Download - Management control systems jsb 606 part2
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Management ControlSystems
Part 2
Debasis DasExemplar Consultancy
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Designing The Control Process & Managerial
Controls
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Attributes of Systems-1• System
– Association of parts related to each other• Managerial Control System
– Interrelated communication structures that help managers achieve organization purpose. Sub units linked in a Macrostructure
• Autonomy– Local decision making capabilities
• Feedback– Positive & negative
• Controls/Homeostats(Self-regulating)• Entropy (chaos & uncertainty)
– Systems to deteriorate and become chaotic
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Attributes of Systems-2
• Control– Through control of key variables, measure
values, feedback to reduce chaos & uncertainty
• Cause & effect– Measurements and changes
• Adaptive– Not all responses could be defined beforehand
• Learning– Find and learn to find answers
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Cybernetic ParadigmOf Control
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HumanbrainInputs
Outputs
Not- understood processes
Probabilistic, highly complex
Insights from Cybernetics used to design controls and control systems
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Cybernetic Paradigmof
Control Process
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Perception
Goals
Behaviorchoice
Comparator
Behaviorrepertoire
Valuepremises
Factualpremises
Effector
Sensor
EnvironmentDecisionmaker
Feedback
Griesinger 1979
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Essential Elements of Repetitive Control
System• Set goals and performance measures• Measure achievement• Compare achievement with goals• Compute variances• Report variances• Determine causes of variance• Take action to eliminate variance• Follow up to ensure goals are met
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Designing Management Controls-1
• Establishing controls is a constructive process• Objectives should be measurable• Controls should focus on objectives and key
results, limited in number• Controls should establish balance rather than
financial alone• Single point responsibility• Compare projected performance to actual
performance to derive control actions for the next period
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Designing Management Controls-2
• Look for early warning predictors • May be possible and desirable to sample the
variable• Establish an acceptable range of variations for
variables• Focus on exceptions to desired result and report to
the person responsible ASAP• Severity of problem should be confirmed
independently monitor and confirm control is working
• Develop a discerning view of controls, apply judgment and interpreting results
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Means-Ends Analysis
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2
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G11 G12 G13 G43…………………………………………………………………..
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Control Process Relating Superior-Subordinate
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Superior Control System
Subordinate Control System
Interconnection BetweengoalsBehavior repertoire
Feedback from superior effector
Superior goal affects the subordinate goalsSuperior behavior repertoire can influence the subordinate effectorFeedback from the superior enters the subordinate system through the sensor
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Decentralization, Loose Coupling &
Organizational Slack
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Need For Decentralization
• Decision making capability of humans is limited
• Limited to 7 + or minus 2 chunks of information
• Decentralizing decision making is a must, establish sub-goals, hold each decision maker to a small part of the organization purpose.
• Decision makers must find ways to deal with the complexity
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Loose Coupling
• A multiplicity of goals & objectives• A sub-units local set is derived from the
means-end chain• MCS must knit the sub-units together to
bring unity in diversity• Decentralization means profit, ROI and
other corporate goals enter indirectly through the means-end chain indirectly
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Organizational Slack
• If a firm is successful in achieving its goals & objectives, there may not be pressure for increasing coupling between goals & objectives of sub-units.
• Difference between total payments and necessary payments is the organizational slack. Includes costly support services, extra inventories and extra time to market.
• However, acts as cushion against variability, extra resources for innovation and adaptation
• Combined overreaching goals, mixed teams can help trim the slack
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Stakeholder Controls
• One primary function of executive: take contributions of a stakeholder, convert to inducements sufficient to maintain their co-operation for org goals & objectives. Do it efficiently as competition exists.
• Identify stakeholders that are crucial. The ones that affect the org most and the ones the org affects most.
