appendix 169168 appendix
Upstream
Downstream
Operations Data
Appendix
Reservoir porosity reflected in different colors
Top of reservoir Geological fault
dammam dome
A 3-D reservoir model of the Dammam Dome from 2008 is aligned with the corresponding area from the first map of the Dammam Dome, drawn in 1934.
The 3-D model illustrates the reservoir, roughly 1,500 meters below ground.
reservoir quality
Poor
Good
excellent
appendix 171170 appendix
upstream encompasses all the activities from the drill bit to the refinery: the
exploration for, and development, production and processing of, oil and gas.
Water injection, oil stabilization, gas processing and pipelines are included
within the scope of upstream operations.
upstream begins with earth scientists searching for oil and gas by examin-
ing rock outcrops on the surface to try to understand the subsurface strata.
they integrate their interpretations with data collected from inside the well:
from drill cuttings (bits of rock that rise to the surface as a well is drilled),
core samples and wire-line logs (instruments that record electrical values,
radioactivity, temperature and other rock properties). the integrated data
are used to identify prospects—areas likely to contain petroleum.
once a prospect has been identified, geoscientists acquire and interpret
seismic data to develop integrated geological and geophysical models that
are used to select the best drilling locations. after a discovery is made, drilling
to delineate and develop a field takes place, and reservoir engineers design
production plans. improvements in technology continue to increase recovery
rates, enabling geoscientists and petroleum engineers to manage reservoirs
efficiently and for the long term. saudi aramco also places significant emphasis
on operations safety and environmental protection.
the oriGins of oil and Gas Oil and gas originate almost entirely from the remains of ancient
plants and animals as shown in the diagram on the facing page. The solar energy absorbed by
these organisms and stored as carbon molecules in their bodies has been recycled into petroleum
energy in the form of organic compounds composed mostly of hydrogen and carbon. These
hydrocarbon compounds were created when microscopic marine organisms and plant matter
were buried by layers of sediment and, over millions of years, transformed through bacteria, heat
and pressure into oil and gas, which gradually seeped up through layers of rock, collecting in
underground structures called traps.
Upstream
The fossilized remains of ancient marine organisms, seen in the core samples pulled up from wells thousands of meters deep and collected from rock outcrops on the surface, yield a wealth of clues to geologists searching for oil and gas. These specimens, as seen by a scanning electron microscope in expeC, are acritarchs, fossil marine organisms of unknown biological affinity, and date to the early Silurian age, about 430 million years ago.
The origins of hydrocarbonsLand
Sea
Tiny forms of sea life such as plankton die and accumulate on the ocean floor.
Layers of sediment form as the accumulation process continues over time.
Parts of the dead material change to hydrocarbons mixed with other sedimentary materials.
Layers become more and more compresssed as further layers settle on top.
New material–depositing sediment forms an impervious layer called cap rock.
Gas
Oil
Gas, oil and water
Earth movements cause folds in the crust.
appendix 173172 appendix
a Brief GeoloGical timeline of saudi araBia The Earth’s interior, composed of semi-molten
rock, is in constant motion. The outer rigid layer, the lithosphere, consists of large plates
that slide over the semi-molten layer. These plates pull apart from, slip past, dive under and
collide with each other in a process called plate tectonics, forming mountains, basins and the
continents themselves.
Around 1.1 billion years ago in the Precambrian, the Earth’s landmasses formed one
supercontinent, Rodinia, which, some 250 million years later, broke apart. The supercontinent
of Gondwana formed around 514 million years ago, in the late Cambrian Period. Gondwana,
which included the landmass of Arabia, stretched from the Equator to the South Pole, and it and
the other continents were flooded by shallow seas. Algae were dominant, and hard-shell marine
animals appeared in great numbers.
About 100 million years later, in the early Devonian Period, the Paleozoic oceans began to
close, and eventually the supercontinents of Gondwana and Euramerica collided to form Pangea.
Pangea began to break apart in three main episodes, with the first occurring in the middle
Jurassic Period, about 180 million years ago. This age was dominated by the giant dinosaurs,
the first appearance of birds and extensive inland seas where, 30 million years later, in the late
Jurassic Period, enormous layers of organic matter accumulated in what became Saudi Arabia.
