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8/8/2019 Muslim Contributions to Science

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Muslim Contributions to Science & Technology

In the modern world Islam is seen as many things, but rarely is it viewed as a

source of inspiration and enlightenment. Though it is a force ofenlightenment and it is not only verses of the Quran that testify to that fact,but also the great body of scholarship produced during the Middle Ages.While Europe was in the midst of darkness, it was the Muslims, spurred on bythe light of their new Deem who picked up the torch of scholarship andscience. It was the Muslims who preserved the knowledge of antiquity,elaborated upon it, and finally, passed it on to Europe.

Although every person earn what they do and pass on, it is important for usto learn about and appreciate the contributions of the Islamic civilization bythe early Muslims.

Colonialism, the institution of the Western educational model, along withEuro centrism often portrays Islam as backwards, incompatible with scienceand technology and anti-educational. Muslim school children never learn oftheir glorious past and often the only thing passed on to them is theinferiority complex of the generation before them. From the past we canlearn from our mistakes and use the analysis of those great examples beforeus as role models to enrich us in the future.

In the seventh century A.D., the prophet Muhammad (SAW) was sent to thepeople of Arabia. Within a decade of his death the Muslims had conqueredall of the Arabian peninsula. Within a century, Islam had spread from Al-

Andalus in Spain to the borders of China. Islam unified science, theology,and philosophy. Muslims were commanded to study, seek knowledge, andlearn and benefit from others' experiences by Allah (SWT) in the holy Quranand by the prophet Muhammad (SAW) in the Sunnah. It was this thatinspired the Muslims to great heights in sciences, medicine, mathematics,astronomy, chemistry, philosophy, art and architecture.

Muslim scholars began obtaining Greek treatises and started their study andtranslation into Arabic a few centuries after the Hijrah (622 A.D.) Theycritically analyzed, collated , corrected and supplemented substantially theGreek science and philosophy. After this period began what is known as the

Golden Age of Islam, which lasted for over two centuries. It is here we findmany of the great scientists of Islam who literally left behind hundreds andthousands of books on the various branches of science.

Abu Ali al-Hussain Ibn Abdallah Ibn Sina, universally known as Avicinna (980-1037), alone wrote 246 books, including Kitab-al Shifa (The Book of Healing)consisting of 20 volumes and Al-Qanun fit Tibb (The Canons of Medicine) .The Qanun was the chief guide for medical science in the West from the


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twelfth to the seventeenth century. Dr. William Osler, who wrote TheEvolution of Modern Science, remarks "The Qanun has remained a medicalBible for a longer period than any other work". Containing over a millionwords, it surveyed the entire medical knowledge available from ancient andMuslim sources, and including his own original

contributions.

Ibn Sina's original contributions included such advances such as recognitionof the contagious nature of phtisis and tuberculosis; distribution of diseasesby water and soil and theinteraction between psychology and health. Also, the book described over760 drugs and became the most authentic of its era. Ibn Sina was also thefirst to describe meningitis and made rich contributions to anatomy,gynaecology and child health.

This interest in medicine went back to the time of the Prophet (SAW), who

once said that there existed a cure for every disease. With this spirit therewere hospitals and clinics built all over the Muslim world, the earliest built in707 by Caliph Walid ibn Abd a-Malik in Damascus. Muslims made manyadvances such as the idea of circulation of blood and quarantine and thefoundation of the first apothecary shops and the earliest school of pharmacy.

Hunayn ibn Ishaq, a philosopher and physician made advances in Medicine,Physics, Mathematics, Astronomy Veterinary Science, and Ophthalmology.He was the head of the famous school of translators founded by CaliphMamun at Baghdad and wrote the firstsystematic text book on opthamology.

Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865-925 AD) , known as Rhazes,was one of the most prolific Muslim doctors and probably second only to IbnSina in his accomplishments. He was born at Ray, Iran and became astudent of Hunayn ibn Ishaq and later a student of Ali ibn Rabban. He wroteover 200 books, including Kitab al-Mansuri, ten volumes on Greek medicine,and al-Hawi, an encyclopedia of medicine in 20 volumes. In al-Hawi, heincluded each medical subject's information available from Greek and Arabsources and then added his own remarks based on his experience and views.He classified substances as vegetable, animal or mineral while otheralchemists divided them into "bodies", "souls" and

"spirits".