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Communication Structures Supporting
the control Process• Formal/informal scanning of the environment of the sub-
unit (both internal and external)• Feedback from external scanning, performance
measurement from internal accounting• Internal accounting can provide comparison, provide
reports• Decision making procedures• Planning processes
– Strategic planning– Business planning– Long-range planning (programming)– Operating budget
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Impact of IT on Control Systems
• Bringing unity out of diversity– Order entry and inventory management– Speadsheets for what-if scenarios– Performance measurements
• Providing inputs to operational & strategic decision making– Decrease in cost of information processing
helping activity based costing (ABC)– Improved inventory control makes monitoring
of customer demands possible
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Micro, Intermediate, Macro
Frameworks-1
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Micro framework
Perception
Goals
Behaviorchoice
Comparator
Behaviorrepertoire
Valuepremises
FactualpremisesSensor
EnvironmentDecisionmaker
Griesinger 1979
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Micro, Intermediate, Macro
Frameworks-2
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InfrastructureManagement
Style & Culture
Coordination & Integration
Rewards
Formal Control Process
Intermediate Framework
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Micro, Intermediate, Macro
Frameworks-3
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Improvements
Status
PerformanceMeasures
ExternalEnvironment
(Uncontrollable)
External
Internal
CriticalSuccess factors& impediments
IdealStakeholders
Goals & Strategies
ENTITY
X
++
ManagementSystemsInitial
Conditions
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Key Success Variables in MCS
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Key Variable(Key Budgeting Factors)
• Indicators or variables that influence business in a big way
• Small change in these factors causes big changes in business
• External– Technology, environment, competitive
situation• internal
– Tasks, strategy
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Interrelations-Internal & External factors
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External BusinessEnvironment
InternalCharacter
StakeholdersIndustry
Character
Significant Functions
Objective of Business
CorporateStrategy
Competitors
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Key Variables & Sources
• External factors ->nature of business, types of stakeholders, competitors
• Internal factors->task, industry character, significant function, strategy
• Nature of Business- environment• Stakeholders-nature of stakeholders and risk
taking• Competitors-substitutes and complements• Objective- competitive strategy• Industry character- Business environment
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Identification of Key Variables
• Identification through input-output analysis (classify variables)– Input– Production– Marketing & selling– Liability management– Asset management
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Input
• QTC analysis• Q for quality• Time or time to availability• Cost or cost of the input• Product leadership (including
support) depends on the QTC of the raw materials
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Production
• Production processes– Quality processes ensure product quality
• Technology– Technology for superior product, technology
transfer issues, easy and long time support• Cost of production
– Infrastructure cost, engineering cost, discretionary cost
• Time schedule & delivery– Important in most industries, particularly for perishable
goods
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Marketing & Selling
• Selling information– Ordering position– Maturity schedule of credit sales
• Marketing information– Market share– Ad & promotion expenses
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Liability Management
• Cost of borrowing– Operating profit over cost of capital– EAV, economic value added
• Nature of capital– Risk is proportional to cost of
participation– Budeget needs to take the nature of
capital into account
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Asset Management
• Higher the turnover the better– fixed– Current
• Working capital turnover ratio is important
• Total asset turnover ratio
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Key Variable Classification
• Environmental variables– Determines scope, diversity, uncertainty
associated with business• Strategy variables
– Affects long term goals & values• Process variables
– Variables affecting interaction between employees and the processes
• Structure variables– Centralized and decentralized reporting structure & how
they affect processes
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Key Variables-Ensuring Control
• Across the board control required• Identify sufficient number of key
variables to achieve that• Easy to measure key variables may
not be meaningful• Multivariate techniques such as
factoring or cluster analysis can lead to key variables
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Key Control Indicators & Control Mechanism
• Ability of control mechanism is indicated by efficiency and effectiveness of key variables
• Effective Coordination necessary• Businesses with multiple profit and
responsibility centers must have key indicators representative of these centers
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Techniques to identify
• Traditional techniques– Observation of deviation method– Mean reduction techniques
• Modern techniques (statistical methods)– Regression analysis– Factor & cluster analysis
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Limitations of Key Variables Analysis
• Absence of consensus among managers
• Absence of proper scale of measure, absence of clarity
• Dependence on quantitative data and ignoring qualitative information
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Designing MCS
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Introduction
• Understand the environment• Understand the hierarchy of control
flow• Leads to goal congruence• Users should be able to appreciate &
internalize the goals
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Process of Designing
• Identify org hierarchy• Understand the process of the business• Establish linkages between stakeholders
towards goal congruence• Establish information flow between
departments and sub-units• Design the system• Implement the system
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Identifying Hierarchy
• Org hierarchy supports the control system
• Depends on org structure• Often a standard is available in
industry, study that• There may be a need for changing
the hierarchy
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Understanding Business Process
• Centralized– Decisions follow top down, operational data
flow bottom up• Decentralized• Substantial decision making power at sub-unit
– Operational data and information flow, either way
• Matrix– Top down, bottom up and across op data and decision
flow
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Establishing Linkagestoward goal congruence
• General goals– Profit, profitability, wealth creation
• Specific goals– Specific to business
• Keep stakeholders informed• Establishing goals
– Establish general purpose– Establish specific modalities– Identify exact goals to deliver above two
• Enabling congruence– Task & job description
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Formal Info System Flow
• Proper information flow essential between subunits– Designing information system
• Requirement study, Analysis, design & develop the info system, test and implement
– Form design (info report)• Understanding the purpose, compressing
data to fit, delivering the form, enabling tabulation facility
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Designing the Control System
• Open end control system– The control system loop is such that info
flow between subsystems, particularly assessor and feedback systems
• Closed end control system– Correction in one direction– No interaction between feed back
system and assessor system independently
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Open End Control
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Input System
AssessorControl
device/System
Feedback device/system
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Closed End Control
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Input System
AssessorControl
device/System
Feedback device/system
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Implementation Techniques
• Sharp Cut-off
• Parallel run
• Phased implementation
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Implementation Process
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DevelopControlsystem
Implement Controlsystem
BuildControlSystem
UseControlSystem
Is itAdequate?
