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ME 306
Manufacturing Technology II
S. N. JoshiOffice: D 203
E-mail: [email protected]: [email protected]
Phone: 2678
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Course syllabus
• Metal Cutting: mechanics, tools (material, temperature, wear, and life
considerations), geometry and chip formation, surface finish and
machinability, optimization
• Machine tool: generation and machining principles, Setting and Operations
on machines: lathe, milling (including indexing), shaping, slotting, planing,
drilling, boring, broaching, grinding (cylindrical, surface, centre-less), threaddrilling, boring, broaching, grinding (cylindrical, surface, centre-less), thread
rolling and gear cutting machines
• Tooling: jigs and fixtures, principles of location and clamping
• Batch production: capstan and turret lathes; CNC machines
• Finishing: micro-finishing (honing, lapping, super-finishing)
• Unconventional methods: electro-chemical, electro-discharge, ultrasonic,
LASER, electron beam, water jet machining,
• Rapid prototyping and rapid tooling
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Course syllabus
Texts:
1. G Boothroyd, Fundamentals of Metal Cutting Machine Tools, Tata McGraw
Hill, 1975
2. Production Technology, H M T Publication Tata McGraw Hill, 1980.
3. P C Pandey and C K Singh, Production Engineering Sciences, Standard
Publishers Ltd. 1980.Publishers Ltd. 1980.
4. A Ghosh and A K Mallik, Manufacturing Science, Wiley Eastern, 1986.
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Course structure
• Quiz(s) and tutorials: 15%
• Course project: 15%
• Mid-semester exam: 25%
• End-semester exam: 45%• End-semester exam: 45%
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Machining
• Machining of materials
– Higher surface finish
– Close tolerances
– Complex geometric shapes
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– Complex geometric shapes
• Metal cutting: expensive one
– Substantial amount of work removal from
workpiece
– Lot of energy will be expended
INDISPENSABLE
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• Machine tool (Mother of machines): It is a
machine with a tool(s) and tool holding device
produces the job of required dimensions
(size), shape, and surface finish.
Machine tools
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(size), shape, and surface finish.
• Machine: Converting the source of power
from one form to the other.
• Manufacturing in 21st Century: Micro-
electronics technology- CNC technology
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Brief history of machine tools
• 1775 - John Wilkinson- Horizontal Boring Machine
• 1794 - Henry Maudsley - Engine Lathe
• 1817 – Roberts Planer
• 1818 - Eli Whitney - Milling Machine
• 1840 - John Nasmyth - Drill Press• 1840 - John Nasmyth - Drill Press
• 1845 - Stephen Fitch - Turret Lathe
• 1869 - Christopher Spencer - Automatic Turret Lathe
• 1880 - Surface Grinder
• 1952 – Numerical Control
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Manufacturing processes
• Casting , Metal working and Metal removal
(machining) processes
• Casting and metal working processes converts “first
shape” into “intermediate” shape
• Metal removal processes converts “Intermediate”
into “final” shape
• Assembly- mating surfaces: required forms and
surface finish
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Material removal processes
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(20th Century)
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Machine tools
• Turning machines (Lathes)
• Drilling machines
• Boring machines
• Milling machines
• Grinding machines• Grinding machines
• Shaping and Planing machines
• Gear cutting machines
• Sawing machines
• Unconventional machining machines
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Some facts
• Metal cutting operations share about 80% of
total material removal
• About 15% of material removed is converted
into chipsinto chips
• Research in “Metal cutting”
– Before 19th century Tresca, Thime maalock etc.
– After 19th century F. W. Taylor (ASME, 1907)
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Rake and clearance angles
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Rake angles
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Chip formation
• The metal in front of the tool rake
face gets immediately
compressed first elastically and
then plastically.
• The actual separation of the
metal starts as a yielding or metal starts as a yielding or
fracture, depending upon the
cutting conditions, starting from
the cutting tool tip.
• The chip after sliding over the
tool rake face would be lifted
away from the tool, and the
resultant curvature of the chip is
termed as “chip curl”.
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http://electron.mit.edu/~gsteele/mirrors/www.nmis.org/EducationTr
aining/machineshop/physics/intro.html
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Possible deformations
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Piispanen's Model
• He considers the un-
deformed metal as a
stack of cards which
would slide over one
another as the wedge another as the wedge
shaped tools moves
under these cards.
• A practical example is
when paraffin is cut,
block wise slip is clearly
evident.Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 16
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Types of chips
• Discontinuous chip
• Continuous chip
• Continuous chip with built-up-edge (BUE)
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Discontinuous chips
• When brittle materials like • Cutting force becomes cast iron are cut, the
deformed material gets
fractured very easily and
thus the chip produced is in
the form of discontinuous
segments.
