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    John Cook

    Global Change Institute, University of Queensland

    Web: http://www.skeptialsiene.o!

    "!ail: #ohn$skeptialsiene.o!

    %hone: &'( ) **'+ *++*

    Myth DebunkingA Tool for Education & ScienceCommunication

    Ullrich EckerCognitive Science Laboratories The University of !estern Australia

    "ohn Cook#lobal Change $nstitute The University of %ueensland

    Stehan Le'ando'sky

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    Coyright

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

    This resentation is licensed under theCreative Commons Attribution01onCommercial0ShareAlike 2.+ UnortedLicense. To vie' a coy of this license visithtt344creativecommons.org4licenses4by0nc0sa42.+4.

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    Attribution5 6ou must attribute the 'ork as seci7ed in the follo'ing )but not in any'ay that suggests that the original authors endorse you or your use of the 'ork-3

    Cite as Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-. Myth DebunkingA Tool for Education& Science Communication. Available at '''.cogsci'a.com.

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    The Authors

    Dr Ullrich Ecker is an Australian 9ostdoctoral :ello' funded by the Australian 8esearch Council at theUniversity of Australia;s School of 9sychology.

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    A 8evie'3 Le'ando'sky et al.)*+,*- in Psychological Science in

    the Public InterestFor an authoritative review of the literature on misinformation, please see:Lewandowsky, cker, Seifert, Schwar!, " #ook $%&'%() *isinformation and its correction:#ontinued in+uence and successful debiasing) Psychological Science in the Public Interest,

    13, '&-'.')

    Abstract:The 'idesread revalence and ersistence of misinformation in contemorary societies such as the falsebelief that there is a link bet'een childhood vaccinations and autism is a matter of ublic concern. :or eamle themyths surrounding vaccinations 'hich romted some arents to 'ithhold immuni>ation from their children have led

    to a marked increase in vaccine0reventable disease as 'ell as unnecessary ublic eenditure on research andublic0information camaigns aimed at rectifying the situation.

    !e 7rst eamine the mechanisms by 'hich such misinformation is disseminated in society both inadvertently andurosely. Misinformation can originate from rumors but also from 'orks of 7ction governments and oliticians andvested interests. Moreover changes in the media landscae including the arrival of the $nternet have fundamentallyinuenced the 'ays in 'hich information is communicated and misinformation is sread.

    !e net move to misinformation at the level of the individual and revie' the cognitive factors that often rendermisinformation resistant to correction. !e consider ho' eole assess the truth of statements and 'hat makes eolebelieve certain things but not others. !e look at eole;s memory for misinformation and ans'er the Buestions of 'hyretractions of misinformation are so ineective in memory udating and 'hy eorts to retract misinformation can even

    back7re and ironically increase misbelief. Though ideology and ersonal 'orldvie's can be ma@or obstacles fordebiasing there nonetheless are a number of eective techniBues for reducing the imact of misinformation and 'eay secial attention to these factors that aid in debiasing.

    !e conclude by roviding seci7c recommendations for the debunking of misinformation. These recommendationsertain to the 'ays in 'hich corrections should be designed structured and alied in order to maimi>e their imact.#rounded in cognitive sychological theory these recommendations may hel ractitioners5including @ournalistshealth rofessionals educators and science communicators5design eective misinformation retractions educationaltools and ublic0information camaigns.

