quick Reference
Checklist. The checklist has been modified here to more clearly identify decision points and
provide a tool for capturing potential solutions. Each decision point is an opportunity to list or identify actions for later consideration as interventions to solve the identified
performance gap.
The Worksheet is arranged as a table with the larger sections aligned with the larger phases of Mager and Pipe’s PAF. The left column is aligned with the decision points in the PAF, with
additional questions to draw out the analysis in the second column. The third column
provides space to make notes as the analysis progresses. At the end of each section, the
space in the third column is reserved for capturing potential action items or future interventions to address the performance issue. These action items are evaluated for
potential impact and sustainability in the last section of the Adapted PAF Worksheet.
While using the Adapted PAF Worksheet, give consideration to the following:
Measures – While defining the problem in the PAF, one must be able to communicate the
performance gap. That is, what is the gap between desirable performance and current
performance? It is important to assign measurable values to performance. Thomas
Gilbert suggests we consider performance in terms of accomplishment. He says, “By accomplishment, we mean the valuable outputs that people leave behind them when
they go home after work.” (1989, p. 5) Identifying performance as a measurable result
will provide clarity and support when selecting a solution and estimating its impact.
Worth – In the early stages of the Performance Analysis Flowchart, one is faced with a
decision to move forward to improve performance or leave the situation as is. After
considering the consequences of the performance discrepancy, consider the
consequences of leaving it alone. “If the result of letting it alone would be negligible, drop it there. If the result is substantially larger than nothing, go to the next steps of the
analysis.” (Mager & Pipe, 1984, p. 22)
Why – Throughout the tool, ask, “Why?” Why is the performance gap a problem? Why is
pursuing a solution important? Apply the 5 Why’s technique to address not just the root cause of a problem, but also the ultimate result or benefit when it comes to considering
interventions. The explanation of the 5 Why’s Technique as described by IMS
International (n.d.) may be useful should “why” opportunities arise.
Adapted PAF Worksheet
Adapted from Mager and Pipe’s Quick Reference Checklist (1997)
Define the Problem Action Steps/Notes
Who has the
performance
issue?
Who is the performer?
What are his/her responsibilities?
Describe the
performance issue.
How is the result of performance measured?
What are the current and preferred performance measures?
Why is the current performance a problem?
Is it worth the time and effort
to improve
performance?
Are there negative consequences if nothing changes?
What are the positive consequences of
improving performance?
Is the preferred performance measure reasonable?
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Decision Point Is it worth the investment to improve performance?
Explain why it is or is not worth moving forward to
improve performance.
Explore Fast Fixes
Are the
expectations clear to the
performer?
Can the performer communicate the
expectations? Does the performer’s understanding of the
expectations match the manager’s
expectations?
Does the performer understand why the expectations exist and where they fit in
organizational goals?
Are the
resources
adequate?
Does the performer have the tools, staff,
time, and supplies needed to perform?
Is performance
quality visible?
Does the performer get feedback?
Can the performer see progress toward the
performance goal?
Is coaching or mentoring available to provide performance feedback?
Decision Point Is there a need to provide clarity about expectations, to provide resources to support
performance, or to seek opportunities to
improve feedback to the performer?
List potential solutions, if any, for clarity, resource
needs, and feedback.
Check Consequences
Is desired performance
punishing?
Does the performer experience or perceive negative consequences for performing at a
desirable level?
Is undesired
performance
rewarding?
Does the performer experience or perceive
positive consequences for not performing as
a desirable level?
Do they gain attention, prestige, or comfort
by not performing?
What motivates
performance?
Does desired performance lead to favorable
consequences for the performer? Are there benefits or positive impacts as a
result of reaching performance goals?
Decision Point Are there any consequences, negative or
positive, which would inspire desirable
performance?
List potential motivation
ideas, if any.
Enhance Competence
Is there a skill deficiency?
If no help were available, could the performer figure out how to accomplish the
task?
Has the skill been performed
in the past?
Has the performer been able to accomplish the task in the past?