• Cutting force becomes
unstable with the variation
coinciding with the
fracturing cycle.
• Higher depths of cut (large
chip thickness), low cutting
speeds and small rake
angles are likely to produce
discontinuous chips.Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 18
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Cutting forces in discontinuous
chip formation
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Continuous chip
• Continuous chips are normally
produced when machining steel
or ductile metals at high cutting
speeds.
• Continuous chip is possible
because of the ductility of metal because of the ductility of metal
flows along the shear plane
instead of rupture.
• Sharp cutting edge, small chip
thickness (fine feed), large rake
angle, high cutting speed, ductile
work materials and less friction
between chip tool interface
through efficient lubrication.
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Continuous chip with built-up edge
(BUE)• When the friction between tool
and chip is high while machining
ductile materials, some particles
of chip adhere to the tool rake
face near the tool tip.
• When such sizeable material piles • When such sizeable material piles
up on the rake face, it is termed
as built up edge (BUE).
• As the size of BUE grows larger, it
becomes unstable and parts of it
gets removed while cutting. The
removed portions of BUE partly
adheres to the chip underside
and partly to the machined
surface
• Low speed, high feed rate,
low rake angle
• HardenabilityIndian Institute of Technology Guwahati 21
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BUE cycle
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Shear zone
• Thin shear plane model
– Easier for analysis
• Thick shear plane model
– More realistic– More realistic
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Orthogonal cutting
• Oblique cutting is more practical while orthogonal
cutting is convenient for analysis.
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Example of orthogonal cutting
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Mechanics of orthogonal cutting
• The current analysis is based on Merchant's thin
shear plane model considering the minimum energy
principle.
• This model would be applicable at very high cutting
speeds, which are generally practised in production.
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Assumptions
• The tool is perfectly sharp and no contact along the clearance
face.
• The surface where shear is occurring is a plane.
• The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the
direction of motion and generates a plane surface as the work
moves past it.moves past it.
• The chip does not flow to either side or no side spread.
• Uncut chip thickness is constant.
• Width of the tool is greater than the width of the work.
• A continuous chip is produced without any BUE.
• Work moves with a uniform velocity.
• The stresses on the shear plane are uniformly distributed.
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Merchant’s analysis
• Fv-Force perpendicular to
the primary tool motion
(thrust force)
• Fs-Force along the shear
plane
• Ns-Force normal to the
shear plane
• F -Frictional force along
the rake face
• N -Normal force
perpendicular to the rake
face
• R = R'
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Free body diagram of chip
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Tool materials
• Need
– to meet the growing demands for high
productivity, quality and economy of machining
– to enable effective and efficient machining of the – to enable effective and efficient machining of the
exotic materials that are coming up with the rapid
and vast progress of science and technology
– for precision and ultra-precision machining
– for micro and even nano machining demanded by
the day and future.
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Capability and overall performance
of cutting tools
• Cutting tool materials
• Cutting tool geometry
• Proper selection of materials and geometry
• Machining conditions and environment• Machining conditions and environment
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Productivity of various cutting tool materials
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(Courtesy NPTEL, IIT Kharagpur,
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-
contents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Manuf%20Proc%20II/New_index1.html)
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Chronological
developments of
cutting tool
materials
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materials
(Courtesy NPTEL,
IIT Kharagpur
http://nptel.iitm.ac.i
n/courses/Webcour
se-
contents/IIT%20Kh
aragpur/Manuf%20
Proc%20II/New_ind
ex1.html)
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Cutting tool materials: required
properties
• Higher hardness
• Hot hardness
• Wear resistance
• Toughness• Toughness
• Low friction
• Better thermal characteristics
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Carbon tool steels
• C (0.6 to 1.5%) + Mn + Si + W + Mo + Cr + V
• Earliest tool steel
• After 200o C, not working
• Low speed cutting, 0.15 m/s• Low speed cutting, 0.15 m/s
• Machining of wood, brass, aluminium
• Easy to manufacture angles by grinding
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HSS (High speed steel)
• Taylor and white in early of the 20th Century
• Machining speed 0.5 m/s, 3 to 5 times more
than Carbon tool steel
• W+Mo+V+Cr• W+Mo+V+Cr
• High hardness and good abrasion resistance
• High hot hardness
• After 650o, hardness drops
• Can be made by using Powder Metallurgy
techniqueIndian Institute of Technology Guwahati 37
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Typical compositions of HSS
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Variation of hardness of various
cutting tool materials
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Cast cobalt alloys (Stellites)
• Cutting of non-ferrous metals
• Cr + Mo + W + C + Mn + Si + Ni + Cobalt
• Can be manufactured by powder metallurgy
techniquetechnique
• Form tools
• At elevated temperatures provides good
hardness and toughness
• Provides cutting speed of about 25% more
than HSSIndian Institute of Technology Guwahati 40
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Typical compositions of Stellites
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Cemented carbides• 1926, Germany: important invention in cutting tool
industry, Contributes largest % share nowadays
• Cemented carbides are produced by the cold
compaction of the tungsten carbide (WC) powder in
a binder such as cobalt (Co), followed by liquid-phase
sintering.sintering.