In the last 20 million years, the Red Sea opened, rifting Arabia away from Africa.
stratiGraPhy of eastern saudi araBia The rich oil and gas fields of Saudi Arabia, located
mainly in the Eastern Province, are linked to the region’s long history of relative tectonic stability
in its subsurface. The virtually flat platform of the Arabian Shelf, which underlies the middle and
eastern side of the Arabian Peninsula and its shallow eastern offshore area, enabled an almost
uninterrupted accumulation of sediments, which provided both the source for oil and gas and
the reservoirs in which these hydrocarbons accumulated.
sea level
–304.8m
–609.6m
–914.4m
–1,219.2m
–1,524m
–1,828.8m
–2,133.6m
–2,438.4m
–2,743.2m
The final 10 million years of the late Jurassic Period witnessed significant environmental changes, as shallow seas receded and advanced, leaving behind alternate layers of nonporous anhydrite and porous and permeable limestone. The latter layers formed the Arab Zone, which contains the world’s largest petroleum reserves. Over the course of millions of years, infrequent tectonic events led to the formation of structural traps, capped by anhydrite, which captured the hydrocarbons.
Generalized cross sect ion of saudi araBia
165
150
140
135
130
120
100
in millions of years
Bahrain Zone
Lower Ratawi Zone
Manifa Zone
Arab A Member
Arab B Member
Arab C Member
Arab D Member
Mid-Jubaila Zone
Hadriya Zone
Fadhili Zone
Zubair Zone
Upper Ratawi Zone
67
– 14
0 m
ill
ion
ye
ar
s a
Go
cr
eta
ce
ou
s P
er
iod
ju
ra
ss
ic P
er
iod
14
0– 2
04
mil
lio
n y
ea
rs
aG
o
sand and mud
limestone
anhydrite
shale
sandstone
Porous l imestone
africa
south america
north america
araBia
india
australia
antarct ica
iranturkey
euroPe
s iBeria
t iBet
indochina
southeast as ia
china
early jurassic 195 mill ion years aGo
The enormous hydrocarbon reservoirs in what became Saudi Arabia accumulated in carbonate sedimentary rocks deposited in the late Jurassic Period, around 150 million years ago.
ancient landmass
modern landmass
suBduct ion zone (tr ianGles Point in the d irect ion of suBduct ion)
seafloor sPread r idGe
key
Hanifa Zone
key
appendix 175174 appendix
Petroleum traPs Oil and gas are formed in organic-rich layers of rock exposed to heat and
pressure, called source rock. The oil and gas will migrate upward through the rock layers where,
if conditions are favorable, they will accumulate in reservoirs, layers of porous and permeable
rock such as limestone or sandstone. The migration of hydrocarbons to the surface is stopped
by an impermeable layer of rock that acts as a seal, or cap. Oil and gas accumulate only where
the reservoir and cap rock form traps.
Geologists classify petroleum traps into two basic types: structural traps, formed by Earth
movements and rock folds, and stratigraphic traps, the result of the deposition of layers favor-
able to the formation and trapping of petroleum. Two common examples of structural traps are
anticline and fault traps.
an anticline trap is an upward fold in the layers of rock shaped like an arch. petroleum migrates into the highest part of the fold and is pre-vented from escaping by an overlying bed of impermeable cap rock. The great majority of oil reservoirs are found in anticline traps.
Gas
Cap rock
Oil
Reservoir rock and water
a fault is the result of horizontal layers of rock being folded or deformed, creating a fracture. When the rocks on the two sides of a fracture move in opposite directions, a fault is created. a fault trap occurs when formations on either side of a fault prevent further migration of petroleum.
Oil
Reservoir rock and water
Gas
Cap rock
Stratigraphic traps occur when a reservoir layer, also called a bed, is sealed by other beds or by a change in porosity or permeability within the reservoir bed itself.