Al-Razi was first placed in charge of the first Royal Hospital at Ray, fromwhere he soon moved to a similar position in Baghdad where he remainedthe head of its famousMuqtadari Hospital for a long time. He found a treatment for kidney andbladder stones, and explained the nature of various infectious diseases. Healso conducted research on smallpox and measles and was the first to


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introduce the use of alcohol for medical purposes. A unique feature to hismedical system was that he greatly favored cure through correct andregulated food intake. This was combined with his emphasis on theinfluence of psychological factors on health. He also tried proposedremedies first on animals in order to evaluate their effects and side effects.

He was also an expert surgeon and the first to use opiumfor anesthesia.

Another great physician who soon followed was al-Razi was Abul Qasim al-Zahrawi (963-1013 AD) who is known as Albucasis to the West. A famoussurgeon in his time, at the court of Caliph al- Hakam II , students andpatients flocked to him from the Muslim world and Europe. He wrote themedical encyclopedia al-Tasrif li man ajaz an-il-talif, which contained 30sections of surgical knowledge and illustrations of 200 surgical instruments,most of which he designed himself. The Encyclopedia was not only astandard for physicians, but even five centuries later it was being used as

the standard textbook on surgery in universities in Europe.He also performed many delicate operations such as Cesareans and was alsothe first to use silk thread for stitching wounds.

Al-Idrisi was born in Cordova, Spain in 1099. His major contribution was inmedicinal plants which he described in many books, such as Kitab al-Jami-li-Sifat Ashtat al-Nabatat. Hecollected plans and data not reported earlier and added this to the subject ofbotany. From him a large number of new drugs from plants with theirevaluations became available to medical practitioners. Al-Idrisi also madeoriginal contributions to topography, as related to economics, physical

factors and cultural aspects. He wrote geographical encyclopedias, thelargest called Rawd-Unnas wa Nuzhalat Nafs (Pleasure of Men and Delight ofSouls). Al-Idrisi also wrote on the subjects of fauna, zoology andthreapeutical aspects. His work was soon translated into Latin and his bookson geography especially remained popular in the east and west for severalcenturies.

Working in the field of botany as well was abu Muhammad Ibn al-Baitar, alsofrom Spain. He was one of the greatest scientists of Muslim Spain and one ofthe greatest botanists and pharmacists of the Middle Ages. He went onmany traveling expeditions to collect plants as far as Africa and Asia Minor.

He wrote Kitab al-Jami al-Adiwaya al-Mufrada, one of the greatestbotanical compilations dealing with medicinal plants in Arabic Theencyclopedia was made of over 1,400 items, many of which were not knownbefore. The book referred to the works of 150 authors, mostly Arabic andquoted about 20 early Greek scientists. It was translatedinto Latin and published as late as 1758.


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Ibn al-Baitars works were characterized by observation, analysis andclassification and exerted a profound influence on Eastern as well as Westernbotany and medicine. Even though many of his works were translated andpublished late in the westernlanguages, many earlier scientists had studied various parts of the book and

made several references to it.

At the same time as these advances in medicine were being made, theMuslims produced some of the most outstanding Mathematicians.Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, born in 780 A.D. was the founder ofmodern Algebra. He developed sine, cosine and trigonometrical tables,which were later translated to the West. His book on algebra Hisab al-Jabrwaal-Muqabalah (The Calculation of Integration and Equation) was used untilthe 16th century as the principal textbook of European universities. In it hewrites that given an equation, collecting the unknowns in one side of theequation is called al-Jabr and collecting the knowns in the other side of the

equation is called al- Mukabalah. He also described six basic types ofequations: nx=m , x^2=nx , x^2=m , m+x^2 =nx, m+nx+x^2 andx^2=m+nx. He also solved the particular equation x^2+21=10x usinggeometrical arguments.

Al-Khawarizmi also helped introduce Arabic numerals, the decimal positionsystem, and the concept of zero. Algebra and Algorithm are in factcorruption's of his work and name.Interestingly, this first every book on algebra included many examples fromthe Islamic inheritance laws and how they could be solved using algebra.Under al-Mamun the caliph of the time, he with some others were the first to

map the globe.

