Management 11e John Schermerhorn
Chapter 15Chapter 15
Motivation TheoryMotivation Theoryand Practiceand Practice
Planning Ahead — Chapter 15 Study Questions
1. How do individual needs influence motivation?
2. What are the process theories of motivation?
3. What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
4. What is the link between job design and motivation?
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Needs Unfulfilled physiological and psychological
desires of an individual Explain workplace behavior and attitudes Create tensions that influence attitudes and
behavior Good managers and leaders facilitate
employee need satisfaction
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Hierarchy of needs theory Developed by Abraham Maslow Lower-order and higher-order needs affect
workplace behavior and attitudes Lower-order needs:
Physiological, safety, and social needs Desires for physical and social well being
Higher-order needs: Esteem and self-actualization needs
Desire for psychological growth and development
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Figure 15.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Hierarchy of needs theory Deficit principle
A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior
Progression principle A need at one level does
not become activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
ERG theory Developed by Clayton Alderfer Three need levels
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
ERG theory Any/all needs can influence behavior at one
time Frustration-regression principle
An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Two-factor theory Developed by Frederick Herzberg Hygiene factors:
Elements of the job context Sources of job dissatisfaction
Satisfier factors: Elements of the job content Sources of job satisfaction and motivation
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory Developed by David McClelland People acquire needs through their life
experiences Needs that are acquired:
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory Need for Achievement (nAch)
Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks
People high in (nAch) prefer work that: Involves individual responsibility for results Involves achievable but challenging goals Provides feedback on performance
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory Need for Power (nPower)
Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people
Personal power versus social power
People high in (nPower) prefer work that: Involves control over other persons Has an impact on people and events Brings public recognition and attention
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory Need for Affiliation (nAff)
Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons
People high in (nAff) prefer work that: Involves interpersonal relationships Provides for companionship Brings social approval
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Process theories of motivation … How people make choices to work hard or not Choices are based on:
Individual preferences Available rewards Possible work outcomes
Types of process theories: Equity theory Expectancy theory Goal-setting theory
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Equity theory Developed by J. Stacy Adams When people believe that they have been
treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation Perceived inequity Perceived equity
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Equity theory People respond to perceived negative
inequity by changing … Work inputs Rewards received Comparison points Situation
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Managerial implications of equity theory— Underpaid people experience anger Overpaid people experience guilt Perceptions of rewards determine motivational
outcomes Negative consequences of equity comparisons
should be minimized, if not eliminated Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source
of equity controversies in the workplace Gender equity Comparable worth
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Expectancy theory Developed by Victor Vroom Key expectancy theory variables:
Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance
Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards
Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Expectancy theory Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality
(I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:
Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Managerial implications of expectancy theory— To maximize expectancy, managers should:
Select workers with ability Train workers to use ability Support work efforts Clarify performance goals
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Managerial implications of expectancy theory— To maximize instrumentality, managers
should: Clarify psychological contracts Communicate performance-outcome possibilities Identify rewards that are contingent on
performance
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Managerial implications of expectancy theory— To maximize valence in a positive direction,
managers should: Identify individual needs Adjust rewards to match individual needs
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Goal-setting theory Developed by Edwin Locke Properly set and well-managed task goals
can be highly motivating Motivational effects of task goals:
Provide direction to people in their work Clarify performance expectations Establish a frame of reference for feedback Provide a foundation for behavioral self-
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Goal-setting theory Participation in goal setting
unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting management by objectives (MBO) promotes
participation when participation is not possible, workers will
respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Self-Efficacy Theory a person’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task Capability directly affects motivation
higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Self-Efficacy Theory Enactive mastery
person gains confidence through positive experience
Vicarious modeling learning by observing others
Verbal persuasion encouragement from others that one can perform a task
Emotional arousal high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Fundamentals of reinforcement theory Focuses on the impact of external
environmental consequences on behavior Law of effect — impact of type of
consequence on future behavior
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Operant conditioning: Developed by B.F. Skinner Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Operant conditioning strategies: Positive reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence
Negative reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Operant conditioning strategies: Punishment
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence
Extinction Decreases the frequency of a behavior through
the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on Law of contingent reinforcement —
Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited
Law of immediate reinforcement — More immediate the delivery of a reward, the
more reinforcement value it has
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Schedules of reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each
time a desired behavior occurs Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only
periodically Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous
reinforcement Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is
more permanent Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Guidelines for using punishment: Tell the person what is being done wrong Tell the person what is being done right Match the punishment to the behavior Administer punishment in private Follow laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement
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Figure 15.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Job A collection of tasks performed in support of
organizational objectives
Job design The process of creating or defining jobs by
assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups
Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Job simplification Standardizing work procedures and
employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks
Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth
Automation Total mechanization of a job Most extreme form of job simplification
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Figure 15.6 Basic job design alternatives
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Job rotation and job enlargement: Expands job scope Job rotation
Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments
Job enlargement Increases task variety by combining two or more
tasks previously assigned to separate workers Horizontal loading
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Job enrichment Building more opportunities for satisfaction
into a job by expanding its content Increases job depth by adding work planning
duties normally performed by a supervisor
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Job characteristics model Satisfaction and performance are influencec
by three critical psychological states: Experienced meaningfulness of work Experienced responsibilities for work outcomes Knowledge of actual results of work activities
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
The three critical psychological states are influenced by five core job characteristics: Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
How to improve core job characteristics: Form natural units of work Combine tasks Establish client relationships Open feedback channels Practice vertical loading
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Figure 15.7 Designing jobs using the core characteristics model
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Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90.
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Flexible working hours Any work schedule that gives employees
some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours Core time — all employees must be at work Flextime — allows employees to schedule around
personal and family responsibilities
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Potential benefits of flexible working hours: People have greater autonomy in work
scheduling while ensuring maintenance of work responsibilities
Organizations can attract and retain employees who have special non-work responsibilities
Worker morale may be improved
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Compressed workweek Allows a full-time job to be completed in less
than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting
costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially improved performance
Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family adjustment problems, increased scheduling problems, possible customer complaints, and union opposition
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Job sharing One full-time job is split between two or more
persons
Work sharing An agreement between employees to cut
back their work hours to avoid layoffs or termination
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Potential advantages of work sharing Trained and loyal workers can be retained
while temporarily cutting labor costs Continued work but with reduced earnings
for those who would otherwise be laid off
Potential disadvantages of work sharing Employees who might otherwise be
protected by seniority may suffer an income loss
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Telecommuting A work arrangement that allows a portion of
scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office
Hoteling Virtual offices
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Potential advantages of telecommuting: Freedom from
Constraints of commuting Fixed hours Special work attire Direct contact with supervisors
Increased productivity Fewer distractions Being one’s own boss Having more personal time
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Potential disadvantages of telecommuting: Working too much Having less personal time Difficulty in separating work and personal life Less time for family Feelings of isolation Loss of visibility for promotion Difficulties supervising
work-at-home employees from a distance
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Contingency workers Part-time workers who supplement the full-
time workforce, often on a long-term basis
Part-time work Work done on any schedule less than the
standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?
Implications of part-time work: Provides employers with flexibility in
controlling labor costs and dealing with cyclical labor demands
Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive
Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits
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