Oil
Reservoir rock and water
Gas
Cap rock
petroleum Traps
Rimthan
Dibdibah
Wari‘ah
Suban
Jauf
Habari
El Haba
Watban
Faridah
Bakr
Dhib
Juraybi‘at
Sharar
Jaladi
Abu Hadriya
KhursaniyahFadhili
Samin
Manifa
SafaniyaZuluf Marjan
Hasbah
RibyanHarqus
Karan
JuraydKurayn
Abu Sa‘fahBerri
Qatif
Dammam
Jaham Abqaiq
Shedgum
Fazran
‘Ain Dar
Haradh
Harmaliyah
‘Uthmaniyah
Hawiyah
Niban
Jawb
Lughfah
Tukhman
Tinat
Jufayn
Qirdi
Nujayman
Halfa
Yabrin
Zimlah
Sham‘ah
AwtadManjurah
Abu Jifan
FarhahWarid
Khurais
Sahba
Muraiqib
Kassab
Waqr
Wudayhi
Shaden
Mazalij
Abu Shidad
Duayban
Abu Rakiz
Mulayh
Abu Markhah
Nuayyim
Abu Sidr
Ghinah
Umm Jurf
Usaylah
Layla
Dilam
ShiblahRaghib
Burmah
Nisalah
Hawtah
Hilwah
Hazmiyah
KhuzamaMarzouk
‘Amad
Maghrib
Shutfah
Kidan
South
North
Kahla
Shaybah
Ramlah
Midrikah
Lawhah
Hamur
Maharah
Dhahran
Riyadh
Jana
MidyanBarqan
Sidr
Kahf
Tabuk
UmlujAl Wajh
est imated WorldWide Gas reserves (TRiLLiON CUBiC FEET) AS OF JANUARY 1, 2010
RuSSia
iRan
qaTaR
Saudi aRabia
TuRKMeniSTan
estimated WorldWide crude oil reserves (BiLLiON BARRELS) AS OF JANUARY 1, 2010
260
211
175
137
115
Saudi aRabia
VeneZueLa
Canada
iRan
iRaq
1,680
1,045
895
279
265
united araBemirates
qatar
Bahrain
ar a
B i a n G u l f
re
d s
ea
GhaWar
Niyashin
Rabib
Arabiyah
Dirwazah
toWns
caPital
oil f ield
Gas f ield
key
Nearly all of Saudi Aramco’s oil and gas fields are located in the Eastern Province. Other fields are located in the Central Province, south of Riyadh, and in the Western Province, on the Red Sea coast. Total recoverable crude oil reserves are roughly 260 billion barrels—the largest in the world. Reserves of natural gas are roughly 279 trillion cubic feet, fourth largest in the world.
oil and Gas f ields of saudi araBia
scale in k ilometers
scale in k ilometers
0 50 100
0 100 200
As Sayd
Namlan
Duhaynah
ArsanSirayyan
Sanaman
Qamran
Jalamid
appendix 177176 appendix
exPloration The professionals in Saudi Aramco’s Exploration organization cover Saudi Arabia
on a scale that extends from wide swaths of desert, basins and mountains to the micron level.
They also consider a fourth dimension in their quest: time, which they measure in the hundreds
of millions of years.
the fossil record Core samples, drill cuttings, plugs (a kind of mini-core pulled from the
larger core) and thin sections mounted on slides are examined by geoscientists. The rock yields a
wealth of knowledge about the reservoir: porosity and permeability, basic and structural geology,
petroleum physics, stratigraphy, sedimentology and other data.
Geoscientists are especially interested in microfossils such as pollens, spores, protists
(one-celled organisms, including algae, dinoflagellates and others) and Foraminifera—organisms
with calcium carbonate shells. The fossil record illustrates the historical environment of Arabia:
from shallow, warm seas during the Jurassic Period to glaciers and ice sheets when Arabia, in its
continental wandering, was located near the South Pole.
a new road, cut through a hill, allows a young geologist to map rock layers near al-‘ula, Saudi arabia.
Sedimentologists and carbonate geologists in Saudi aramco’s Core Lab study the separate layers, or beds, within hydrocarbon reser-voirs as revealed by core samples. Thin sections are cut from the core samples and examined by company micropaleontologists, who look for fossils of marine and land organ-isms, and by palynologists, who look for ancient pollens and spores.
Fossil remains of the single-celled aquatic organisms known as Foraminifera serve as excellent records of the environment and geologic age of the rock layers in which they are found. Foraminifera, with their hard exoskeletons, small size, short reproductive cycles, prolific numbers and wide distribu-tion over marine environments, are especially valuable fossil clues.
