Electric motor 1

Electric motor

Various electric motors. A 9-volt PP3 transistorbattery is in the center foreground for size

comparison.

An electric motor is an electromechanical device that convertselectrical energy into mechanical energy.

Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fieldsand current-carrying conductors to generate force. The reverse process,producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is done bygenerators such as an alternator or a dynamo; some electric motors canalso be used as generators, for example, a traction motor on a vehiclemay perform both tasks. Electric motors and generators are commonlyreferred to as electric machines.

Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans,blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools,and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current, e.g., a batterypowered portable device or motor vehicle, or by alternating currentfrom a central electrical distribution grid or inverter. The smallestmotors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors ofhighly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. Thevery largest electric motors are used for propulsion of ships, pipeline compressors, and water pumps with ratings inthe millions of watts. Electric motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their internal construction,by their application, or by the type of motion they give.

The physical principle behind production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric current and amagnetic field, Faraday's law of induction, was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831. Electric motors ofincreasing efficiency were constructed from 1821 through the end of the 19th century, but commercial exploitationof electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical distribution networks. Thefirst commercially successful motors were made around 1873.Some devices convert electricity into motion but do not generate usable mechanical power as a primary objectiveand so are not generally referred to as electric motors. For example, magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers are usuallydescribed as actuators and transducers,[1] respectively, instead of motors. Some electric motors are used to producetorque or force.[2]

History and development

Faraday's electromagnetic experiment,1821[3]

The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy byelectromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist MichaelFaraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, onwhich a permanent magnet was placed. When a current was passed throughthe wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gaverise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire.[4] This motor is oftendemonstrated in school physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimesused in place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class ofdevices called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's wheel.These were demonstration devices only, unsuited to practical applications dueto their primitive construction.

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Jedlik's "electromagnetic self-rotor", 1827 (Museum ofApplied Arts, Budapest. The historic motor still works

perfectly today.[5])

In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimentingwith devices he called "electromagnetic self-rotors". Althoughthey were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlikdemonstrated the first device to contain the three main componentsof practical direct current motors: the stator, rotor and commutator.The device employed no permanent magnets, as the magneticfields of both the stationary and revolving components wereproduced solely by the currents flowing through theirwindings.[6][7][8][9][10][11]

The first electric motors

The first commutator-type direct current electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the Britishscientist William Sturgeon in 1832.[12] Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motormade with the intention of commercial use was built by Americans Emily and Thomas Davenport and patented in1837. Their motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools and a printing press.[13] Dueto the high cost of the zinc electrodes required by primary battery power, the motors were commerciallyunsuccessful and the Davenports went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DCmotors but all encountered the same cost issues with primary battery power. No electricity distribution had beendeveloped at the time. Like Sturgeon's motor, there was no practical commercial market for these motors.

In 1855 Jedlik built a device using similar principles to those used in his electromagnetic self-rotors that was capableof useful work.[6][8] He built a model electric motor-propelled vehicle that same year.[14]

The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Zénobe Gramme connected the dynamo he hadinvented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor. The Gramme machine was the first electric motor that wassuccessful in the industry.In 1886 Frank Julian Sprague invented the first practical DC motor, a non-sparking motor capable of constant speedunder variable loads. Other Sprague electric inventions about this time greatly improved grid electric distribution(prior work done while employed by Thomas Edison), allowed power from electric motors to be returned to theelectric grid, provided for electric distribution to trolleys via overhead wires and the trolley pole, and providedcontrols systems for electric operations. This allowed Sprague to use electric motors to invent the first electric trolleysystem in 1887–88 in Richmond VA, the electric elevator and control system in 1892, and the electric subway withindependently powered centrally controlled cars, which was first installed in 1892 in Chicago by the South SideElevated Railway where it became popularly known as the "L". Sprague's motor and related inventions led to anexplosion of interest and use in electric motors for industry, while almost simultaneously another great inventor wasdeveloping its primary competitor, which would become much more widespread.In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the polyphase power transmission system.Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in the years to follow at the Westinghouse company.The development of electric motors of acceptable efficiency was delayed for several decades by failure to recognizethe extreme importance of a relatively small air gap between rotor and stator. Efficient designs have a comparativelysmall air gap.[15]

The St. Louis motor, long used in classrooms to illustrate motor principles, is extremely inefficient for the samereason, as well as appearing nothing like a modern motor. Photo of a traditional form of the St. Louis motor:[16]

Application of electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial processes were no longer limited by power transmission using line shafts, belts, compressed air or hydraulic pressure. Instead every machine could be equipped with its own electric motor, providing easy control at the point of use, and improving power transmission efficiency. Electric motors applied in agriculture eliminated human and animal muscle power from such tasks as handling grain

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or pumping water. Household uses of electric motors reduced heavy labor in the home and made higher standards ofconvenience, comfort and safety possible. Today, electric motors consume more than half of all electric energyproduced.[17][18]

TerminologyIn an electric motor the moving part is called the rotor and the stationary part is called the stator. Magnetic fields areproduced on poles, and these can be salient poles where they are driven by windings of electrical wire. Ashaded-pole motor has a winding around part of the pole that delays the phase of the magnetic field for that pole.A commutator switches the current flow to the rotor windings depending on the rotor angle.A DC motor is powered by direct current, although there is almost always an internal mechanism (such as acommutator) converting DC to AC for part of the motor. An AC motor is supplied with alternating current, oftenavoiding the need for a commutator. A synchronous motor is an AC motor that runs at a speed fixed to a fraction ofthe power supply frequency, and an asynchronous motor is an AC motor, usually an induction motor, whose speedslows with increasing torque to slightly less than synchronous speed. Universal motors can run on either AC or DC,though the maximum frequency of the AC supply may be limited.

Operating principleAt least 3 different operating principles are used to make electric motors: magnetism, electrostatics, piezoelectric. Byfar the most common is magnetic.

MagneticNearly all electric motors are based around magnetism (Exceptions include Piezo Electric and Ultrasonic Motors). Inthese motors, magnetic fields are formed in both the rotor and the stator. The product between these two fields giverise to a force, and thus a torque on the motor shaft. One, or both, of these fields must be made to change with therotation of the motor. This is done by switching the poles on and off at the right time, or varying the strength of thepole.