• High hot hardness.
• Higher Young's modulus.
• Carbides are more brittle and expensive
• The usual composition of the straight grade carbides
is 6wt% Co and 94wt% WC with the cobalt
composition ranging from 5 to 12wt%. Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 42
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Cemented carbides• Addition of titanium carbide (TiC) increases
the hot hardness, wear resistance, and
resistance to thermal deformation, but
decreases the strength. The usual composition
is about 5–25wt%.
• Choose a grade with the lowest cobalt content
and the finest grain size consistent with
adequate strength to eliminate chipping.
• Use straight WC grades if cratering, seizure or
galling are not experienced in case of work
materials other than steels.Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 43
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Cemented carbides
• To reduce cratering and abrasive wear when
machining steel, use grades containing TiC.
• For heavy cuts in steel where high
temperature and high pressure use a multi-
carbide grade containing W-Ti-Ta and/or lower carbide grade containing W-Ti-Ta and/or lower
binder content
• Cemented carbides being expensive are
available in insert form in different shapes
such as triangle, square, diamond, and round.
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Tool-insert assembly
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Coated carbides (WW II)
• Hard and refractory coatings on conventional
tool materials
• Since late 60's thin (about 5 m) coating of TiN
has been used on cemented carbide tools.
• Ceramic coatings used are hard materials and
therefore provide a good abrasion resistance.
• They also have excellent high temperature
properties such as high resistance to diffusion
wear, superior oxidation wear resistance, and
high hot hardness. Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 46
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Schematic of multi-coated
cemented carbide Hardness and
refractoriness
Chemical vapor
deposition (CVD)
technique
Ion-by-ion deposition
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Strength and toughness
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Coated carbides
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Coated carbides
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Role of coating even after rupture
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http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-
contents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Manuf%20Proc%20II/New_index1.html
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Coated carbides
• Share : 40% of all cutting tools used in
industry
• Multiple coatings
– Higher tool life– Higher tool life
– Broader range of materials
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Ceramics• Ceramics are essentially alumina (Al2O3) based high
refractory materials introduced specifically for high
speed machining of difficult to machine materials
and cast iron.
• These can withstand very high temperatures, • These can withstand very high temperatures,
chemically more stable and have higher wear
resistance than the other cutting tool materials.
• The main problems of ceramic tools are their low
strength, poor thermal characteristics and the
tendency to chipping.
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Diamond• Diamond is the hardest known (Knoop hardness ~
8000 kg/mm2) material that can be used as a cutting
tool material.
• It has most of the desirable properties of a cutting
tool material such as high hardness, good thermal
conductivity, low friction, non-adherence to most conductivity, low friction, non-adherence to most
materials, and good wear resistance.
• Artificial diamonds which are basically polycrystalline
(PCD) in nature. These are extensively used in
industrial application because they can be formed for
any given shape with a substrate of cemented
carbide.Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 53
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Diamond tool
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Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
• Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) next in hardness only to
diamond (Knoop hardness ~ 4700 kg/mm2).
• It is not a natural material but produced in the
laboratory using a high temperature/ high pressure
process similar to the making of artificial diamond.
• These are more expensive than cemented carbides
but in view of the higher accuracy and productivity
possible for difficult to machine materials, they are
used in special applications.
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Cutting tool materials
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Cutting temperatures
• Sources of generation
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/
Webcourse-
contents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Ma
nuf%20Proc%20II/New_index1
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nuf%20Proc%20II/New_index1
.html
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Distribution of heat generated
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http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-
contents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Manuf%20Proc%20II/New_index1.html
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Effects of high cutting
temperatures• Rapid tool wear, reduces tool life
• Plastic deformation of the cutting edge
• Thermal flaking and fracturing of cutting edges
• Formation of BUE• Formation of BUE
• Dimensional inaccuracies of job due to thermal
distortion
• Surface damage by oxidation, rapid corrosion and
burning
• Induction of thermal residual stresses and micro-
cracks on machined surface.Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 59
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Cutting temperature distribution
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 60
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Effect of cutting speed on
Temperature
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 61
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Effect of feed rate on cutting temperature
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 62