Have they ever been successful in the
performance in question?
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Is the skill used often?
How often does the skill get applied? Does the performer forget how to do the task
because it occurs so infrequently?
Decision Point Does the performer really need to learn the steps to completing the task? Does the
performer needed more practice?
If applicable, identify what skill is lacking and/or how
practice would assist
performance.
Can the task be
made easier?
Would a support aid or documentation be
helpful?
Is the workplace or environment conducive to performance?
Can the task be delegated or reassigned?
Can the criteria for success be revised?
Are there
obstacles to
performance?
Is there something in the way of performing
successfully?
Are there conflicting demands on the performer?
Are policies, procedures, or other
organizational constraints holding back
performance?
Does the
performer have
potential to succeed?
Is it likely the individual can learn to perform
successfully?
Does the individual require physical accommodations to perform?
Does the performer have the physical and
mental capacity to perform?
Is the performer over-qualified for the task?
Decision Point Would adjustments, support aids, or other
modifications assist in improving performance?
List any adjustments or
support aids that might be useful for improving
performance.
Intervention Selection
Identify Potential Solutions Refer to the options listed in the Decision Points above.
Have all potential solutions been identified? Do solutions
listed address the gap in performance?
Calculate Costs and Benefits Consider the costs to implement potential interventions:
What are the actual costs to implement? What are the benefits and/or savings as a result of
implementation?
Will a solution address the cause of the performance
gap in more than one of the areas outlined above? Which intervention(s) would have the greatest impact
for the least cost or risk in implementation? In many
cases, interventions that address performance gaps at
the top of the PAF, or worksheet, will have greater impact for lower costs.
Select and Plan Select the intervention(s) that will address the
discrepancy in performance. Create an Action Plan to implement the selected intervention(s). Include evaluation
activities to monitor progress and results.
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CASE STUDY
Background
The New Place Library (NPL) in [Location], serves a small community of 1,527 residents.
The library is staffed by a part-time library director working 22 hours per week; the same
hours the library is open. The library director is, essentially, the manager of a city department with all the same responsibilities such as managing the department budget,
reporting to city council, complying with the state’s laws, and related administrative
functions in addition to serving the customers that use the library. Due to a limited city
budget, the library receives little technical support of the computer systems through the city. Technical support is provided through volunteers or contract services with the library’s
budget.
In order to benefit from programs and services funded by the Library Services and Technology Act (LSTA) administered by the State Library Agency (SLA), the library must
meet LSTA Eligibility Requirements. Compliance is important because the library relies on
other services funded by LSTA to support the summer reading program, access to online
information tools, and eligibility for grant opportunities.
The library, due to LSTA eligibility requirements, is expected to maintain a web presence
with current information about its services. Because many of the libraries in the state lack
the technical support staff for web services, the SLA provides an eBranch service for
publicly-funded libraries. The service provides free hosting of websites for libraries. Libraries making use of the service are provided with website templates using a content management
system that requires little technical expertise to add, remove, or edit content on an existing
site. Staff at the library are trained to update their local content by SLA staff when the
library’s site is launched. Additional one-on-one training is available by request. The SLA maintains content that is consistent across all eBranch sites (e.g. summer reading themes,
online reference databases, and other services delivered statewide through all libraries) in
an effort to ease the workload of library staff and provide consistent branding on statewide
services.
Problem
The library director reached out to staff at the SLA with a request for a workshop on the
eBranch system. While no formal workshops were scheduled, she was informed that one-on-one training is always available upon request. After confirming that the library director
had received the appropriate onboarding training, the SLA consultant inquired if there was a
specific task or issue with which she was having difficulty. The library director then
explained that she finds the system too hard to use, and she forgets how to use it between updates. She was stressed with the situation knowing the library’s website had inaccurate
information. When she tried to make edits, she would end up frustrated by the experience
and quit the task.