Categorization

The main types are DC motors and AC motors, although the ongoing trend toward electronic control somewhatsoftens the distinction, as modern drivers have moved the commutator out of the motor shell for some types of DCmotors.Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require synchronism between a moving magnetic field and amoving current sheet for average torque production, there is a clear distinction between an asynchronous motor andsynchronous types. An asynchronous motor requires slip - relative movement between the magnetic field (generatedby the stator) and a winding set (the rotor) to induce current in the rotor by mutual inductance. The most ubiquitousexample of asynchronous motors is the common AC induction motor which must slip to generate torque.In the synchronous types, induction (or slip) is not a requisite for magnetic field or current production (e.g.permanent magnet motors, synchronous brush-less wound-rotor doubly fed electric machine).Rated output power is also used to categorize motors. Those of less than 746 watts, for example, are often referred toas fractional horsepower motors (FHP) in reference to the old imperial measurement.

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Commutation

No commutation Electromechanical Electronic

stator coils driven by linevoltage

motor has a commutator toswitch power to rotor coils

Switches power to stator coils,rotor position by sensing, eitherby discrete sensors, or feedback

from coils, or open loop.

Electro-mechanicalcommutator

Electronic switches

Drive

AC DC (1) DC

Rotor

Iron The rotor isferromagnetic, notpermanently magnetized;it has no winding

RELUCTANCE (2): • Hysteresis • Synchronous reluctance

Switched or variablereluctance / SRM

Switched or variable reluctance /SRM • Stepper • Coilgun/mass driver

Magnet

The rotor is a permanentmagnet; it has nowinding

PMSM / BLAC (2)(Permanent MagnetSynchronous Motor /Brush-less AlternatingCurrent)

BLDC(Brush-less Direct Current)

Copper(usually plus

magneticcore)

The rotor includes awinding

INDUCTION (3)(Squirrel cage)

PM(Permanent Magnet)WOUND STATOR: • universal(1) / series wound • shunt wound • compound woundCommutator supplies power tothe coils that are bestpositioned to generate torqueHomopolar motor (ironlessrotors typical)

Frequency controlled inductionmotor fed from Inverter

Notes:1. Universal motors can also work at line frequency AC (rotation is independent of the frequency of the AC voltage)2. Rotation is synchronous with the frequency of the AC voltage3. Rotation is always slower than synchronous.

DC motors

A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs are Michael Faraday'shomopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball bearing motor, which is (so far) a novelty. By far the mostcommon DC motor types are the brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external commutationrespectively to reverse the current in the windings in synchronism with rotation.

Permanent-magnet motors

A permanent-magnet motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on permanent magnetsto provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque. Compensating windings inseries with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load. Because this field isfixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. Permanent-magnet fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motorsto eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, whichhave stator windings. Historically, permanent magnets could not be made to retain high flux if they were

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disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large permanentmagnets are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.To minimize overall weight and size, miniature permanent-magnet motors may use high energy magnets made withneodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their higher flux density,electric machines with high energy permanent magnets are at least competitive with all optimally designed singly fedsynchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except thatthey have at least three rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steeltube that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.

Brushed DC motors

Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-polerotor and permanent-magnet stator. ("N" and "S"

designate polarities on the inside faces of the magnets;the outside faces have opposite polarities.)

DC motors have AC in a wound rotor also called an armature, witha split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnetstator. The commutator and brushes are a long-life rotary switch.The rotor consists of one or more coils of wire wound around alaminated "soft" ferromagnetic core on a shaft; an electrical powersource feeds the rotor windings through the commutator and itsbrushes, temporarily magnetizing the rotor core in a specificdirection. The commutator switches power to the coils as the rotorturns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fullyaligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that therotor never stops (like a compass needle does), but rather keepsrotating as long as power is applied.

Brushed electric motor

Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor aredue to the need for brushes to press against the commutator. Thiscreates friction. Sparks are created by the brushes making andbreaking circuits through the rotor coils as the brushes cross theinsulating gaps between commutator sections. Depending on thecommutator design, this may include the brushes shorting togetheradjacent sections – and hence coil ends – momentarily whilecrossing the gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coilscauses the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is opened,increasing the sparking of the brushes. This sparking limits themaximum speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking willoverheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current densityper unit area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity,limits the output of the motor. The making and breaking of electriccontact also generates electrical noise; sparking generates RFI.Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance(on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The commutator assembly on a large motor is a costly element,requiring precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated intothe rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.

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While most commutators are cylindrical, some are flat discs consisting of several segments (typically, at least three)mounted on an insulator.Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output, but small brushes are desired forlow mass to maximize the speed at which the motor can run without the brushes excessively bouncing and sparking(comparable to the problem of "valve float" in internal combustion engines). (Small brushes are also desirable forlower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed, but at thecost of greater friction losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motorbrush design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear.

Notes on terminologyThe first practical electric motors, used for street railways, were DC with commutators. Power was fed to thecommutators (made of copper) by copper brushes, but the voltage difference between adjacent commutatorbars, excellent conductivity of the copper brushes, and arcing created considerable damage after only a quiteshort period of operation. An electrical engineer realized that replacing the copper brushes with electricallyresistive solid carbon blocks would provide much longer life. Although the term is no longer descriptive, thecarbon blocks continue to be called "brushes" even to this day.Sculptors who work with clay need support structures called armatures to keep larger works from sagging dueto gravity. Magnetic laminations, in a rotor with windings, similarly support insulated-copper-wire coils. Byanalogy, wound rotors came to be called "armatures".Commutators, at least among some people who work with them daily, have become so familiar that some failto realize that they are just a particular variety of rotary electrical switch. Considering how frequentlyconnections make and break, they have very long lifetimes.

A: shuntB: seriesC: compoundf = field coil

There are five types of brushed DC motor:• DC shunt-wound motor• DC series-wound motor• DC compound motor (two configurations):

• Cumulative compound• Differentially compounded

• Permanent magnet DC motor (not shown)• Separately excited (not shown)

Brushless DC motors

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In this motor, the mechanical"rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to therotor's position. Brushless motors are typically 85–90% efficient or more, efficiency for a brushless electric motor, ofup to 96.5% was reported[19] whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 75–80% efficient.Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the brushless DC motor. Built in a fashionvery similar to stepper motors, these often use a permanent magnet external rotor, three phases of driving coils, mayuse Hall effect sensors to sense the position of the rotor, and associated drive electronics. The coils are activated, onephase after the other, by the drive electronics as cued by the signals from either Hall effect sensors or from the backEMF (electromotive force) of the undriven coils. In effect, they act as three-phase synchronous motors containingtheir own variable-frequency drive electronics. A specialized class of brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMFfeedback through the main phase connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and velocity. Thesemotors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled vehicles. When configured with the magnets on the outside,these are referred to by modelers as outrunner motors.