In the field of Algebra the Muslims continued with Thabit Ibn Qurra's moregeneral equations solved by geometrical arguments. In 901, Abu Kamil,called "the Egyptian calculator", did some work on algebra in which heestablished rules for manipulatingalgebraic expressions. He also proved various laws such as ax*bx-abx^2,a(bx)=(ab)x and (10-x)(10-x)=100+x^2-20x (Mirza, p124). Around 1000,Abu Bakr Al-Karaji, in his book The Marvelous discussed higher orderequations such as fourth and fifth order equations,combing geometry and arithmetic. Al-Samawal established the power law

x^nx^n=x^(m+n) in 1180 in his work The Shining which is just one of his 85books. He also worked on performing multiplication of algebraic expressionsinvolving terms with different powers and division of polynomials. Abu Yunusproved the famous identity cos(a)cos(b)={cos(a+b)+cos(a-b)}/2 and usedspherical trigonometry to set formulas to computer prayer times. Al-Birunialso used spherical trigonometry to find the direction of Mecca or any othercity on the globe.


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Another outstanding mathematician was Ghiyath al-Din al Kashani of the latefourteenth century. He worked on the theory of numbers and techniques ofcomputations. In 1424, he computed a value of 2pi to sixteen decimal digitsof accuracy using an approximation of the circle by 805306368 side polygon.One of his most important works was Miftah elHussab or The Calculators'

Key, in it he described an algorithm for finding the fifth root of any number.The book was used in Persian schools until the seventeenth century. Later inhis life he moved to Samarkand at the request of the then ruler to help directa new scientific school and observatory and conduct research with otherscholars of the time. Kashani also wrote on how to approximate sin(1) bysolving a cubic equation accurately.

Umar Khayyam known to the west as only a poet actually also was anexcellent mathematician. He criticized Euclid's theorems, evolved amethodology for the solution of third degree equations, and did research inthe field of binomials and their coefficients.

Abu Wafa Muhammad al-Buzanji was born in Buzjan, Nishapur in 940 A. D.He became a great mathematician and astronomer at Baghdad and died in997 A.D. Al-Buzanji's main contribution lies in several branches ofmathematics, in geometry and trigonometryespecially. In geometry he contributed to a solution of geometrical problemswith opening of the compass, construction of a square equivalent to othersquares, regular polyhedra, construction of regular hectagon taking for itsside of the equilateral triangle inscribed in the same circle, constructions ofparabola by points and geometrical solution of the equations x4=a andx4+ax3=b.

Al-Buzanji's contribution to the development of trigonometry was alsoextensive. He was the first to show the generality of the sine theoremrelative to spherical triangles. He developed a new method of constructingsine tables, the value of sin 30` being correct to the eight decimal place. Healso developed relations for sine (a+b) and the formula: 2 sin2 (a/2) = 1 -cosa and sin a = 2 sin (a/2) cos (a/2). In addition he studied tangent andcalculated tables for them. He introduced the secant and cosecant for thefirst time. He wrote a large number of books on mathematics and othersubjects, most of which have been lost or exist in modifiedforms. He also wrote rich commentaries on Euclid, Diophanatos and al-

Khwarizmi. A sizable part of today's trigonometry can be traced back to him.

Abu Abdullah al-Battani (862-929 A.D.) was a son of a scientist and also afamous astronomer, mathematician and astrologer. He is often consideredone of the greatest astronomists of Islam. His career of 42 years included anumber of important discoveries, including the accurate determination of thesolar year as 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes, and 24 seconds, which is veryclose to modern estimates. He also determined with accuracy the obliquity


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of the ecliptic, the length of the seasons and the true and mean orbit of thesun. He proved that in contrast to Ptolemy, the variation of the apparentangular diameter of the sun and the possibility of annular eclipses. Hisobservations of lunar and solar eclipses were used by Dunthorne in 1749 todetermine the secular acceleration of motion of the moon.

In mathematics, al-Battani was the first to replace the use of Greekchords bysines and the first to develop the concept of cotangent and furnished theirtable in degrees. He wrote a number of books on astronomy andtrigonometry. His most famous book was his astronomical treatise withtables which was translated into Latin in the 12th century, called De SceintaStellerum De numeris Stellerum et Motibus. This was extremely influential inEurope until the Renaissance, with translations available in severallanguages. His original discoveries in both astronomy and trigonometry wereof great consequence in the development of those sciences.

