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SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEBANGSAAN PERMAS JAYA
PREPARED BY :PREPARED BY :--
AZAM SENSEIAZAM SENSEI
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CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT IN
HUMANS & ANIMALSSUPPORT IN PLANTS
TYPES OF
SKELETON
Muscles, ligaments
& tendon LOCOMOTION AQUATIC PLANTSTERRESTRIAL
PLANTS
Birds
Hydrostatic skeleton
Exoskeleton
Endoskeleton
Fish
Axial skeletonAppendicular
skeleton
Grasshopper
Earthworms
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The Necessity for Support &The Necessity for Support &
Locomotion in Humans & AnimalsLocomotion in Humans & Animals
WHY DO HUMANS & ANIMALSWHY DO HUMANS & ANIMALSNEED SUPPORT?NEED SUPPORT?
1.1. To find the foodTo find the food2.2. To find partner for matingTo find partner for mating
3.3. To protect/escape from theirTo protect/escape from theirpredatorpredator
4.4. To shelter from bad environmentTo shelter from bad environment
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The Necessity for Support &The Necessity for Support &
Locomotion in Humans & AnimalsLocomotion in Humans & Animals Without support, animals & humansWithout support, animals & humanswould not be able tomaintain their bodywould not be able tomaintain their bodyshapeshape their body collapse under thetheir body collapse under the
weight of theirown tissues.weight of theirown tissues.
Support are provided by some formofSupport are provided by some formof
skeletonskeleton..Hydrostatic skeletonHydrostatic skeleton
ExoskeletonExoskeleton
endoskeletonendoskeleton
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HYDROSTATIC SKELETONHYDROSTATIC SKELETON
AAfluidfluid--filled internal body cavityfilled internal body cavity ininwhich the fluid is held under pressurewhich the fluid is held under pressure maintaining the body shape & providingmaintaining the body shape & providing
support for internal organsupport for internal organ
The cavity is surrounded by musclesThe cavity is surrounded by muscles
arr
anged in layer
s.arr
anged in layer
s.
TheThe body shapebody shape of the animalof the animal changeschanges asasthese muscles contract & relax.these muscles contract & relax.
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The animals areThe animals are soft&flexiblesoft&flexible, the, the hydrostaticfluidhydrostaticfluid
does protect body parts bydoes protect body parts byactingasashockactingasashock
absorber.absorber.
Examples :Examples : earthworm, jellyfish,leech&caterpillar.earthworm, jellyfish,leech&caterpillar.
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EXOSKELETONEXOSKELETON Arigid outer covering usually made upArigid outer covering usually made upof protein,of protein, chitinschitins &/@ calcium salt.&/@ calcium salt.
InsectsInsects thethe cuticlecuticle (covered with wax(covered with waxto prevent water loss from the body),to prevent water loss from the body),cover the bodys surface.cover the bodys surface.
The exoskeleton isThe exoskeleton is jointed / hingedjointed / hinged ==certain points of the skeleton are flexiblecertain points of the skeleton are flexible& can bend& can bend enabling the movement.enabling the movement.
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Exoskeleton restrict the growth of animalsExoskeleton restrict the growth of animals thetheexoskeleton must be shed from time to time inexoskeleton must be shed from time to time in
order for the animal to grow. (order for the animal to grow. (ecdysisecdysis))
Also found in the shells ofAlso found in the shells ofmolluscsmolluscs & the bony& the bonyplates of tortoises.plates of tortoises.
Examples :Examples : insects, crabs, lobsters, tortoiseinsects, crabs, lobsters, tortoise
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ENDOSKELETONENDOSKELETON Found in the bodies of all vertebrates includingFound in the bodies of all vertebrates including
fish, amphibians & birds.fish, amphibians & birds.
Consist of hard skeleton ofConsist of hard skeleton ofbones & cartilagebones & cartilagefound insidefound inside the bodythe body made up of calcium &made up of calcium &phosphate.phosphate.
Works with the muscular system to performWorks with the muscular system to performmovement & locomotion. It support the body &movement & locomotion. It support the body &protects the organs.protects the organs.
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The Necessity for Support &The Necessity for Support &
Locomotion in Humans & AnimalsLocomotion in Humans & Animals The functions of skeleton :The functions of skeleton :
Provide shape & supportProvide shape & supportEnables movement (locomotion)Enables movement (locomotion)
Protects internal organsProtects internal organs
Stor
es calcium
& phosphate i
onsSt
ores calciu
m& ph
osphate i
ons
Produces blood cellsProduces blood cells
A firm base for the attachment ofA firm base for the attachment ofmusclesmuscles
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The Necessity for Support &The Necessity for Support &
Locomotion in Humans & AnimalsLocomotion in Humans & AnimalsProblems that could be faced by humans
and animals in support and locomotion, gravitationalforce,friction&resistancegravitationalforce,friction&resistancewhen movingwhen moving
aroundaround Aspect need to be considered when describing theAspect need to be considered when describing the
locomotion of an animal :locomotion of an animal :-- StabilityStability when it moves, it is temporarily unstable, butwhen it moves, it is temporarily unstable, but
its stability will be restored when it stops.its stability will be restored when it stops. SupportSupport must have enough support from its bodysmust have enough support from its bodys
skeletonskeleton
PropulsionPropulsion must be propelled in order to movemust be propelled in order to move
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HOW TO OVERCOME THEHOW TO OVERCOME THE
PROBLEMS?PROBLEMS?