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Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer disk drives or invideo cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office productssuch as fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors:• Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running much cooler than the equivalent

AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of the fan's bearings.• Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be significantly longer compared to a DC

motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise;without a commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audioequipment or computers.

• The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a convenient tachometer signal forclosed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fanOK" signal as well as provide running speed feedback.

• The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to precise speed control.• Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them better suited to environments

with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone which can accumulate in poorly ventilatedbuildings risking harm to occupants' health.

• Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally used in fans to get ridof unwanted heat.

• They are also acoustically very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in equipment that is affected byvibrations.

Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger brushless motors upto about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance electricmodel aircraft.

Switched reluctance motors

6/4 Pole Switched reluctance motor

The switched reluctance motor (SRM) has no brushes or permanentmagnets, and the rotor has no electric currents. Instead, torque comesfrom a slight mis-alignment of poles on the rotor with poles on thestator. The rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field of the stator, whilethe stator field stator windings are sequentially energized to rotate thestator field.The magnetic flux created by the field windings follows the path ofleast magnetic reluctance, meaning the flux will flow through poles ofthe rotor that are closest to the energized poles of the stator, therebymagnitizing those poles of the rotor and creating torque. As the rotorturns, different windings will be energized, keeping the rotor turning.Switched reluctance motors are now being used in some appliances.[20]

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Coreless or ironless DC motors

A Miniature Coreless Motor

Nothing in the principle of any of the motors described above requiresthat the iron (steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate. If the softmagnetic material of the rotor is made in the form of a cylinder, then(except for the effect of hysteresis) torque is exerted only on thewindings of the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is thecoreless or ironless DC motor, a specialized form of a brush orbrushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, these motorshave a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The rotor cantake the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supportingstructure comprising only the magnet wire and the bonding material.The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically softstationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has therotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a magnetically soft cylinderthat can serve as the housing for the motor, and likewise provides a return path for the flux.

Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed from copper windings on steellaminations, the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under 1 ms.This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because there is no metalmass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air. Overheatingmight be an issue for coreless DC motor designs.Among these types are the disc-rotor types, described in more detail in the next section.Vibrator motors for cellular phones are sometimes tiny cylindrical permanent-magnet field types, but there are alsodisc-shaped types which have a thin multipolar disc field magnet, and an intentionally unbalanced molded-plasticrotor structure with two bonded coreless coils. Metal brushes and a flat commutator switch power to the rotor coils.Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the poles of high-flux thin permanentmagnets. These are the fast head positioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives. Although the contemporary designdiffers considerably from that of loudspeakers, it is still loosely (and incorrectly) referred to as a "voice coil"structure, because some earlier rigid-disk-drive heads moved in straight lines, and had a drive structure much likethat of a loudspeaker.

Printed armature or pancake DC motors

A rather unusual motor design, the printed armature or pancake motor has the windings shaped as a disc runningbetween arrays of high-flux magnets. The magnets are arranged in a circle facing the rotor with space in between toform an axial air gap. This design is commonly known as the pancake motor because of its extremely flat profile,although the technology has had many brand names since its inception, such as ServoDisc.The printed armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) in a printed armature motor is made frompunched copper sheets that are laminated together using advanced composites to form a thin rigid disc. The printedarmature has a unique construction in the brushed motor world in that it does not have a separate ring commutator.The brushes run directly on the armature surface making the whole design very compact.An alternative manufacturing method is to use wound copper wire laid flat with a central conventional commutator,in a flower and petal shape. The windings are typically stabilized by being impregnated with electrical epoxy pottingsystems. These are filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time. They are highlighted bylow shrinkage and low exotherm, and are typically UL 1446 recognized as a potting compound for use up to 180°C(Class H) (UL File No. E 210549).

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The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is that there is no cogging (torque variations caused by changingattraction between the iron and the magnets). Parasitic eddy currents cannot form in the rotor as it is totally ironless,although iron rotors are laminated. This can greatly improve efficiency, but variable-speed controllers must use ahigher switching rate (>40 kHz) or direct current because of the decreased electromagnetic induction.These motors were originally invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives in the burgeoning computerindustry, where minimal time to reach operating speed and minimal stopping distance were critical. Pancake motorsare still widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, humanoid robotic systems, industrial automationand medical devices. Due to the variety of constructions now available, the technology is used in applications fromhigh temperature military to low cost pump and basic servos.

Universal motors

Modern low-cost universal motor, from a vacuumcleaner. Field windings are dark copper colored,

toward the back, on both sides. The rotor'slaminated core is gray metallic, with dark slotsfor winding the coils. The commutator (partly

hidden) has become dark from use; it's toward thefront. The large brown molded-plastic piece inthe foreground supports the brush guides and

brushes (both sides), as well as the front motorbearing.

A series-wound motor is referred to as a universal motor when it hasbeen designed to operate on either AC or DC power. It can operatewell on AC because the current in both the field and the armature (andhence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) insynchronism, and hence the resulting mechanical force will occur in aconstant direction of rotation.

Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are oftenfound in a range rarely larger than 1000 watt. Universal motors alsoform the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in electricrailways. In this application, the use of AC to power a motor originallydesigned to run on DC would lead to efficiency losses due to eddycurrent heating of their magnetic components, particularly the motorfield pole-pieces that, for DC, would have used solid (un-laminated)iron. Although the heating effects are reduced by using laminatedpole-pieces, as used for the cores of transformers and by the use oflaminations of high permeability electrical steel, one solution availableat start of the 20th century was for the motors to be operated from verylow frequency AC supplies, with 25 and 16.7 Hz operation beingcommon. Because they used universal motors, locomotives using this design were also commonly capable ofoperating from a third rail or overhead wire powered by DC. As well, considering that steam engines directlypowered many alternators, their relatively low speeds favored low frequencies because comparatively few statorpoles were needed.