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    Misinformation3 !hy is it imortant

    Decisions are based on information

    Misinformation leads to bad decisions

    Simle retractions of misinformationare ineFcient

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    $neFcient 8etractions

    Eamle ,- USA *++23 Many tentative media reorts of

    !MD discoveries during $raB invasion

    - All retracted- 1onetheless substantial roortion of

    oulace continued to believe that !MD;s hadbeen found )?ull et al. *++2-

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    Eamle *- U? ,GGH3 Claim that a certain vaccine causes

    autism

    - 8etracted- 1onetheless substantial and long0lasting dro

    in vaccination rates leading to hositali>ationand even death of many children )='ens *++*I 9oland& "acobsen *+,,-

    $neFcient 8etractions

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    Jmaybe eole missed the

    retraction

    Lab research sho's that eolecontinue to rely on misinformationeven- 'hen they understand the retraction

    - 'hen they correctly remember the retraction

    - 'hen they have no reason to believe one event versionor the other

    )Ecker et al. *+,+ *+,,a *+,,bI "ohnson & Seifert ,GGK-

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    Eamle)Ecker et al. *+,,bI "ohnson & Seifert ,GGKI !ilkes & Leatherbarro' ,GHH-

    9eole 7rst read3- J1egligent storage of gas cylinders caused a

    7reJ

    Then the retraction3- J9olice have con7rmed there 'as no

    evidence of gas cylinders or negligencecausing the 7reJ

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    Eamle) Ecker et al. *+,,b-

    Nerbatim resonses of a erson tolater Buestions3- !hat 'as the content of the olice

    message That there !ere no gas cylinders in"ol"ed#$

    - !hat caused the elosions

    The gas cylinders#$

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    !hy

    !hy do eole 7nd it diFcult tounlearn i.e. removemisinformation

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    etrations Create a Gap

    *Y/0

    1emovinga myth leavesa gap

    2eople hate gaps38emovedmisinformation is

    actually still inmemory and eole

    use it even 'hen theykno' it is 'rongQ

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    ill the Gap

    FACT

    1eplacewith alternativenarrative

    45nless4

    The ga can be7lled 'ith lausible

    alternativeinformation

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    Eamle)Ecker et al. *+,,bI "ohnson & Seifert ,GGK-

    9eole 7rst read3- J1egligent storage of gas cylinders caused a

    7reJ

    Then a retraction including acausal alternative3- J9olice have con7rmed there 'as no

    evidence of gas cylinders or negligencecausing the 7reJ

    - 64but arson materials have beenfound47

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    +

    ,

    *

    2

    K

    O

    1o08etraction

    8etraction

    8etractionPAlternative

    8eferencestoa9ieceof)M

    is-$nformation

    Continued $nuence after a 8etractionEcker et al. )*+,,a-

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    "le!ent ( of an "ffetive 0ebunking

    Create a

    ga 'ith aretraction

    :ill the ga

    'ith afactual

    alternative

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    The Curiosity #a

    $f you retract a myth in someone;shead the ga is obvious.

    Rut sometimes eole are una'areof their kno'ledge gas.

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    %ight sticky

    ideas !ith

    stickier ideas#$The Curiosity#a3#enerate

    curiosity byointing outkno'ledge

    gasI then 7llthose gas

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    Create aga 'ith aretraction

    :ill the ga'ith afactual

    alternative

    9oint out a ga

    to generatecuriosity

    :ill the ga

    'ithans'ers toBuestions

    "le!ent ( of an "ffetive 0ebunking

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    8etractions can back7re

    The last thing you 'ant is to makethings 'orseQ

    A fe' rinciles should guideretractions

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    1he a!iliarity

    2akfire "ffet

    Debunking amyth can

    reinforce themyth in eole;sminds)Sch'ar> et al. *++-

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    The :amiliarity Rack7reEect

    !hen eole read- The side eects of the "accine are !orse than the

    'u#$

    :ollo'ed by- That(s a myth) the !orst side eect !ould be asore arm#$

    !hat they may remember after a 'hile is3

    - The "accine has side eects#$ This is because reeating the myth 'hen

    retracting it makes it more familiar.

    9eole remember and believe familiar things.( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    1he a!iliarity 2akfire "ffet

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    The :amiliarity Rack7reEect

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    1he a!iliarity 2akfire "ffet

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    Avoid the:amiliarityRack7reEect

    Don;treeat the

    mythsI givethe facts

    "le!ent 3 of an "ffetive 0ebunking

    $f the retraction needsto reeat themyth give an e8plicit warning before

    giving the myth.

