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Myers’ EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed)
Chapter 2
Neuroscience and Behavior
James A. McCubbin, PhDAneeq Ahmad, Ph.D.
(Modified by Ray Hawkins, Ph.D)
Worth Publishers
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Neuroscience and Behavior
Neural Communication Neurons How Neurons Communicate How Neurotransmitters Influence Us
The Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System The Central Nervous System
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Neuroscience and Behavior
The Endocrine System
The Brain Older Brain Structures
The Cerebral Cortex
Our Divided Brain
Studying Hemispheric Differences in the Intact Brain
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History of Mind
In 1800, Franz Gall suggested that bumps
of the skull represented mental abilities. His theory,
though incorrect, nevertheless proposed that different mental
abilities were modular.
Phrenology
Bettm
an/ Corbis
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Neural Communication Biological Psychology
branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior
some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologist, or biopsychologists
Necessity of knowing biological processes underlying human behavior and mental functioning, as much behavior is motivated by biological needs
Neuron a nerve cell the basic building block of the nervous system
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Neural Communication Dendrite
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
Axon the extension of a neuron, ending in branching
terminal fibers, through which messages are sent to other neurons or to muscles or glands
Myelin [MY-uh-lin] Sheath a layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the
fibers of many neurons enables vastly greater transmission speed of
neutral impulses
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Neural Communication
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Neural Communication
Action Potential A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that
travels down an axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane.
Threshold Each neuron receives excitatory and inhibitory
signals from many neurons. When the excitatory signals minus the inhibitory signals exceed a minimum intensity (threshold) the neuron fires an action potential.
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Neural Communication
Action Potential Properties All-or-None Response: A strong stimulus can
trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often, but it does not affect the action potentials strength or speed.
Intensity of an action potential remains the same throughout the length of the axon.
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Neural CommunicationSynapse [SIN-aps]
a junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
NeurotransmittersNeurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending neuron travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate an action potential.
Reuptake
Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons through the process of reuptake. This process applies the brakes on neurotransmitter action.
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Neural Communication
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How Neurotransmitters Influence Us
Serotonin pathways are involved with mood regulation.
From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, © 1989 University of California Press
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Dopamine Pathways
Dopamine pathways are involved with diseases such as
schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease.
From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, © 1989 University of California Press
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Neural Communication
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Lock & Key Mechanism
Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the receiving neuron in a key-lock mechanism.
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Agonists
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Antagonists
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The Nervous System Nervous System
the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system
consists of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
Central Nervous System (CNS) the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) the sensory and motor neurons that
connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
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The Nervous System
Central(brain and
spinal cord)
Nervoussystem
Autonomic (controlsself-regulated action of
internal organs and glands)
Skeletal (controlsvoluntary movements of
skeletal muscles)
Sympathetic (arousing)
Parasympathetic (calming)
Peripheral
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The Nervous System
Nerves neural “cables” containing many axons part of the peripheral nervous system connect the central nervous system with
muscles, glands, and sense organs Sensory Neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system
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The Nervous System Interneurons
CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Motor Neurons carry outgoing information from the CNS
to muscles and glands Somatic Nervous System
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles
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The Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)
Sympathetic Nervous System division of the autonomic nervous system
that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
Parasympathetic Nervous System division of the autonomic nervous system
that calms the body, conserving its energy
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Sympathetic NS “Arouses”
(fight-or-flight)
Parasympathetic NS “Calms”
(rest and digest)
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Central Nervous System
The Brain and Neural Networks
Complex Neural Network
Interconnected neurons form networks in the brain. Theses networks are complex and modify with growth and experience.
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Central Nervous System
The Spinal Cord and Reflexes
Simple Reflex
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The Endocrine System
The Endocrine System is the body’s “slow”
chemical communication
system. Communication is
carried out by hormones
synthesized by a set of glands.
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Hormones
Hormones are chemicals synthesized by the endocrine glands that are secreted in the
bloodstream. Hormones affect the brain and many other tissues of the body.
For example, epinephrine (adrenaline) increases heart rate, blood pressure, blood
sugar and feelings of excitement during emergency situations.
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Pituitary GlandIs called the “master gland.” The anterior
pituitary lobe releases hormones that regulate other glands. The posterior lobe
regulates water and salt balance.
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Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands
Regulate metabolic and calcium rate.
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Adrenal GlandsAdrenal glands consist of the adrenal medulla and the cortex. The medulla secretes hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) during stressful and
emotional situations, while the adrenal cortex regulates salt and carbohydrate
metabolism.
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Gonads
Sex glands are located in different places in men and women. They regulate bodily
development and maintain reproductive organs in adults.