An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors which have some characteristicsmore common in DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if high running speeds areused. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused by the commutator. Such motors areused in devices such as food mixers and power tools which are used only intermittently, and often have highstarting-torque demands. Continuous speed control of a universal motor running on AC is easily obtained by use of athyristor circuit, while multiple taps on the field coil provide (imprecise) stepped speed control. Household blendersthat advertise many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can be inserted in serieswith the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC).In the past, repulsion-start wound-rotor motors provided high starting torque, but with added complexity. Theirrotors were similar to those of universal motors, but their brushes were connected only to each other. Transformeraction induced current into the rotor. Brush position relative to field poles meant that starting torque was developedby rotor repulsion from the field poles. A centrifugal mechanism, when close to running speed, connected allcommutator bars together to create the equivalent of a squirrel-cage rotor. As well, when close to operating speed,

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better motors lifted the brushes out of contact.Induction motors cannot turn a shaft faster than allowed by the power line frequency. By contrast, universal motorsgenerally run at high speeds, making them useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryerswhere high speed and light weight is desirable. They are also commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills,sanders, circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmermotors exceed 10,000 RPM, while many Dremel and similar miniature grinders exceed 30,000 RPM.Universal motors also lend themselves to electronic speed control and, as such, are an ideal choice for domesticwashing machines. The motor can be used to agitate the drum (both forwards and in reverse) by switching the fieldwinding with respect to the armature. The motor can also be run up to the high speeds required for the spin cycle.Motor damage may occur from overspeeding (running at a rotational speed in excess of design limits) if the unit isoperated with no significant load. On larger motors, sudden loss of load is to be avoided, and the possibility of suchan occurrence is incorporated into the motor's protection and control schemes. In some smaller applications, a fanblade attached to the shaft often acts as an artificial load to limit the motor speed to a safe level, as well as a means tocirculate cooling airflow over the armature and field windings.

AC motors

AC motor

In 1882, Nikola Tesla discovered the rotating magnetic field, andpioneered the use of a rotary field of force to operate machines. Heexploited the principle to design a unique two-phase inductionmotor in 1883. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently researchedthe concept. In 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper tothe Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.

Tesla had suggested that the commutators from a machine couldbe removed and the device could operate on a rotary field of force.Professor Poeschel, his teacher, stated that would be akin tobuilding a perpetual motion machine.[21] Tesla would later attainU.S. Patent 0416194 [22], Electric Motor (December 1889), whichresembles the motor seen in many of Tesla's photos. This classicalternating current electro-magnetic motor was an inductionmotor.

Michail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky later developed a three-phase "cage-rotor" in 1890. This type of motor isnow used for the vast majority of commercial applications.An AC motor has two parts: a stationary stator having coils supplied with alternating current to produce a rotatingmagnetic field, and a rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field.

AC motor with sliding rotor

A conical-rotor brake motor incorporates the brake as an integral part of the conical sliding rotor. When the motor isat rest, a spring acts on the sliding rotor and forces the brake ring against the brake cap in the motor, holding therotor stationary. When the motor is energized, its magnetic field generates both an axial and a radial component. Theaxial component overcomes the spring force, releasing the brake; while the radial component causes the rotor to turn.There is no additional brake control required.

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Synchronous electric motor

A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at thesame rate as the alternating current and resulting magnetic field which drives it. Another way of saying this is that ithas zero slip under usual operating conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip to producetorque. One type of synchronous motor is like an induction motor except the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip ringsand brushes are used to conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the samespeed hence the name synchronous motor. Another type, for low load torque, has flats ground onto a conventionalsquirrel-cage rotor to create discrete poles. Yet another, such as made by Hammond for its pre-World War II clocks,and in the older Hammond organs, has no rotor windings and discrete poles. It is not self-starting. The clock requiresmanual starting by a small knob on the back, while the older Hammond organs had an auxiliary starting motorconnected by a spring-loaded manually operated switch.Finally, hysteresis synchronous motors typically are (essentially) two-phase motors with a phase-shifting capacitorfor one phase. They start like induction motors, but when slip rate decreases sufficiently, the rotor (a smoothcylinder) becomes temporarily magnetized. Its distributed poles make it act like a permanent-magnet-rotorsynchronous motor. The rotor material, like that of a common nail, will stay magnetized, but can also bedemagnetized with little difficulty. Once running, the rotor poles stay in place; they do not drift.Low-power synchronous timing motors (such as those for traditional electric clocks) may have multi-polepermanent-magnet external cup rotors, and use shading coils to provide starting torque. Telechron clock motors haveshaded poles for starting torque, and a two-spoke ring rotor that performs like a discrete two-pole rotor.

Induction motor

Squirrel-cage electric motor, opened up

An induction motor is an asynchronous AC motor where power istransferred to the rotor by electromagnetic induction, much liketransformer action. An induction motor resembles a rotatingtransformer, because the stator (stationary part) is essentially theprimary side of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is thesecondary side. Polyphase induction motors are widely used inindustry.Induction motors may be further divided into squirrel-cage motorsand wound-rotor motors. Squirrel-cage motors have a heavywinding made up of solid bars, usually aluminum or copper,joined by rings at the ends of the rotor. When one considers onlythe bars and rings as a whole, they are much like an animal'srotating exercise cage, hence the name.Currents induced into this winding provide the rotor magneticfield. The shape of the rotor bars determines the speed-torquecharacteristics. At low speeds, the current induced in the squirrelcage is nearly at line frequency and tends to be in the outer parts ofthe rotor cage. As the motor accelerates, the slip frequencybecomes lower, and more current is in the interior of the winding.By shaping the bars to change the resistance of the windingportions in the interior and outer parts of the cage, effectively avariable resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit. However, the majority of such motors have uniform bars.

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Squirrel-cage electric motor, opened up

In a wound-rotor motor, the rotor winding is made of many turnsof insulated wire and is connected to slip rings on the motor shaft.An external resistor or other control devices can be connected inthe rotor circuit. Resistors allow control of the motor speed,although significant power is dissipated in the external resistance.A converter can be fed from the rotor circuit and return theslip-frequency power that would otherwise be wasted back into thepower system through an inverter or separate motor-generator.

The wound-rotor induction motor is used primarily to start a highinertia load or a load that requires a very high starting torqueacross the full speed range. By correctly selecting the resistors used in the secondary resistance or slip ring starter,the motor is able to produce maximum torque at a relatively low supply current from zero speed to full speed. Thistype of motor also offers controllable speed.Motor speed can be changed because the torque curve of the motor is effectively modified by the amount ofresistance connected to the rotor circuit. Increasing the value of resistance will move the speed of maximum torquedown. If the resistance connected to the rotor is increased beyond the point where the maximum torque occurs atzero speed, the torque will be further reduced.When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor will operate at the speed wherethe torque developed by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the load will cause the motor to speed up,and increasing the load will cause the motor to slow down until the load and motor torque are equal. Operated in thismanner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary resistors and can be very significant. The speed regulation andnet efficiency is also very poor.