    This uts eole into a more carefulrocessing mode and reduces

    misinformation eects)Ecker et al. *+,+-

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    I didnt have time

    to write a short letter,

    so I wrote a long oneinstead.

    MA8?T!A$1

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    Simlicity)Chater & Nitanyi *++2I Lombro>o *++ *++-

    9eole have limited mental caacity

    9eole hate comlicatedelanations- Comle elanations A lot of thinking

    -Thinking is hard

    9eole like simle elanations- Does not mean simlistic

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    1he 4verkill 2akfire "ffet

    *Y/0

    FA#/ FA#/ FA#/

    FA#/ FA#/ FA#/

    FA#/ FA#/ FA#/

    FA#/ FA#/ FA#/

    *Y/0

    A simle myth is more cognitivelyattractive than an over0comlicatedcorrection

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    The =verkill Rack7re Eect

    :ocus on the most imortantarguments.

    Make things easy to understand.

    Use simle language.

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    1he 4verkill 2akfire "ffet

    *Y/0

    FA#/

    FA#/

    FA#/

    FA#/

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    Avoid the=verkill

    Rack7reEect

    :ocus on thebest

    argumentsIkee itsimle

    "le!ent * of an "ffetive 0ebunking

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    ALRE8TE$1STE$1

    Make things as

    simple as possible(but not simpler).

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    #etting the message across

    Sometimes language is not the best'ay to communicate facts

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    The Use of #rahs)1yhan & 8eier *+,,-

    #rous of scientists from severalma@or institutions 5 1ASAVs #oddard$nstitute for Sace Studies the1ational =ceanic and AtmoshericAdministrationVs 1ational ClimaticData Center the "aanese

    Meteorological Agency and the Met=Fce

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    9ercent Agreement that #lobaltemeratures have decreased)in eole strongly identifying 'ith the 8eublican 9artyI 1yhan & 8eiWer *+,,-

    +

    *+

    K+

    Control

    Tet

    #rah

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    The Use of #rahs

    The same evidence can lead to a muchbigger reduction of misbeliefs ifresented grahically instead of )only-

    verbally )1yhan & 8eier *+,,-

    $nformation that runs counter to one;sbeliefs may be more readily acceted if

    it is resented grahically)Le'ando'sky *+,,-- %uanti7cation reduces ambiguity

    -This reduces counterarguing

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    #rah design)Re'are of misleading grahsQ-

    Make sure grah is designed roerly- Clearly labeled aes

    - Aroriate referably non0truncated

    scales- Using all available4relevant data )no

    omitted data oints-

    - 1o distortion )2D eects etc.-

    - $ncluding inde of data variability )e.g. errorbars- 'here ossible

    - 9rovide a source )reference-

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    Avoidcommunicati

    on barriers

    Use grahs)or other

    means- asaroriate

    "le!ent 5 of an "ffetive 0ebunking

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

    Th ! ld i R k7

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    The !orldvie' Rack7reEect

    $f eole have strongattitudes

    -They 'ill be less sketical

    about attitude0congruentmisinformation and its source)Le'ando'sky et al. *++O-

    - Attemts to correct a dearlyheld misbelief can cause

    stronger misbelief

    - Reliefs that are central toone;s identity 'ill be defended

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    8eublicans 'ho believed Saddam

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    Avoid aggressive inammatorylanguage

    Messages can be framed to

    aFrm 'orldvie'- Conservatives are more likely to accet

    climate science 'hen olicy changes areframedas business oortunities for nuclear o'er

    )cf. ?ahan *+,+-

    Strong believers are diFcult toersuade even 'ith hard

    evidence

    The !orldvie' Rack7re Eect

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    Avoid the!orldvie'

    Rack7reEect

    Targetma@orityI

    aligncorrection to

    reciient

    "le!ent + of an "ffetive 0ebunking

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    the Earth uit

    warming and now we

    ma! be in a "ooling"!"le.