Analysis
After the initial conversation between the library director and the SLA consultant, the
consultant scheduled an on-site visit at NPL to learn more about the environment, barriers,
and workflow. In addition to conversation about goals, tools, motivation, support, and process; the consulting visit included observing the work environment as the library director
attempted to make edits to the website. This illuminated certain factors that were not clear
from the conversation alone. Library users were in need of assistance while the consulting
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meeting was taking place, the Director’s computer workstation has a small-sized monitor
that does not fully display the full eBranch interface in administrative mode, and Internet
connectivity slows when the library is busy with users. The consultant also met with the staff at the SLA charged with coordinating the eBranch service.
Using information collected during the consulting visits, the Adapted PAF Worksheet was
completed as follows:
Adapted PAF Worksheet
Define the Problem Action Steps/Notes
Who has the
performance
issue?
Who is the performer?
What are his/her responsibilities?
The library director
In addition to the
other duties of her position, she is
responsible for
maintaining a current
website.
Describe the
performance
issue.
How is the result of performance measured?
What are the current and preferred
performance measures? Why is the current performance a problem?
The website has
inaccurate, outdated
information because she is unable to
remember how to add
or edit content using
the content management system
(CMS) provided by the
web hosting service.
The measure is either true or false. The
website is or is not
current.
An outdated website is
a poor reflection of the library
Without a current
website, the library
may be ineligible for some grant funded
services
Without an accurate
website, community members cannot
interact with library
services during closed
hours.
Is it worth the
time and effort
to improve performance?
Are there negative consequences if nothing
changes?
What are the positive consequences of improving performance?
Is the preferred performance measure
reasonable?
If nothing changes,
community members
will not have accurate information about
library hours, program
schedules, and links to
interact with library services.
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The SLA is not likely to cut off access to
services because of an
out of date website;
they are more concerned with
helping the library to
reach customers and
provide quality services.
The situation
experienced by the
NPL is not unique; other small libraries
have expressed similar
frustrations. There is
an opportunity to help
other libraries, too. The measure, to have
an up to date website,
is reasonable
Decision Point Is it worth the investment to improve
performance?
Having an inaccurate or
nonexistent website for
the library is not an option, so improving
performance is desirable.
Additionally, because NPL
is representative of a number of libraries of
similar size and situation,
any solutions resulting in
improved performance for
the one could be applied to other libraries for
improved service.
Explore Fast Fixes
Are the
expectations clear to the
performer?
Can the performer communicate the
expectations? Does the performer’s understanding of the
expectations match the manager’s
expectations?
Does the performer understand why the expectations exist and where they fit in
organizational goals?
The expectations are
understood – maintain a current website.
The importance of the
expectation is also
understood.
Are the
resources
adequate?
Does the performer have the tools, staff,
time, and supplies needed to perform?
Staff time is severely
limited.
She is only able to
work on the website
during open hours, so interruptions are
frequent
There is not enough
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funding for additional staff or contracting
No supplies are
needed
The SLA provides the content management
system and web
hosting at no charge.
The computer workstation has a
small monitor, which
skews or hides some
menu options in the CMS interface creating
a confusing view.
Is performance
quality visible?
Does the performer get feedback?
Can the performer see progress toward the
performance goal?
Is coaching or mentoring available to provide
performance feedback?
Feedback is provided
when customers notice
that information isn’t
available.
Director is aware of the current status of
the website as it is
used/accessed often
when she assists customers.
The SLA performs an
evaluation of all library
websites every other year to evaluate their
own goal of helping
libraries sustain a web
presence, but
feedback (to correct or commend) is not
regularly reported
back to the individual
libraries.
Decision Point Is there a need to provide clarity about
expectations, to provide resources to support performance, or to seek opportunities to
improve feedback to the performer?
List potential solutions, if
any, for clarity, resource needs, and feedback.
Staff – funding for
additional staff, or SLA
staff could perform updating as part of
eBranch service
Free up time by
creating efficiencies
elsewhere in her task list
Schedule work time
when the library is
closed for difficult tasks
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SLA staff could provide more feedback to
library when site is
doing well and
suggestions for updates when content
falls behind.