Doubly fed electric motor

Doubly fed electric motors have two independent multiphase winding sets, which contribute active (i.e., working)power to the energy conversion process, with at least one of the winding sets electronically controlled for variablespeed operation. Two independent multiphase winding sets (i.e., dual armature) are the maximum provided in asingle package without topology duplication. Doubly fed electric motors are machines with an effective constanttorque speed range that is twice synchronous speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice the constanttorque speed range as singly fed electric machines, which have only one active winding set.A doubly fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor winding and slip rings mayoffset the saving in the power electronics components. Difficulties with controlling speed near synchronous speedlimit applications.[23]

Singly fed electric motor

Most AC motors are singly fed. Singly fed electric motors have a single multiphase winding set that is connected to apower supply. Singly fed electric machines may be either induction or synchronous. The active winding set can beelectronically controlled. Singly fed electric machines have an effective constant torque speed range up tosynchronous speed for a given excitation frequency.

Torque motors

A torque motor (also known as a limited torque motor) is a specialized form of induction motor which is capable ofoperating indefinitely while stalled, that is, with the rotor blocked from turning, without incurring damage. In thismode of operation, the motor will apply a steady torque to the load (hence the name).A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape drive. In this application, driven from a low voltage, the characteristics of these motors allow a relatively constant light tension to

Electric motor 13

be applied to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher voltage,(and so delivering a higher torque), the torque motors can also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation withoutrequiring any additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer gaming world, torque motors are usedin force feedback steering wheels.Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal combustion engine in conjunction with anelectronic governor. In this usage, the motor works against a return spring to move the throttle in accordance with theoutput of the governor. The latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the ignition system orfrom a magnetic pickup[24] and, depending on the speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current appliedto the motor. If the engine starts to slow down relative to the desired speed, the current will be increased, the motorwill develop more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle. Should the engine run too fast,the governor will reduce the current being applied to the motor, causing the return spring to pull back and close thethrottle.

Stepper motors

Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors are stepper motors, where an internal rotorcontaining permanent magnets or a magnetically soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a set of externalmagnets that are switched electronically. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electricmotor and a rotary solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field producedby the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, in its application, the stepper motor may not rotatecontinuously; instead, it "steps"—starts and then quickly stops again—from one position to the next as fieldwindings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards orbackwards, and it may change direction, stop, speed up or slow down arbitrarily at any time.Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field windings, leading the rotor to "cog"to a limited number of positions; more sophisticated drivers can proportionally control the power to the fieldwindings, allowing the rotors to position between the cog points and thereby rotate extremely smoothly. This modeof operation is often called microstepping. Computer controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms ofpositioning systems, particularly when part of a digital servo-controlled system.Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with ease, and hence stepper motors are used forread/write head positioning in computer floppy diskette drives. They were used for the same purpose in pre-gigabyteera computer disk drives, where the precision and speed they offered was adequate for the correct positioning of theread/write head of a hard disk drive. As drive density increased, the precision and speed limitations of stepper motorsmade them obsolete for hard drives—the precision limitation made them unusable, and the speed limitation madethem uncompetitive—thus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based head actuator systems. (The term "voice coil"in this connection is historic; it refers to the structure in a typical (cone type) loudspeaker. This structure was usedfor a while to position the heads. Modern drives have a pivoted coil mount; the coil swings back and forth,something like a blade of a rotating fan. Nevertheless, like a voice coil, modern actuator coil conductors (the magnetwire) move perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force.)Stepper motors were and still are often used in computer printers, optical scanners, and digital photocopiers to movethe optical scanning element, the print head carriage (of dot matrix and inkjet printers), and the platen or feed rollers.Likewise, many computer plotters (which since the early 1990s have been replaced with large-format inkjet and laserprinters) used rotary stepper motors for pen and platen movement; the typical alternatives here were either linearstepper motors or servomotors with closed-loop analog control systems.So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest commonplace stepping motors; they have one coil, drawvery little power, and have a permanent-magnet rotor. The same kind of motor drives battery-powered quartz clocks.Some of these watches, such as chronographs, contain more than one stepping motor.Stepper motors were upscaled to be used in electric vehicles under the term SRM (Switched Reluctance Motor).

Electric motor 14

Comparison

Comparison of motor types[25]

Type Advantages Disadvantages Typical Application Typical Drive

AC polyphase inductionsquirrel-cage

Low cost, long life,high efficiency,large ratings available(to 1 MW or more),large number ofstandardized types

Starting inrush currentcan be high,speed control requiresvariable frequency source

Pumps, fans, blowers,conveyors, compressors

Poly-phase AC, variablefrequency AC

Shaded-pole motor Low costLong life

Speed slightly belowsynchronousLow starting torqueSmall ratingslow efficiency

Fans, appliances, recordplayers

Single phase AC

AC induction – Squirrel cage,split-phase capacitor-start

High powerhigh starting torque

Speed slightly belowsynchronousStarting switch or relayrequired

AppliancesStationary Power Tools

Single phase AC

AC induction – Squirrel cage,split-phase capacitor-run

Moderate powerHigh starting torqueNo starting switchComparatively longlife

Speed slightly belowsynchronousSlightly more costly

Industrial blowersIndustrial machinery

Single phase AC

AC induction – Squirrel cagemotor, split-phase, auxiliarystart winding

Moderate powerLow starting torque

Speed slightly belowsynchronousStarting switch or relayrequired

AppliancesStationary Power Tools

Single phase AC

Universal motor High starting torque,compact, high speed.

Maintenance (brushes)Shorter lifespanUsually acousticallynoisyOnly small ratings areeconomic

Handheld power tools,blenders, vacuum cleaners,insulation blowers

Single phase AC or DC

AC Synchronous Synchronous speed More costly Industrial motorsClocksAudio turntablesTape drives

Single or Polyphase AC(Capacitor-run forsingle-phase)

Stepper DC Precision positioningHigh holding torque

Some can be costlyRequire a controller

Positioning in printers andfloppy disc drives; industrialmachine tools

DC

Brushless DC Long lifespanLow maintenanceHigh efficiency

Higher initial costRequires a controller

Rigid ("hard") disk drivesCD/DVD playersElectric vehiclesRC VehiclesUAVs

DC or PWM

Switched reluctance motor Long lifespanLow maintenanceHigh efficiencyNo permanent magnetsLow costSimple construction

Requires a controller AppliancesElectric VehiclesTextile millsAircraft applications

DC or PWM

Electric motor 15

Brushed DC Simple speed control Maintenance (brushes)Medium lifespanCostly commutator andbrushes

Steel millsPaper making machinesTreadmill exercisersAutomotive accessories

Direct DC or PWM

Pancake DC Compact designSimple speed control

Medium costMedium lifespan

Office EquipFans/Pumps, fast industrialand military servos

Direct DC or PWM

Goodness factor

Professor Eric Laithwaite proposed a metric to determine the 'goodness' of an electric motor:[26]

Where:is the goodness factor (factors above 1 are likely to be efficient)

are the cross sections of the magnetic and electric circuitare the lengths of the magnetic and electric circuits

is the permeability of the coreis the angular frequency the motor is driven at

From this he showed that the most efficient motors are likely to have relatively large magnetic poles. However, theequation only directly relates to non permanent magnet motors.