RESISTANCE & FRICTIONRESISTANCE & FRICTION by streamliningby streamlining
their bodies.their bodies.
GRAVITATIONAL FORCEGRAVITATIONAL FORCE most animalsmost animals
have their own supporting structures (finshave their own supporting structures (fins
fishes, wingsfishes, wings birds & strong limbsbirds & strong limbs tetrapodstetrapods
& humans)& humans) provide the propulsive force toprovide the propulsive force toovercome the problemovercome the problem
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The skeletal system together with itsThe skeletal system together with itsmuscles are designed specially to overcomemuscles are designed specially to overcomethe problems associated with support &the problems associated with support &locomotion of humans & animals.locomotion of humans & animals.
To initiate locomotion, the force requiredTo initiate locomotion, the force required
is generated by contraction of muscles,is generated by contraction of muscles,whereas the movement is transmitted bywhereas the movement is transmitted bythe skeleton.the skeleton.
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FUNCTION OF THE SKELETONFUNCTION OF THE SKELETON
MOVEMENTMOVEMENT bones interact with thebones interact with the
skeletal muscle.skeletal muscle.
BLOOD CELL FORMATIONBLOOD CELL FORMATION most of themost of theblood cells are formed in the bone marrow ofblood cells are formed in the bone marrow of
the long bones.the long bones.
MINERAL STORAGEMINERAL STORAGE bones act as abones act as areservoir for calcium & phosphorus.reservoir for calcium & phosphorus.
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SKELETAL SYSTEMSKELETAL SYSTEM
HUMAN SKELETON
AXIAL SKELETON
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
SKULL VERTEBRAL COLUMN RIB CAGE PECTORAL GIRDLE
PELVIC GIRDLE
FORELIMB BONES
HINDLIMB BONES
CERVICAL
THORACIC
LUMBAR
SACRUM
COCCYX
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THE SKULLTHE SKULL
Made up ofMade up of8cranialbones8cranialbones&& 14facialbones14facialbonesincluding the upper jaw & the lower jaw.including the upper jaw & the lower jaw.
The facial bones also provide support &The facial bones also provide support &protect the entrances to the respiratoryprotect the entrances to the respiratory
system.system.
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SKULLSKULL
PARTSPARTS FUNCTIONSFUNCTIONS
8 Cranial bones8 Cranial bones Are fused to form immovable joints calledAre fused to form immovable joints called suturessutures..
Protect the brain & the sensory organs.Protect the brain & the sensory organs.
Eye socketsEye sockets to protect the eye ball.to protect the eye ball.
Nasal bonesNasal bones to support nose tissuesto support nose tissuesEar holesEar holes to protect inner part of earsto protect inner part of ears
Maxilla (upper jaw)Maxilla (upper jaw) to support upper teethto support upper teeth
Mandible (lower jaw)Mandible (lower jaw) to support lower teeth, to enable eating & talking.to support lower teeth, to enable eating & talking.
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VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN Known as the spine/ backbone.Known as the spine/ backbone.
Extends from the base of the skull to the pelvicExtends from the base of the skull to the pelvicgirdle.girdle.
Made up ofMade up of33 vertebrae33 vertebrae separated from each otherseparated from each otherbyby discs of cartilage (intervertebral discs)discs of cartilage (intervertebral discs) whichwhichabsorb shocks & serve as flex point.absorb shocks & serve as flex point.
This SThis S--shaped column supports & balances the bodyshaped column supports & balances the bodyin a vertical plane & protects the spinal cord,in a vertical plane & protects the spinal cord,supports the skull & provides a base for thesupports the skull & provides a base for theattachment ofmuscles to the back.attachment ofmuscles to the back.
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VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebrae differ in structure & function inThe vertebrae differ in structure & function in
different regions of the vertebral column.different regions of the vertebral column.
A vertebra typically consists of a main body (theA vertebra typically consists of a main body (the
centrum), a neural arch & transverse processes.centrum), a neural arch & transverse processes.