A larger monitor for
the staff workstation would be helpful for
interacting with the
content management
system
Check Consequences
Is desired
performance
punishing?
Does the performer experience or perceive
negative consequences for performing at a
desirable level?
Due to the time it
takes to remember
how to make updates,
she is pulled from
other important tasks in her work day
Is undesired performance
rewarding?
Does the performer experience or perceive positive consequences for not performing as
a desirable level?
Do they gain attention, prestige, or comfort
by not performing?
There is no prestige for not performing.
The only positive
consequence for not
updating the site is that her time can be
spent on other tasks.
She is frustrated by
the outdated content
What motivates
performance?
Does desired performance lead to favorable
consequences for the performer?
Are there benefits or positive impacts as a result of reaching performance goals?
Continued access to
grant funds and LSTA-
funded services is the only real motivation,
aside from the
knowledge of having
done a good job.
Decision Point Are there any consequences, negative or
positive, which would inspire desirable performance?
List potential motivation
ideas, if any. She would be more
motivated to make the
updates if it were
perceived as easier The SLA could reward
or provide public
recognition of great
websites as motivation
Enhance Competence
Is there a skill deficiency?
If no help were available, could the performer figure out how to accomplish the
task?
With time and assistance, she could
accomplish the task
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eventually.
Has the skill
been performed in the past?
Has the performer been able to accomplish
the task in the past? Have they ever been successful in the
performance in question?
She has successfully
updated the website in the past
Is the skill used
often?
How often does the skill get applied?
Does the performer forget how to do the task
because it occurs so infrequently?
Updates do not
happen frequently.
Due to time between
edits, the steps to make edits are
forgotten.
Decision Point Does the performer really need to learn the
steps to completing the task?
Does the performer needed more practice?
If applicable, identify what
skill is lacking and/or how
practice would assist
performance. Create a regular
schedule for updating,
reviewing, or editing
the website to keep
skills honed.
Can the task be
made easier?
Would a support aid or documentation be
helpful? Is the workplace or environment conducive
to performance?
Can the task be delegated or reassigned?
Can the criteria for success be revised?
Online screencasts are
available for basic editing tasks, but are
not useful to her when
she’s also updating
online. She prefers print documentation.
A manual is available
online, but it is out of
date and perceived as too technical.
There is no other staff
to delegate to, and
volunteers are
inconsistent The SLA is tied to the
criteria of defined for a
current website, and
feels the current definition is the bare
minimum
Her workspace is in a
public place, so interruptions are
frequent and ability to
concentrate is difficult.
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Are there obstacles to
performance?
Is there something in the way of performing successfully?
Are there conflicting demands on the
performer?
Are policies, procedures, or other
organizational constraints holding back performance?
The city will not provide additional
funding to permit work
hours outside of open
library hours.
The frustrating experience impacts
her confidence in her
own abilities
Does the
performer have
potential to succeed?
Is it likely the individual can learn to perform
successfully?
Does the individual require physical accommodations to perform?
Does the performer have the physical and
mental capacity to perform?
Is the performer over-qualified for the task?
She has the ability to
perform the tasks,
having done it in the past.
She performs better
when a coach or
trainer walks her through it.
There are no physical
or mental constraints
to keep her from
performing the task.
Decision Point Would adjustments, support aids, or other
modifications assist in improving performance?
List any adjustments or
support aids that might be useful for improving
performance.
Printed support
documentation with step-by-step
instructions and
images would be
welcome Uninterrupted time to
perform tasks would
be helpful, though
unrealistic
Intervention Selection
Identify Potential Solutions Refer to the options listed in the Decision Points above. Have all potential solutions been identified? Do solutions
listed address the gap in performance?
The SLA is planning to update the content
management system. The update is currently being tested. EBranch users will have the option to move to
the new system.
Calculate Costs and Benefits Consider the costs to implement potential interventions:
The NPL does not have any funds to put toward a
solution.