In the related field of Physics, Abu al-Fath Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini studiedmechanics and hydrostats and wrote books on physics and astronomy. Al-Biruni, a geographer, chronologist, mathematician, astronomer, was also aphysicist. His Elements of Astrology remained a textbook for centuries andhe also wrote on specific gravity, and developed formulas to determineabsolute and specific weights of all objects.

Abu al-Hassan al Haitham (965-1039 AD) was one of the most eminentphysicists, whose contribution to optics and the scientific method were great.Originally from Basra, he went to Egypt where he was asked to find ways ofcontrolling the flood of the Nile. Being unsuccessful in this, he feigned

madness until the death of Caliph al-Hakim. He also traveled to Spain andduring this time also had time for his scientific pursuits. He wrote treatisessuch as Kital al-Manzir on light, worked with mirrors and lenses, reflection,refraction, and magnifying and burning glasses. He discussed thepropagation of light and colors, optic illusions and opposed the view of Euclidand Ptolemy that the eye sent out visual rays. From studying motion, hediscovered the principle of inertia.

He contradicted Ptolemy's and Euclid's theory of vision that objects are seenby rays of light emanating from the eyes. According to Haitham, the raysoriginated in the object of vision and not in the eye. Through this kind of

extensive research on optics, he has been considered the father of modernOptics. Roger Bacon and all medieval Western writers on optics based theirwork largely on his Opticae Thesaurus and it even influenced Leonardo daVinci, Johann Kepler and Newton.. Haitham also studied the phenomena ofsunrise and sunset and explained rainbows through the principle ofreflection. He was known for the earliest use of the camera obscura as well.


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Al-Kindi (d. 873 AD) considered the first philosopher of the Arabs, alsocontributed to Physics , Optics, reflection of light, specific weights, tides andmetallurgy.

Muslims also made discoveries in Chemistry by discovering many new

substances such as potash, nitrate of silver, corrosive sublimate and nitrateand sulfuric acid as well as improving methods for evaporation, filtration,sublimation, calcination, melting, distillation, and crystallization. Jabir,otherwise known as the father of Arab alchemy contributed in the fields ofPharmacology and Toxicology.

Al-Asma'i (740-882 AD) was a philologist who contributed to Zoology, Botanyand Animal Husbandry. Other Muslim botanists described plants in detail,medicinal herbs, physiology of plants and wrote books on horses, camels,sheep, birds, the history of bees and locusts, the effect of climate on thebehavior of animals and men. Also working on the subject of Botany, Suri al-

Dimashqi researched plants around Damascus and Lebanon at differentstages of growth.

In the field of geography, Ibn Majid invented the compass. The Muslimstraversed the Indian, Atlantic and Pacific Ocean as well as sailing around theAfrican continent, in their trading with India, Iran and Greece. They wrotesuch books as Akhbar al-Hind (Reports on India), Akhbar al-Sin (Reports onChina) and Ajib al-Hind (Curiosities of India). Sulaiman Al-Makri wrote of histravels in Al-budat and other books. Abu al-Hasan al-Masudi, a historian andscientist, traveled the world journeying from Persia, Central Asia, India, theNear East, Madagascar and the China Sea. He wrote his encyclopedic

volume on his travels which included history, cosmology and geography.

Al-Biruni was the first known writer to identify certain geological facts, suchas the formation of sedimentary rocks and the great geological changes thathappened in the past. He was also the founder of geodesy and wrote andimproved upon the methods of measuring longitudes, latitudes, heights ofmountains and the diameter of the earth. He also wrote on biologicalevolution.

Of the many scientists in the field of astronomy, Al-Sufi helped build afamous observatory under the Buwayh sultan Sharaf-al-Dawlah. He

prepared charts of the heavens with magnitudes and was the first to markthe nebula of Andromeda in his atlas. Al-Zarqali from al-Andalus inventedthe astrolabe and measured the rate of motion. He also constructedastronomical instruments and built a water clock.

Jabir ibn Aflah was a Spanish Arab who criticized Ptolemy's heliocentrictheory of planetary motion. He designed the first portable celestial sphere toexplain and measure the movements of celestial objects and led the way for


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spherical trigonometry. Al-Bitruji developed a new theory of stellarmovements. Names of many constellations, words like zenith and nadir andeven names of craters of the moon all go back to the works of Muslimscholars of this time.