This short interval of a core sample, pulled from 1,468 meters deep in the Shaybah field, shows the contact between crude oil and gas. The light brown section of the core is filled with arabian Super Light crude oil while the gray section is from the gas column of the reservoir, above the oil column. The limestone core is composed of fragments of an ancient bivalve, and the oil and gas are stored in the inter-particle pore spaces between the shell fragments.
a hydrocarbon reservoir is similar to a sponge soaked with oil and gas. Two key factors in a reservoir’s potential productivity are how big the holes in the sponge are and how they connect, known as porosity and permeability. using a scanning electron microscope, company scientists can examine the reservoir rock at the 2- to 5-micron level, close enough to see the individual pores in the stone, and better understand the porosity and permeability of the reservoir. The rock on the left reveals poor reservoir quality, while the sample on the right shows excellent porosity and good permeability.
appendix 179178 appendix
seismic imaGinG Seismic surveying is used in conjunction with structure drilling in the search
for oil and gas. Sound waves, produced by mechanical vibrators mounted on the underside
of large trucks, penetrate layers of rock thousands of meters beneath the Earth’s surface. The
sound waves are reflected back to the surface where their altered waveforms are recorded as
raw seismic data. This information is manipulated by powerful computers to produce an image
of the underground rock formations.
reservoir characterization Reservoir characterization plays a critical role throughout the
productive life of an oil or gas field. Every producing reservoir has a reservoir simulation model that
is continually updated with new drilling and production data and is used to develop and evaluate
alternative reservoir management strategies. Because of the huge size and large well spacing of
Saudi Arabia’s hydrocarbon resources, Saudi Aramco has developed its own reservoir simulator,
POWERS (Parallel Oil Water and Gas Reservoir Simulator), to produce 3-D geo-cellular models,
comprising billions of individual cells. These reservoir models are used in reserves estimation and
reservoir simulation models, which are also used to evaluate proposed well locations.
Company earth scientists and petroleum engineers use the latest in 3-d reservoir simulation technology in the upstream professional development Center in dhahran. Such technology provides a better understanding of prospects before an exploratory drilling program begins, and in reservoir develop-ment, it helps delineate fields and place wells to optimize production.
appendix 181180 appendix
reservoir nano-aGents: resBots™ One promising avenue of research in reservoir manage-
ment is the development of nano-scale reservoir robots, called Resbots. Company researchers
are studying the feasibility of deploying Resbots, 1/1,000Th the size of a human hair, with the
fluids injected into a hydrocarbon reservoir. Resbots would gather information about reservoir
properties, including pressure, temperature and fluid type, in onboard memory. The Resbots
would be retrieved through production wells and the data downloaded and analyzed, helping
delineate the extent of the reservoir, map fractures and faults in the rock, define areas of higher
permeability, identify bypassed oil, optimize well placement and help design even more precise
geological models of the reservoir. For the Resbots concept, the Exploration and Petroleum
Engineering Center (EXPEC) Advanced Research Center won the prestigious New horizons Idea
Award at the 2008 World Oil Awards.
drillinG and reservoir enGineerinG Drilling is conducted for both exploration and production
purposes. Structure drilling is used to determine key subsurface strata. Wildcat wells are drilled
to test whether oil or gas is present in the structures that geologists have recommended. Once a
new field has been discovered, a number of delineation wells are drilled some distance apart in
order to outline the configuration and size of the field. Finally, the field is put into production by
drilling development wells in a pattern recommended by petroleum engineers. Water injection
wells inject treated seawater to maintain reservoir pressure.
Drilling technology has come a long way since the early days of the industry. Directional
drilling was first introduced in the 1920s, driven by the need to drill from difficult onshore sites
and, later, from offshore platforms. Horizontal wells became popular in the 1980s and were
developed for deeper wells in the 1990s. A horizontal well penetrates a reservoir bed across the
target zone, rather than down through it, improving recovery rates. More recent developments
include multilateral wells, with multiple junctions like the branches of a tree.