The SLA has an established budget with some
flexibility to move funds, but not increase funds. Staff time is considered a cost or investment. The NPL
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does not have additional staff time to devote to the tasks. SLA staff does have flexibility to add or adjust
workloads.
Any solution should focus on building the capacity of
the libraries to sustain a web presence versus doing it for them.
Intervention Selection
The following potential solutions were identified during the consulting visit and application of
the Adapted PAF Worksheet:
Revise library director’s schedule to add work time when the library is not open
Assign SLA staff to perform site maintenance for libraries using the eBranch service.
Review library director’s schedule and workflow to find time savings SLA performs more regular evaluations to provide feedback and encouragement to
eBranch site users
Upgrade library director’s computer workstation with a larger monitor
Adjust administrative interface settings in the content management system to scale
with display size Simplify the editing process; use a system with easier editing tools
SLA create a public recognition program for eBranch sites
Establish a schedule for regular review, updates, and editing on the website for more
regular practice Create printable support documentation with step-by-step instructions and images
demonstrating how to add, remove, and edit eBranch content.
During consultation with the NPL director and SLA staff, it was determined that any selected solution should:
be free for the library,
result in no additions to the current SLA budget,
extend to or be replicated for other eBranch users, and
be sustainable long term for the eBranch service.
Initial application of the selection criteria was narrowed to those listed below, then ranked
from six to one by lowest cost, most sustainable long term, and greatest impact to all
eBranch site users.
Potential Intervention Cost Rank
(6=low,
1=high)
Sustainability (6=long,
1=short)
Impact to All eBranch
users
(6=high,
1=low)
Total Score
Rank
SLA performs more regular
evaluations to provide feedback and encouragement to eBranch
site users.
6 5 3 14
Adjust administrative interface settings in the content
management system to scale with
display size.
2 4 2 8
Simplify the editing process; use
a system with easier editing tools. 1 6 6 13
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Create a public recognition program for eBranch sites.
4 2 4 10
Establish a schedule for regular review, updates, and editing on
the website for more regular
practice.
5 1 1 7
Create printable support
documentation with step-by-step
instructions and images demonstrating how to add,
remove, and edit eBranch
content.
3 3 5 11
By ranking the factors, three intervention ideas rose to the top. The three interventions will
be explored further with stakeholders to create an action plan. The interventions below, with recommendations, will be presented to the Web Team at the Idaho SLA for Libraries,
so a plan of action can be developed collaboratively.
Interventions and Recommendations
SLA performs more regular evaluations to provide feedback and encouragement to
eBranch site users.
o The SLA performs a periodic review of all public library websites to measure
the output target of 75% of public libraries maintaining a web presence as identified in the SLA’s Strategic Plan. (Idaho SLA for Libraries, 2014a) This
review is not regularly scheduled.
o Recommendation 1: Complete the review annually. Share total results with
the entire library community. Share individual results with each library to let them know how well they are meeting the web presence criteria.
Simplify the editing process; use a system with easier editing tools.
o The Web Team at the SLA is already testing a new content management
system with a reported simpler user interface.
o Recommendation 2: Implement as soon as feasible. Create printable support documentation with step-by-step instructions and images
demonstrating how to add, remove, and edit eBranch content.
o The SLA’s Web Team indicates that when the new content management
system is released, instructional screencasts will be provided. o Recommendation 3: In addition to screencasts, Web Team should work with
SLA staff who are trained in developing instructional content to create
printable instructions for the most common tasks performed in the interface.
Evaluation o A number of potential solutions were identified using the Adapted PAF
Worksheet, some requiring funding that is not currently available.
Interventions that did not become recommendations for funding, staffing, or
other reasons, should not be excluded from future consideration if it is determined during evaluation that the performance discrepancy persists.
o Recommendation 4: Include an evaluation component in the action plan that
invites follow-up from the library director of NPL and additional input from
other eBranch library users. The evaluation component should consider
performance results at NPL, input from other eBranch libraries, and results from annual website reviews.
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References
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