We can see that these Islamic sciences had a great impact upon both theWestern world and also the two major civilizations east of the Islamic world,India and China. Without the Islamic scientists and their work, thedevelopment of science in these civilizations would have been different.Between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries the major works of Islamicscientists were translated into Latin in Spain, Sicily and Italy. Muslimscientists like Ibn Sina and al-Razi became household names in the West.Islamic medicine led the way for European medicine.

In the field of mathematics the works of al-Khwarazmi and others weretaught in the Western universities for centuries. Astronomical tables written

in the West were based upon the work of Muslims before them. Treatises onalgebra that were written were mostly based on the work of Khayyam.Works in chemistry written in Latin used an extensive Arabic vocabularybecause there was no Latin vocabulary in this field.

Many of these scientists were also great philosophers, such as Ibn Sina andal-Razi. Ibn Sina initially began studying logic, from there he studied physicsand metaphysics and was the first to develop a complete philosophicalsystem in Arabic. Ibn Sina's philosophical encyclopedia Kitab al- Shifa was amonumental work, embodying a vast field of knowledge from philosophy toscience. He classified the entire field as follows: theoretical knowledge;

physics, mathematics, and metaphysics; ethics, economics and politics. Hisphilosophy synthesized Aristotelian tradition, Neoplatonic influences andMuslim theology. Besides al-Shifa his well-known treatises in philosophy areal-Najat and Isharat.

Al-Razi's contribution as a philosopher was also well known. The basicelements in his philosophical system were the Creator, the spirit, matter,space and time. He discussed theircharacteristics in detail and his concepts of space and time as constituting acontinuum His philosophical views were, however, criticized by a number ofother Muslim scholars of the era.

During the time of Harun al-Rashid (786-809) the Muslims built a librarywhich contained both originals and translations of almost any then knownscientific work in Sanskrit, Persian and Greek. His son, Caliph al-Mamuncontinued the tradition of philosophy and science and established inBaghdad his Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom), a library and academy.Here the objective was to collect all scientific works, translate them into


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Arabic and copy and bind them into books to preserve them. No doubt muchof the knowledge of the Greeks and others was preserved in this way.

Lastly we come to the realm of the arts. The well known Hadith "Allah isbeautiful and He loves beauty" encouraged Muslims to beautify the word of

Allah through calligraphy and other expressions. Islamic calligraphy beganwith the kufi styles, then followed naskhi, thuluth, muhaqqiq, rayhani, andnasta'liq. Calligraphy began as a direct response of the soul of Muslims tothe descent of the Quranic revelation. Calligriphical art moved frombeautifying the Quran and texts to objects, houses and Mosques andeventually to Architecture.

Writes T.B. Irving on Islamic architecture, ...Few civilizations haveapproached Islam's beauties in architecture: her soaring minarets and spires,her fabled domes, her cool corridors, all reflect the yearning of Muslims, whorefusing to find expression in natural depiction concentrate their energies on

buildings and their embellishment."

These embellishments included the calligraphic mosaics of mosques, tombsand places through out Persia , India, Turkey, Egypt, Morocco along withmarble carving, plaster work, delicate inlay and tile work. Muslims alsoevolved their own style of art, while producing beautiful ceramic tiles,porcelain, pottery, plates, bowls, tapestries and rugs, and lamps.

The defining elements of Islamic Architecture are many. The use of theframe created organization and design.. Calligraphy was found in thedecoration of almost every Islamic building as well as many objects.

Geometry become a major art form by using the circle as a basis andgenerating patterns from repetition, symmetry and changing scale to createunusual effects. Reflected light was developed and multiplied with theMuqarnas cells beneath domes, and they reflected and refracted light.

Ceramic tiles and mirrors were added to use light and increase them.Foliation including the classical vine and scroll motifs gave rise to theabstract art of the arabesque. Lastly, water was an essential element,whether flowing through palaces in India or in fountains found in the innercourtyards of Spain. Islamic architecture influenced the widespread use ofthe niche form for Mihrab, tombstone, door, window or decorative feature,

lamps, domes, mosaics, geometric shapes, patterns, intertwining leaf motifsand designs, fountains, gardens, and courtyards.