A maximum reservoir contact (MRC) well is a multilateral horizontal well with more than
five kilometers of total contact with the reservoir rock. Such wells also employ “smart” well
features that enable a reservoir management team to intervene remotely. For example, the
team can shut off one lateral without disturbing the remaining laterals. Smart wells also include
downhole sensors, which provide real-time monitoring of the well, helping optimize production
and reservoir management.
A further refinement of the MRC is the extreme reservoir contact (ERC) well, a smart
multilateral well that does not require individual control lines from the wellhead on the surface to
each lateral. This allows an unlimited number of smart laterals, which can be remotely controlled
using real-time data.
The Geosteering Operations Center (GOC) in Dhahran is staffed by teams of geologists and
engineers who monitor drilling operations anywhere in the field. They analyze downhole data
in real time to remotely guide drilling activities and ensure that each well is optimally placed.
drilling wells, whether for exploration, delineation, production or water injection, is at the heart of the petro- leum industry.
a multilateral well extends multiple branches within the hydrocarbon reservoir. Multilateral wells improve well productivity and reduce field development costs by requiring fewer wells to produce a field.
Geologists direct well drilling from Saudi aramco’s Geosteering Center in dhahran as real-time information is transmitted from sensors near the drill bits. The center operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
appendix 183182 appendix
oil & Gas Production and Processing
For a diagram of Saudi Aramco’s oil and gas production operations and a map of production
facilities, see the Operations Data section.
Saudi Aramco’s oil and gas production operations encompass Saudi Arabia, including
territorial waters in the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea. Totaling more than 1.5 million square
kilometers, this area is larger than the combined areas of Texas, California, Oklahoma and Utah,
or of France, Spain and Germany.
oil Production and ProcessinG Most oil-producing wells are free-flowing with a typical oil
flow rate of 5,000 bpd. Once the oil is extracted, it is piped to a gas-oil separation plant (GOSP)
where water and the majority of dissolved gases are extracted. The remaining oil is then sent to
a stabilization facility, such as the Abqaiq Plants, for final gas separation and removal of hydrogen
sulfide. The extracted gas is sent to Gas Operations facilities for additional processing, while the
water is injected back into the ground. This oil is now dry (no water), sweet (no hydrogen sulfide)
and stabilized (no gas), and can be refined or exported.
Gas Production and ProcessinG Natural gas is processed to produce clean fuel (methane, or
sales gas) and feedstock (methane, ethane, propane, butane and natural gasoline). Sales gas and
ethane are consumed entirely by Saudi Arabia’s utilities and industry. Excess propane, butane and
natural gasoline (collectively known as NGL) that are not used by the domestic petrochemicals
industry are exported to world markets.
This gas-oil separation plant (GOSp) is one of four that perform the initial processing of oil from the Shaybah field.
Fluids produced from an oil well are typically under pressure and comprise oil, dissolved gas, salty water and some hydrogen sulfide. This mixture is sent to a gas-oil separation plant (GOSp) for initial processing. at the GOSp, a pressure step-down process releases most of the dissolved gas. a desalting process then removes the salt water. The resulting sour crude oil is then sent for stabilization.
Condensate Sour Associated Gas
Sulfur Recovery
Unit
Acid Gas
Liquid Sulfur
Sour Non-Associated Gas
High Pressure Amine
Sales GasNGL
Sweet Gas
Water
Compression
Dehydration
Cooling
NGL Recovery
Condensate Stripper
Low Pressure Amine
Saudi Aramco’s Master Gas System (MGS) is fed with two types of gases: the gases associated with crude oil that are removed by the gas-oil separation plants (GOSPs), and the non-associated gases that come from gas wells that do not produce crude oil. Gas processing involves removing the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) to produce sweet gas, and separating sales gas (methane) from the heavier components. The heavier products are liquefied and pumped to NGL plants for fraction-ation and final delivery to customers. The H2S is converted to elemental sulfur and sold to domestic and export markets.
Gas Production
in the gas plant, gas is received at slug-catchers, which separate condensate and water from gas and capture liquid ”slugs.“ These slugs, traveling at high velocity, may damage piping systems. Condensate liquids go to the stripping section, where H2S and water are removed. The separated sour gas feed goes to the gas treating modules, where, via contact with alkylamine, the H2S and CO2 are stripped away, creating sweet gas. The sweet gas is compressed and chilled to separate ethane and heavier gases. The H2S- and CO2-rich gas, now referred to as acid gas, is sent to the sulfur plants where H2S is converted to elemental sulfur, recovered and made into solid pellets for domestic and export sales.