Yes
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Organizing, Strategy&
Control
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Introduction
• Control system helps goal congruence
• System should help implement strategy
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Goals & Objectives-Boundary Constraints
• Goal & Objectives are the boundary conditions
• Goals & objectives may change• These reflect short term as well as
long-term needs. Design needs to take into account both.
• Goals & objectives may translate into conflicts. Design must take care these do not cause problems
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Strategy-Pathway
• Strategies-processes through which internal/external environment changes are dealt with
• Strategy-broken down into tasks. Operational strategies make them realizable.
• Strategy is the blueprint used to design the control system
• System corrects itself through multiple feedback mechanisms.
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Strategy Evaluation
• Criteria to evaluate strategy– Internal consistency– External and environmental consistency– Applicability in view of resources
available– Risks associated– Time frame of implementation and
result orientation– usefulness
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Behavioral Aspects
• Perception• Attitudes & beliefs• Motivation• Goal congruence• Sub unit conflict and resolution• Managerial styles• Resistance to change• Entrapment• Compromising & sacrificing• Socio-cultural influences
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Perception
• Interaction by personnel and
managers with the control system
generates a perception of the system
• Seriousness of management is
gauged from this perception
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Attitudes & Beliefs
• Attitudes and beliefs of managers and employees are the result of the culture and background they come from
• These attitudes and beliefs serve as reference and benchmark for the system in the long run
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Motivation
• Motivation of managers decide the drive to use the system
• Motivation comes from two sources– Personal factors (Maslow)– Power centric needs– People seek positive affirmation of
performance
• Control system must have positive reinforcement built-in to succeed
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Goal Congruence• Individuals work towards their own
goals• Organization needs to fulfill its own• To ensure the two synergize, strong
motivation and clear roadmaps are needed
• Success of the control system hinges on how close these two could be brought
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Sub unit Conflict & Resolution
• Sub units may have conflicting goals• Competition for resources exist• Cannibalization by sub units may
happen• Transfer pricing and ERP solutions
mitigates the problems• Coordination committees can help
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Managerial Styles
• Style can range from autocratic to
participative/democratic
• An effective blend is used in practice.