Electrostatic

Full size

An electrostatic motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are thedual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high voltage power supply, although very smallmotors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, andrequire high current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were developed by Benjamin Franklinand Andrew Gordon. Today the electrostatic motor finds frequent use in micro-mechanical (MEMS) systems wheretheir drive voltages are below 100 volts, and where moving, charged plates are far easier to fabricate than coils andiron cores. Also, the molecular machinery which runs living cells is often based on linear and rotary electrostaticmotors.

Nanotube nanomotor

Researchers at University of California, Berkeley, recently developed rotational bearings based upon multiwallcarbon nanotubes. By attaching a gold plate (with dimensions of the order of 100 nm) to the outer shell of asuspended multiwall carbon nanotube (like nested carbon cylinders), they are able to electrostatically rotate the outershell relative to the inner core. These bearings are very robust; devices have been oscillated thousands of times withno indication of wear. These nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are the next step in miniaturization and mayfind their way into commercial applications in the future.See also:• Molecular motors• Nanomotor• Electrostatic motor

Electric motor 16

PiezoelectricA piezoelectric motor or piezo motor is a type of electric motor based upon the change in shape of a piezoelectricmaterial when an electric field is applied. Piezoelectric motors make use of the converse piezoelectric effect wherebythe material produces acoustic or ultrasonic vibrations in order to produce a linear or rotary motion. In onemechanism, the elongation in a single plane is used to make a series stretches and position holds, similar to the way acaterpillar moves.

Use and stylesStandardized electric motors are often used in many modern machines but specific types of electric motors aredesigned for particular applications.

RotaryUses include rotating machines such as fans, turbines, drills, the wheels on electric cars, locomotives and conveyorbelts. Also, in many vibrating or oscillating machines, an electric motor spins an unbalanced mass, causing the motor(and its mounting structure) to vibrate. A familiar application is cell phone vibrating alerts used when the acoustic"ringer" is disabled by the user.Electric motors are also popular in robotics. They turn the wheels of vehicular robots, and servo motors operate armsin industrial robots; they also move arms and legs in humanoid robots. In flying robots, along with helicopters, amotor rotates a propeller, or aerodynamic rotor blades to create controllable amounts of lift.Electric motors are replacing hydraulic cylinders in airplanes and military equipment.[27][28]

In industrial and manufacturing businesses, electric motors rotate saws and blades in cutting and slicing processes;they rotate parts being turned in lathes and other machine tools, and spin grinding wheels. Fast, precise servo motorsposition tools and work in modern CNC machine tools. Motor-driven mixers are very common in foodmanufacturing. Linear motors are often used to push products into containers horizontally.Many kitchen appliances also use electric motors. Food processors and grinders spin blades to chop and break upfoods. Blenders use electric motors to mix liquids, and microwave ovens use motors to turn the tray food that sits on.Toaster ovens also use electric motors to turn a conveyor to move food over heating elements.

Servo motorA servomotor is a motor, very often sold as a complete module, which is used within a position-control orspeed-control feedback control system. Servomotors are used in applications such as machine tools, pen plotters, andother control systems. Motors intended for use in a servomechanism must have well-documented characteristics forspeed, torque, and power. The speed vs. torque curve is quite important. Dynamic response characteristics such aswinding inductance and rotor inertia are also important; these factors limit the overall performance of theservomechanism loop. Large, powerful, but slow-responding servo loops may use conventional AC or DC motorsand drive systems with position or speed feedback on the motor. As dynamic response requirements increase, morespecialized motor designs such as coreless motors are used.A servo system differs from some stepper motor applications in that the position feedback is continuous while themotor is running; a stepper system relies on the motor not to "miss steps" for short term accuracy, although a steppersystem may include a "home" switch or other element to provide long-term stability of control.[29] For instance,when an ink-jet computer printer starts up, its controller makes the print head stepper motor drive to its left-handlimit, where a position sensor defines home position and stops stepping. As long as power is on, a bidirectionalcounter in the printer's microprocessor keeps track of print-head position.

Electric motor 17

Linear motorA linear motor is essentially any electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that, instead of producing a torque(rotation), it produces a straight-line force along its length.Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. Linear motors are commonly found in manyroller-coasters where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is controlled by the rail. They are also used in maglevtrains, where the train "flies" over the ground. On a smaller scale, at least one letter-size (8.5" x 11") computergraphics X-Y pen plotter made by Hewlett-Packard (in the late 1970s to mid-1980s) used two linear stepper motorsto move the pen along the two orthogonal axes.

Spacecraft propulsive motorsAn electrically powered spacecraft propulsion system is any of a number of forms of electric motors whichspacecraft can employ to gain mechanical energy in outer space. Most of these kinds of spacecraft propulsion workby electrically powering propellant to high speed, but electrodynamic tethers work by interacting with a planet'smagnetosphere.[30]

GeneratorMany electric motors are used as generators, either part (such as regenerative braking) or all of their operational life.When mechanically driven magnetic electric motors produce power due to their back EMF.

Performance

Specifying an electric motorWhen specifying what type of electric motor is needed, the mechanical power available at the shaft is used. Thismeans that users can predict the torque and speed of the motor without having to know the mechanical lossesassociated with the motor. Example: 10 kW induction motor.

Energy conversion by an electric motorUsing mathematical models in terms of a magnetic dipole, Ribarič and Šušteršič[31] consider how in the case of thesynchronous motor and induction motor an external source is supplying electrical energy to the stator so as tomaintain its revolving magnetic field; this energy is then transmitted by the revolving magnetic field to the magneticdipole of the rotor; there it is converted into mechanical energy, and transmitted mechanically by the rotating shaft toan external user. On the other hand, in the case of a commutator motor, the external source delivers electrical energydirectly to the rotor magnetic dipole for conversion into mechanical energy.

PowerThe power output of a rotary electric motor is:

Where P is in horsepower, rpm is the shaft speed in revolutions per minute and T is the torque in foot pounds.And for a linear motor:

Where P is the power in watts, and F is in Newtons and v is the speed in metres per second.