    (#.$. %epubli"an &ongressman ' %ohraba"her)

    "6a!ple of a 0ebunking

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

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    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

    Core :act Elicit !arning

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    g

    Myth AlternativeElanation

    Earth hasbeen buildingu heat for Kdecades at arate of *>le 'hileignoring the fullicture.

    9eriods ofsurface coolingsho' thatglobal 'arminghas stoed.

    Surface temerature@ums u and do'nbecause heat sloshes

    around bet'een theocean andatmoshere.

    1evertheless Earthcontinues to build u

    heat.

    etractionhat is incorrect.

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

    Mi i f ti

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    $n education settings standard teaching racticesoften leave students; re0eisting misconcetionsintact.

    $n this case misinformation and its refutation canbe useful as a teaching tool )cf. Redford *+,+I ?o'alski &

    Taylor *++GI =sborne *+,+-

    - The refutation of misinformation can rovide students'ho have no )or very limited- kno'ledge of a toic 'ith

    an entry oint to build u kno'ledge- The refutation of misinformation can be used to develo

    students; understanding of emirical science and fostersketical araisal of evidence and conclusions

    Misinformation as aTeaching Tool

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

    Comared to a standard teaching format

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    I!prove!entintestsore789

    (

    )+

    +

    ;owalski < 1aylor 3=

    1efutation

    3+

    Standard

    Format

    Comared to a standard teaching formathighlighting and refuting misconcetions in

    the classroom can lead to a betterunderstanding of the sub@ect.

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

    Misinformation as a

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    Misinformation as aTeaching Tool

    Cave3 Using myth refutation as a teachingtool reBuires- SuFcient time to make sure refutation can be

    thorough

    - =en0mindedness and engagement in theYstudents;

    =ther'ise risk of a Yfamiliarity back7re;

    eect The suggestions ertaining to the design of

    eective retractions should still be follo'ed

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

    Summary of

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    Summary of8ecommendations

    9rovide alternative elanation 'hen retracting amyth

    :ocus on facts and evidence

    Avoid reeating the myths )unless thorough

    refutation is ossibleI e.g. in classroom-

    :ocus on the best arguments

    Use simle language

    Use informative 'ell0designed grahs

    Avoid aggressionI align corrections 'ith reciients;'orldvie's as much as ossible

    Target non0radical ma@ority

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

    :or a revie' see Le'ando'sky et al.

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    :or a revie' see Le'ando'sky et al.)*+,*- article in PsychologicalScience in the Public Interest

    available at3

    htt344si.sageub.com4content4,242.toc

    ( Ecker Cook & Le'ando'sky )*+,*-ullrich.ecker/u'a.edu.au

    :or more literature &enBuiries lease

    visit'''.cogsci'a.com

    :or a brief summary see Cook &

    Le'ando'sky;s )*+,,- Debunking-andbook available at3htt344sks.to4debunk

    8eferences

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    8eferences Redford D. )*+,+-. Agnotology as a teaching tool3 Learning climate science by studying misinformation..ournal of /eogra0hy) 123 ,OG0,O.

    Chater 1. & Nitanyi 9. )*++2-. Simlicity3 a unifying rincile in cognitive science. Trends in Cogniti"e Sciences) 4 ,G0**.

    Church ". et al. )*+,,-. 8evisiting the EarthVs sea0level and energy budgets from ,G, to *++H. /eo0hysical 5esearch 6etters) American/eo0hysical 7nion) 89 ,H+,.

    Ecker U. ?. ulletin & 5e"ie!) 19) O+0OH.

    iology rganiGation 5e0orts) 8) K+0K+G.

    9oland #. A. & "acobsen 8. M. )*+,,-. The age0old struggle against the antivaccinationists. The e! England .ournal of Medicine) 8


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