• The business determines what blend
is to be used
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Force Field Analysis
• According to Kurt Lewin two forces create conflicts in an individual
• Facilitating force enable an individual• Inhibiting force opposes the
facilitating force• These conflicts need to be resolved
by review meetings at sub unit levels
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Resistance to Change
• A large organization does not like to
change
• It is apprehensive of change
• Control system designer needs to be
aware of this and minimize the same
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Entrapment
• Being trapped due to own decision• Sometimes bad decisions taken is
not reversed as it will show the manager took a bad decision
• Multiple feedback mechanism enables the system/organization to weigh good and bad side and take a balanced view
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Compromising & Sacrificing
• Sometimes compromising decisions (most satisfying) are taken due to pressure groups. These decisions may not be the most effective
• Sometimes a sacrificing attitude is necessary to change the course of business or to develop a business
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Socio-Cultural Influences
• Social and cultural influences the
workers grew up with influences the
attitude to work
• These influences affect the way a
control system works
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Joint Goals through Responsibility Centers
• Set up goals jointly by management
and workers
• Management by objective (MBO)
• Set up business centers that are
responsibility of individual managers
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Responsibility Centers
• Revenue centers– Where revenues are generated
• Expense centers– Difficult to assess monetary value of output,
costs of inputs available• Profit centers
– Input and output value can be assessed, maximize profit
• Investment centers– Assets are created, control on input and output
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Cost Patterns
• Discretionary costs– Management related costs, discretion of
management, 40 to 60 percent of cost of business
• Engineered costs– About 30%, input, output relationships can be
measured (profit centers)• Infrastructure costs
– Costs that have concrete outcome in the long term
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Costs Across Value Chain
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R&D ProductionDesign Marketing
Discretionary Costs
Infrastructure costs
Engineered Costs
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Benchmarking
• Checking against other businesses for implementing best practices
• Compare processes• Could be one time or a continuous
process
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Advantages of Benchmarking
• Better understanding of wants (expectations) of customers
• Better economic planning of purposes
• Increase in productivity• Better current practices and search
for change• Better competitiveness
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Collaborative Benchmarking
• Identify problem areas• Identify other industries that have similar
processes• Identify organizations that are leaders• Survey companies for measures & practices• Visit “best practices” companies, identify
leading edge practices• Implement new and improved business
practices
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Cost of Benchmarking
• Visit costs
• Time costs
• Benchmarking database costs
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Organizational Infrastructure,
Organizational Design and Control Systems
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Centralization vs. Decentralization
• Depends on size of organization and span of control
• Decentralized organization works better in terms of goal congruence
• A manager operates better in decentralized form as it provides continuous learning & improvement
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Control Factors in Organizational Design
• Three factors that decide organizational design are– Coordination
• Centralized organization is best in terms of coordination, in decentralized organization functional managers handle the extra cost and bottlenecks, Matrix organization functional managers collaborate to develop coordination
– Cost Effectiveness• Multiple channels in decentralized system increases efficiency,
centralized system costs increase due to rework, making decisions repeatedly. Matrix works best in keeping costs optimal. Flat organization, motivation, coordination
– Communication• Decentralized: bottom up, loaded with market reality but devoid of
strategy. Centralized: top down, devoid of market reality, Matrix: most effective
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Adaptive Control & Adaptive Organization
• Environmental uncertainty
• Environmental complexity
• Environmental diversity
• Environmental Hostility
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Characteristics of Adaptive
Organization• Implicit Control System
• Training & Development
• Integrity of individual & Organization
• Global standards
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Divisional Autonomy
• Flexibility, creativity and innovation in operation and execution
• Degree & dimension of the autonomy is decided by style of management & processes used
• Involvement of functional managers, trust and confidence
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Responsibility Centers & Performance Measures
• Measure efficiency and effectiveness– Efficiency is like measuring productivity– Effectiveness measure is measuring
against targets, goals
• Measuring efficiency by ROI• Establishing an inter-profit center
Relationship
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Approaches to MCS
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Theory of Contingency, Theory of Universalism
• Technology
• Organizational structure
• Environment
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Strategy & Control Systems
• Without strategic plans
• With strategic plans
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Business w/o Strategic Plans
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Option a
Option b
Option c
Option d
BudgetThe
Business
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Business with Strategic Plan
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Option a
Option b
Option c
Pla
n
B
A BudgetOf
TheBusiness
Option c
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Strategy & Control
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Vision& Mission
Reward
Strategy Plan BudgetDeviation/
measurement
Feedback to the system
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Corporate strategy & Diversification
• Single Business Firm
• Related diversification
• Unrelated diversification
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Response of Control System to Corporate
Strategy• Response of control system will
depend on diversification sought– Unrelated: higher decentralization &
training– Related: competency to be controlled,
control deviation in production process & prompt delivery
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Strategies Available for Business Unit
• Deciding market opportunities, deciding competence level, understanding internal & external strengths
• Understanding that competitive strength of one business unit to another will vary, allocate resources separately
• Level of attractiveness in which the business unit exists
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Strategic Choices
• Build– Potential exists, increase market share
• Hold– High market share, Hold market share, even
when just breaking even• Divest
– Low market share & growth• Harvest
– Maximum short run earning, make the most of it
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Five Forces Theory & Competitive advantage
• Course of control action depends
– Intensity of rivalry between competitors
– Bargaining power of customers
– Bargaining power of suppliers
– Threat from substitutes
– Threat of new entrants
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