Islamic art took from the civilizations surrounding it and also impacted them.The Chinese were influenced in their vases and carpets. Medieval Europewere influenced in their arts and showed it from their adoption of arches totheir illuminations of Latin and Hebrew manuscripts. Of course the epitomeof Islamic art can be seen in the greatest Islamic masterpieces such as the


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grand mosques of Cordova in Spain, the Taj Mahal in India, and the Bluemosque in Turkey. The works of these Muslim artists have becomeprototypes and models on which other artists and craftsmen patterned theirown works, or from which they derived the inspiration for related work.

Thus the contributions of early Islam were so rich, so voluminous and sovaried that it defies this brief descriptive survey. These Muslims drew fromtheir pre-Islamic traditions, plus those of the civilizations they came intocontact with and they absorbed what went with their beliefs and rejectedwhat did not. Over the centuries they continued to develop and partake inthe pursuit of knowledge with no hesitation. The destruction of Baghdad andthe Mongol invasions did not even hinder them from learning and elaboratingon the arts and sciences, despite the great destruction of their books andknowledge.

However, what is most important is not the discoveries themselves of the

early Muslims but the methodology and kind of thought behind whatproduced them. Inspired by the truth of Islam, by strong faith and byQuranic enjoinders to ponder, think and discover the world did they lead theworld in doing so. Only with this verve to relate the outward world ofscience, art and philosophy to inner spirituality and religion can we againreach the heights of the Golden Age of Islam.

[ A timetable of contributions:]

- Chuzini, Abu al-Fath al-; physicist.- Ibn Hisham; biographer, historian.

- Ibn Labban, Kushyar.- Ibn Turk, `Abd al-Hamid; mathematician.- Ibn al-Muqtafi, Abu al-Fadl Ja`far; astronomer.- 767 Ibn Ishaq; biographer, historian.721- 815 Jabir ibn Hayyan, Abu Musa (Geber); alchemist.780- 850 Khwarizmi, Muhammad ibn Musa al-; astronomer,mathematician.82?- 861 Farghani, Abu al-`Abbas al- (Afragamus); astronomer,geographer.- 870 Kindi, Abu Yusuf Ya`qub ibn Ishaq al-Sabah al-;philosopher.

828- 889 Ibn Qutaybah; historian, philologist, theologian.826- 901 Ibn Qurra, Thabit; mathematician.865- 923 Razi, al- (Rhazes); alchemist, philosopher, physician.839- 923 Tabari, al-; historian, theologian.858- 929 Battani, al- (Albatenius); astronomer, mathematician.870- 950 Farabi, al- (Alfarabicus); philosopher, poet.940- 998 Abu al-Wafa'; astronomer, mathematician.-1008 Ibn Yunus; astronomer, mathematician.


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936-1013 Abu al-Qasim (Albucasis); physician.-1029 Karkhi, al-; mathematician.930-1030 Ibn Miskawayh; historian, philosopher.980-1037 Ibn Sina, Abu Àli al-Husayn (Avicenna); philosopher,physician.

965-1039 Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen); mathematician, physicist.973-1048 Biruni, al-; historian, mathematician, physicist.1058-1111 Ghazali, Abu Hamid al- (Algazel); philosopher.1048-1131 Khayyam, Ùmar (Omar Khayyam); astronomer, mathematician,poet.1095-1138 Ibn Bajjah (Avempace); philosopher.1075-1144 Zamakhshari, al-; philologist, theologian.1090-1162 Ibn Zuhr, Abu Marwun Àbd al-Malik (Avenzoar, Abumeron);physician.1100-1185 Ibn Tufayl; philosopher, physician.1126-1198 Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Walid (Averroes); philosopher,

physician.1135-1204 Ibn Maymun (Maimonides); Jewish philosopher, physician.1201-1274 Tusi, Nasir al-Din al-; astronomer, mathematician,philosopher.-1288 Ibn al-Nafis; physician.-137? Ibn al-Shatir; astronomer.1332-1406 Ibn Khaldun, Abu Zayd Àbd al-Rahman; historian,sociologist.-1436 Kashi, al-; mathematician.1445-1505 Suyuti, al-; historian, philologist, theologian

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