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VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN
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TYPES OF VERTEBRAETYPES OF VERTEBRAE
TYPE OFTYPE OF
VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
POSITIONPOSITION NUMBER OFNUMBER OF
VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER
CervicalCervical
VertebraVertebra
Below theBelow the
skullskull
77 11stst oneone atlasatlas
vertebravertebra
22ndnd axisaxis
vertebraevertebrae
Large neuralLarge neural
canal/vertebralcanal/vertebral
foramenforamen
Short neural spineShort neural spine
Flat centrumFlat centrum
Short transverseShort transverse
processesprocesses
Has a pair ofHas a pair of
vertebrarterialvertebrarterial
canalscanals
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CERVICAL VERTEBRACERVICAL VERTEBRA
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TYPE OFTYPE OF
VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
POSITIONPOSITION NUMBER OFNUMBER OF
VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER
ThoracicThoracic
VertebraVertebra
ThoraxThorax 1212 Neural canal/Neural canal/
vertebral foramenvertebral foramen
is smaller thanis smaller than
cervical vertebrascervical vertebras
Long neural spine/Long neural spine/
spinous processesspinous processes
(for attachment of(for attachment of
back muscle)back muscle)
Thick & big centrumThick & big centrum
Short transverseShort transverse
processesprocesses
THORACIC VERTEBRATHORACIC VERTEBRA
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THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)
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LUMBAR VERTEBRALUMBAR VERTEBRA
TYPE OFTYPE OF
VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
POSITIONPOSITION NUMBER OFNUMBER OF
VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER
LumbarLumbar
VertebraVertebra
WaistWaist 55 small neural canal/small neural canal/
vertebral foramenvertebral foramen
short neural spineshort neural spine
thick & big centrumthick & big centrum
long transverselong transverseprocesses forprocesses for
muscle attachmentmuscle attachment
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LUMBAR VERTEBRALUMBAR VERTEBRA
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SACRUM & COCCYXSACRUM & COCCYXTYPE OFTYPE OF
VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
POSITIONPOSITION NUMBER OFNUMBER OF
VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER
SacrumSacrum PelvicPelvic
regionregion
5 fused5 fused Vertebrae fused toVertebrae fused to
each othereach other
Has four pairs ofHas four pairs ofopeningsopenings
Triangular shapeTriangular shape
CoccyxCoccyx CaudalCaudal
regionregion
4 fused4 fused Bones fused to eachBones fused to each
other forming aother forming a
triangular shapetriangular shape
which tapers at onewhich tapers at one
endend
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SACRUM & COCCYXSACRUM & COCCYX
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The rib cage consistsThe rib cage consists
ofof 12 pairs12 pairs of ribsof ribswith thewith the thoracicthoracic
vertebraevertebrae at the backat the back
portion of the body &portion of the body &
join tojoin to the sternumthe sternumin the front portion.in the front portion.
Movement of the ribMovement of the rib
cage are broughtcage are brought
about by intercostalabout by intercostal
muscles between themuscles between the
ribs.ribs.
THE STERNUM & RIBSTHE STERNUM & RIBS
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Consist ofConsist of scapula &scapula &
clavicle.clavicle.
Links the upper limbsLinks the upper limbsbones to the axialbones to the axialskeleton.skeleton.
The scapula :The scapula : bound bybound bymuscles to the back of themuscles to the back of thethorax. It is a flat,thorax. It is a flat,
triangular bone whichtriangular bone whichprovides a surface for theprovides a surface for theattachment of muscles.attachment of muscles.
PECTORAL GIRDLEPECTORAL GIRDLE
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Consists of 6 fusedConsists of 6 fused
bonesbones support thesupport the
weight of the body fromweight of the body from
the vertebral column.the vertebral column.
Also protect theAlso protect the
internal organsinternal organs
urinary bladder &urinary bladder &
reproductive organs.reproductive organs.
Made up of two halves,Made up of two halves,
each consists of 3 boneseach consists of 3 bones
(ilium, pubis & ischium)(ilium, pubis & ischium)
PELVIC GIRDLEPELVIC GIRDLE
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TheThe tibia & fibulatibia & fibula ::
The bones of the lowerThe bones of the lower
leg.leg.
Support the shank.Support the shank.
TibiaTibia larger than fibulalarger than fibula
& is the weight& is the weight--bearingbearing
bone of the leg.bone of the leg.
FibulaFibula is a long & thinis a long & thin
bonebone not bear any loadnot bear any load
more importantmore important forfor
attachment of musclesattachment of muscles
than for support.than for support. Articulate with theArticulate with the
tarsalstarsals of the ankle.of the ankle.
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TheThe tarsalstarsals :: The 7 bones that form theThe 7 bones that form theankle.ankle.
TheThe metatarsalsmetatarsals :: The 5 rodThe 5 rod--shaped bonesshaped bonesthat form the foot.that form the foot.
TheThe phalangesphalanges :: The bones that form theThe bones that form thetoes.toes.
TheThe patella/kneecappatella/kneecap ::
A small rounded, movableA small rounded, movablebone.bone.
Protect the knee joint.Protect the knee joint.