Electric motor 18

Efficiency

To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is divided by the electrical input power: ,

where is energy conversion efficiency, is electrical input power, and is mechanical output power.In simplest case , and , where is input voltage, is input current, is output torque,and is output angular velocity. It is possible to derive analytically the point of maximum efficiency. It is typicallyat less than 1/2 the stall torque.

Torque capability of motor typesWhen optimally designed within a given core saturation constraint and for a given active current (i.e., torquecurrent), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux density, allcategories of electric motors or generators will exhibit virtually the same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e.,operating torque) within a given air-gap area with winding slots and back-iron depth, which determines the physicalsize of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the maximum operating torque, suchas short bursts of torque to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturationor safe operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum operating torquediffers significantly between categories of electric motors or generators.Capacity for bursts of torque should not be confused with field weakening capability inherent in fullyelectromagnetic electric machines (Permanent Magnet (PM) electric machine are excluded). Field weakening, whichis not available with PM electric machines, allows an electric machine to operate beyond the designed frequency ofexcitation.Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as Field-Wound (i.e., electromagnet) or PermanentMagnet (PM) Synchronous electric machines cannot realize bursts of torque higher than the maximum designedtorque without saturating the magnetic core and rendering any increase in current as useless. Furthermore, thepermanent magnet assembly of PM synchronous electric machines can be irreparably damaged, if bursts of torqueexceeding the maximum operating torque rating are attempted.Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as Induction (i.e., asynchronous) electric machines,Induction Doubly Fed electric machines, and Induction or Synchronous Wound-Rotor Doubly Fed (WRDF) electricmachines, exhibit very high bursts of torque because the active current (i.e., Magneto-Motive-Force or the product ofcurrent and winding-turns) induced on either side of the transformer oppose each other and as a result, the activecurrent contributes nothing to the transformer coupled magnetic core flux density, which would otherwise lead tocore saturation.Electric machines that rely on Induction or Asynchronous principles short-circuit one port of the transformer circuitand as a result, the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit becomes dominant as slip increases, which limitsthe magnitude of active (i.e., real) current. Still, bursts of torque that are two to three times higher than the maximumdesign torque are realizable.The Synchronous WRDF electric machine is the only electric machine with a truly dual ported transformer circuittopology (i.e., both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port). The dual ported transformer circuittopology is known to be unstable and requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power tothe rotor winding set. If a precision means were available to instantaneously control torque angle and slip forsynchronous operation during motoring or generating while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotorwinding set (see Brushless wound-rotor doubly fed electric machine), the active current of the Synchronous WRDFelectric machine would be independent of the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of torquesignificantly higher than the maximum operating torque and far beyond the practical capability of any other type ofelectric machine would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times operating torque have been calculated.

Electric motor 19

Continuous torque densityThe continuous torque density of conventional electric machines is determined by the size of the air-gap area and theback-iron depth, which are determined by the power rating of the armature winding set, the speed of the machine,and the achievable air-gap flux density before core saturation. Despite the high coercivity of neodymium orsamarium-cobalt permanent magnets, continuous torque density is virtually the same amongst electric machines withoptimally designed armature winding sets. Continuous torque density should never be confused with peak torquedensity, which comes with the manufacturer's chosen method of cooling, which is available to all, or period ofoperation before destruction by overheating of windings or even permanent magnet damage.

Continuous power densityThe continuous power density is determined by the product of the continuous torque density and the constant torquespeed range of the electric machine.

Motor standardsThe following are major design and manufacturing standards covering electric motors:• International Electrotechnical Commission: IEC 60034 Rotating Electrical Machines• National Electrical Manufacturers Association (USA): NEMA MG 1 Motors and Generators• Underwriters Laboratories (USA): UL 1004 - Standard for Electric Motors

References and further reading[1] Schoenherr, Steven F. (2001), "Loudspeaker History" (http:/ / history. sandiego. edu/ gen/ recording/ loudspeaker. html). Recording

Technology History (http:/ / history. sandiego. edu/ gen/ recording/ notes. html). Retrieved 2010-03-13.[2] linear Electric Machines- A Personal View - Eric R. Laithwaite, Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 63, No. 2, February 1975 page 250[3] Faraday, Michael (1844). Experimental Researches in Electricity. 2. See plate 4.[4] spark museum (http:/ / www. sparkmuseum. com/ MOTORS. HTM)[5] http:/ / www. traveltohungary. com/ english/ articles/ article. php?id=135[6] Electricity and magnetism, translated from the French of Amédée Guillemin. Rev. and ed. by Silvanus P. Thompson. London, MacMillan,

1891[7] Nature 53. (printed in 1896) page: 516[8] http:/ / www. mpoweruk. com/ timeline. htm[9] http:/ / www. fh-zwickau. de/ mbk/ kfz_ee/ praesentationen/ Elma-Gndl-Generator%20-%20Druckversion. pdf[10] http:/ / www. uni-regensburg. de/ Fakultaeten/ phil_Fak_I/ Philosophie/ Wissenschaftsgeschichte/ Termine/ E-Maschinen-Lexikon/

Chronologie. htm[11] http:/ / www. mpoweruk. com/ history. htm[12] Gee, William (2004). "Sturgeon, William (1783–1850)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford, England: Oxford University

Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/26748.[13] (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5mvVElGudyYC& pg=PA194& dq=davenport+ motor+ c& lr=& as_brr=0& as_pt=ALLTYPES)

Garrison, Ervan G., "A history of engineering and technology". CRC Press, 1998. ISBN 0-8493-9810-X, 9780849398100. Retrieved May 7,2009.

[14] http:/ / www. frankfurt. matav. hu/ angol/ magytud. htm[15] For a description and superb illustration of one such early electric motor designed by Froment, see a Google Books PDF online version of

Ganot's Physics, 14th Edition, N.Y., 1893 translated by Atkinson, pp. 907 and 908. (Section 899, and Figure 888). (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=BgM5AAAAMAAJ& pg=PP7& dq=Ganot's+ Physics#PPA907,M1)

[16] http:/ / www. physics. umd. edu/ lecdem/ services/ demos/ demosk4/ k4-21. gif[17] Electric motors use 60% of china's electric energy, for example (http:/ / www. switch-asia. eu/ switch-projects/ project-progress/

projects-on-improving-production/ efficient-electric-motor-system. html)[18] US Department of Energy indicates over half US electricity generation is used by electric motors (http:/ / www1. eere. energy. gov/ industry/

bestpractices/ pdfs/ mc-0382. pdf)[19] Tokai University Unveils 100W DC Motor with 96% Efficiency http:/ / techon. nikkeibp. co. jp/ english/ NEWS_EN/ 20090403/ 168295/[20] http:/ / www. electronicsweekly. com/ Articles/ 2010/ 08/ 13/ 46377/ dyson-vacuums-104000rpm-brushless-dc-technology. htm[21] " Tesla's Early Years (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ tesla/ ll/ ll_early. html)". PBS.[22] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=416194