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The Brain
How the brain works (principle of hierarchical inhibitory control)
Three levels of brain hierarchy Hindbrain (central core,
comprising cerebellum, pons, and medulla)
Old brain (limbic system) New brain (central cortex)
Pathways and Feedback
(A. Buss, 1978) Hindbrain "Old" brain "New" brain Evolutionary origin Oldest, arose in
invertebrates Old, arose in vertebrates
Recent, arose in mammals
Functions it controls Breathing, digestion, posture
Mating, flight, fight, hunger, thirst
Perception, learning, thinking
Nature of the behavior under control
Innate, automatic, and unmodifiable
Innate, not automatic, can be modified
Mainly acquired, easily modified
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The Brain
Brainstem the oldest part and central core of the
brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull
responsible for automatic survival functions Medulla [muh-DUL-uh]
base of the brainstem controls heartbeat and breathing
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The Brain
Reticular Formation a nerve network in the brainstem that plays
an important role in controlling arousal Thalamus [THAL-uh-muss]
the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem
it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
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The Brain
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The Brain
Cerebellum [sehr-uh-BELL-um] the “little brain”
attached to the rear of the brainstem
it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance
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The Brain (How it’s Studied)
Lesion tissue
destruction a brain lesion is
a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
Electrical or Chemical Stimulation
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface
these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
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Libet (2004) ExperimentLibet (2004) Experiment
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Libet (2004): Consciousness and awareness
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Libet (2004): Consciousness and awareness
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Libet (2004): Consciousness and awareness
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The Brain
Computed Tomography (CT) Scan a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles
and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. Also called CAT scan
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a
radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to
produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain
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PET Scan
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MRI Scan
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The Brain
Limbic System a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at
the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres
associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex
includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la] two almond-shaped neural clusters that are
components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion
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The Brain
Hypothalamus neural structure lying
below (hypo) the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities eating drinking body temperature
helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
is linked to emotion
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The Limbic System
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Rats cross an electrified grid for self-stimulation
when electrodes are placed in the reward
(hypothalamus) center (top picture). When the
limbic system is manipulated, a rat will navigate fields or climb
up a tree (bottom picture).
Limbic System - Reward Center
Sanjiv T
alwar, S
UN
Y D
ownstate
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The Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres. It is the body’s ultimate control and information processing center.
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Structure of the Cortex
Each brain hemisphere is divided into four
lobes that are separated by
prominent fissures. These lobes are the
frontal lobe (forehead), parietal lobe (top to rear head), occipital lobe (back head) and temporal lobe (side of
head).
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Functions of the Cortex
The Motor Cortex is the area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control voluntary movements. The Sensory Cortex (parietal cortex) receives
information from skin surface and sense organs.
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Visual Function
The functional MRI scan shows the visual cortex is active as the subject looks at faces.
Courtesy of V
.P. Clark, K
. Keill, J. M
a. M
aisog, S. Courtney, L
.G.
Ungerleider, and J.V
. Haxby,
National Institute of M
ental Health
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Auditory Function
The functional MRI scan shows the
auditory cortex is active in patients who
hallucinate.
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More intelligent animals have increased “uncommitted” or association areas of the
cortex.
Association Areas
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Specialization & Integration
Brain activity when hearing, seeing, and speaking words
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LanguageAphasia is an impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to
Broca’s area (impaired speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impaired understanding).
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Brain Reorganization
Plasticity the brain’s capacity for
modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
Ramachandran & Blakelee (1998) “Phantoms in the Brain” (Myers text, p. 58)
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Our Divided Brain
Our brain is divided into two hemispheres. The left hemisphere processes reading, writing,
speaking, mathematics, and comprehension skills. In the 1960s, it was termed as the
dominant brain.
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Splitting the Brain
A procedure in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers
(mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them.
Corpus Callosum
Ma
rtin M
. Ro
the
r
Courtesy of T
erence William
s, University of Iow
a
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Split Brain Patients
With the corpus callosum severed, objects (apple) presented in the right visual field can be named.
Objects (pencil) in the left visual field cannot.
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Divided Consciousness
“Look at the dot.” Two words separatedby a dot are momentarily projected.
“What worddid you see?”
or
“Point withyour left hand to theword you saw.”
Film
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Try This!
Try drawing one shape with your left hand and one with your right hand, simultaneously.
BB
C
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Non-Split Brains
People with intact brains also show left-right hemispheric differences in mental abilities.
A number of brain scan studies show normal individuals engage their right brain when completing a perceptual task and their left brain when carrying out a linguistic task.
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Descartes’ “Seat of the Soul” ?
Berson et al. (2005) report that melanopsin, a protein which absorbs light in the eyes (especially blue wave lengths), even in blind persons, stimulates the pineal gland (called the “seat of the soul” by Descartes). The pineal gland in turn produces the hormone melatonin which affects sleep cycles, mood, and sexual activity. Will sitting under a blue light increase happiness? (Source, Spirituality & Health, Sept./Oct. 2005 issue, p. 21)