Electric motor 20

[23] Cyril W. Lander, Power Electronics 3rd Edition, Mc Graw Hill International UK Limited, London 1993 ISBN 0-07-707714-8 Chapter 9–8Slip Ring Induction Motor Control

[24] http:/ / www. daytronic. com/ products/ trans/ t-magpickup. htm[25] http:/ / www. circuitcellar. com/ Motor Comparison, Circuit Cellar Magazine, July 2008, Issue 216, Bachiochi, p.78 (Table edited in

Wikipedia, May 2011)[26] The “Goodness” of Small Contemporary Permanent Magnet Electric Machines - D J Patterson, C W Brice, R A Dougal, D Kovuri[27] Briere D. and Traverse, P. (1993) “ Airbus A320/A330/A340 Electrical Flight Controls: A Family of Fault-Tolerant Systems (http:/ /

personales. upv. es/ juaruiga/ teaching/ TFC/ Material/ Trabajos/ AIRBUS. PDF)” Proc. FTCS, pp. 616–623.[28] North, David. (2000) "Finding Common Ground in Envelope Protection Systems". Aviation Week & Space Technology, Aug 28, pp. 66–68.[29] Patrick, Dale R; Fardo, Stephen W., Rotating Electrical Machines and Power Systems (2nd Edition)1997 Fairmont Press, Inc. ISBN

978-0-88173-239-9 chapter 11[30] (http:/ / www. tethers. com/ LaunchAssist. html)[31] [ Ribarič M. and Šušteršič L. Moving pointlike charges and electric and magnetic dipoles, AM.J.Phys.60(6),June 1992 ]

CitationsGeneral references• Donald G. Fink and H. Wayne Beaty, Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Eleventh Edition,

McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978, ISBN 0-07-020974-X.• Edwin J. Houston and Arthur Kennelly, Recent Types of Dynamo-Electric Machinery, copyright American

Technical Book Company 1897, published by P.F. Collier and Sons New York, 1902• Kuphaldt, Tony R. (2000–2006). "Chapter 13 AC MOTORS" (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ obp/ electricCircuits/

AC/ AC_13. html). Lessons In Electric Circuits—Volume II. Retrieved 2006-04-11.• "A.O.Smith: The AC's and DC's of Electric Motors" (http:/ / www. aosmithmotors. com/ uploadedFiles/ AC-DC

manual. pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-07.• Resenblat & Frienman DC and AC machinery• http:/ / www. streetdirectory. com/ travel_guide/ 115541/ technology/

understanding_electric_motors_and_their_uses. htmlFurther reading• Shanefield D. J., Industrial Electronics for Engineers, Chemists, and Technicians,William Andrew Publishing,

Norwich, NY, 2001.• Fitzgerald/Kingsley/Kusko (Fitzgerald/Kingsley/Umans in later years), Electric Machinery, classic text for junior

and senior electrical engineering students. Originally published in 1952, 6th edition published in 2002.• Bedford, B. D.; Hoft, R. G. et al. (1964). Principles of Inverter Circuits. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc..

ISBN 0 471 06134 4. (Inverter circuits are used for variable-frequency motor speed control)• B. R. Pelly, "Thyristor Phase-Controlled Converters and Cycloconverters: Operation, Control, and Performance"

(New York: John Wiley, 1971).• John N. Chiasson, Modeling and High Performance Control of Electric Machines, Wiley-IEEE Press, New York,

2005, ISBN 0-471-68449-X.

External links• Electricity museum: early motors (http:/ / www. sparkmuseum. com/ MOTORS. HTM)• Electric Motors and Generators (http:/ / www. phys. unsw. edu. au/ ~jw/ HSCmotors. html), explanations with

animations from the University of New South Wales.• The Numbers Game: A Primer on Single-Phase A.C. Electric Motor Horsepower Ratings (http:/ / kevinsbrady.

net/ motors. pdf), Kevin S. Brady.• Theory of DC motor speed control (http:/ / www. aseanexport. com/ PDF/ dc_motor_speed_controller. pdf)• International Energy Agency (IEA) 4E Annex concerned with Energy Efficiency in Electric Motor Systems

(http:/ / motor. iea-4e. org/ )• Interactive Animation of a 3-Phase AC Electric Motor (http:/ / www. derekricks. com/ webinteractive. html)

Electric motor 21

• Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) (http:/ / kmoddl. library. cornell. edu/ index. php) -Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes ane-book library (http:/ / kmoddl. library. cornell. edu/ e-books. php) of classic texts on mechanical design andengineering.

• How Printed Motors work (http:/ / www. printedmotorworks. com/ about-2/ how-printed-motors-work/ )• Interactive Java Animation: The Rotating Magnetic Field (http:/ / www. ipes. ethz. ch/ ipes/ 2002Feldlinien/

feld_dreh. html)• Asynchronous Motor: Explanation of operation (http:/ / www. andrijar. com/ pwm/ index. htm)

Article Sources and Contributors 22

Article Sources and ContributorsElectric motor  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=472056082  Contributors: (jarbarf), 2-bits, 28bytes, A little insignificant, A. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Motors01CJC.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Motors01CJC.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: en:User:C_J_CowieImage:Faraday magnetic rotation.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Faraday_magnetic_rotation.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Michael FaradayImage:Jedlik motor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jedlik_motor.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:http://www.jedliktarsasag.hu/File:Electric motor cycle 2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Electric_motor_cycle_2.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dmitry G, Isi,Tano4595File:Brushed_electric_motor_DC.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brushed_electric_motor_DC.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:KVDPImage:Serie Shunt Coumpound.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Serie_Shunt_Coumpound.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: HaadeFile:Switched reluctance motor 6-4.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Switched_reluctance_motor_6-4.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: VonvikkenFile:Miniature Coreless DC Motor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Miniature_Coreless_DC_Motor.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:AvsararasFile:Universalmotor 3.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Universalmotor_3.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: MarrrciFile:Brushed electric motor AC.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brushed_electric_motor_AC.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:KVDPFile:Squirrelcage_rotor_motor_1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Squirrelcage_rotor_motor_1.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:KVDPFile:Squirrelcage_rotor_motor_2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Squirrelcage_rotor_motor_2.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:KVDP

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