Basic Process of Gas Plants
Gas outlet
Water outlet Oil outlet
Water
Emulsion
Oil
inlet for oil/water/gas mixture
Foam
Gas
Non-Associated GasAssociated Gas
Oil
Water
Gas
Water
Gas
Gas Plant
NGLSales Gas
Oil CondensateGasGOSP
Sulfur
appendix 185184 appendix
downstream encompasses all the activities that occur after crude oil and gas
have been produced and initially processed. the fractionation of natural gas
liquids (nGl), the refining of crude oil and the petrochemical industry are
downstream activities. shipping and distribution of crude oil and refined
products are also included within this scope.
osPas The Oil Supply Planning and Scheduling (OSPAS) organization is the nerve center for the
movement of all of Saudi Aramco’s crude oil, natural gas and refined products. OSPAS plans,
schedules, coordinates and monitors the quantity—and quality—of millions of barrels of crude
oil every day of the year from the wellhead to company terminals.
OSPAS also tracks refined product movements from seven refineries, 19 bulk plants, 18 air
refueling sites, five strategic storage facilities and 1,600 kilometers of refined products pipeline.
It also tracks gas and NGL from six gas plants, three fractionation centers and more than 5,000
kilometers of pipeline. Saudi Aramco also operates 44 export berths at five marine ports, loading
millions of barrels of oil and refined products each day onto supertankers destined for ports in
the world’s three major energy markets: Asia, North America and Europe.
Within OSPAS, the “Big Board” of the Operations Coordination Center (OCC) tracks the
movement of oil, gas, NGL and refined products, and also oversees terminal operations and
electrical power distribution.
Operators in the Operations Coor-dination Center can, at a glance, see the entire scope of the company’s hydrocarbon production and distribu-tion operations. With the click of a mouse, operators can check the status of individual pipeline valves, the feed rate of a distillation column at a refinery, the volume of a storage tank or the loading status of a supertanker.
Downstream
PiPelines Saudi Aramco operates a pipeline network nearly 20,000 kilometers long—roughly
equivalent to the flying distance between Rome and Sydney—including flow lines from oil and
gas wells, water injection pipelines and systems for refined products distribution. Major cross-
country pipelines include the Saudi Arabia–Bahrain Pipeline and the East-West Crude Oil and
NGL pipelines to Yanbu‘ on the Red Sea. The NGL pipeline linking Yanbu‘ and Shedgum is the
longest and most advanced gas line ever built—1,170 kilometers long.
terminals Saudi Aramco’s enormous storage tank farms and shipping terminals supply crude oil,
NGL and refined products to customers around the globe. Every year, more than 9,000 tankers
call at company terminals at Ras Tanura and Ju‘aymah on the Arabian Gulf, and at Yanbu‘, Jiddah
and Rabigh on the Red Sea.
The Ras Tanura Terminal consists of the South Pier, the North Pier and the Sea Islands.
The South Pier, currently abandoned, is where Saudi crude oil was first loaded onto the
tanker D. G. Scofield in May 1939. The North Pier, connected to the mainland by a 1,200-meter-
long causeway and trestle, operates six berths for the loading of crude oil, refined products and
refined liquid petroleum gasses (RLPG).
The Ras Tanura Sea Islands are a complex of man-made islands approximately 1½ kilometers
northeast of the North Pier. The four Sea Islands (one of which is decommissioned) each feature
a loading station for crude oil and bunker fuel (to power marine vessels) and two berths. Six
supertankers of up to 500,000 deadweight tons can load simultaneously.
in addition to linking wells to processing plants, Saudi aramco’s pipeline system delivers crude oil, gas, nGL and refined products to domestic industries and utilities and to company export terminals.
appendix 187186 appendix
The Ju‘aymah Offshore Terminal is a crude oil and bunker fuel loading facility designed
for loading and topping off deep-draft tankers. The loading facilities are roughly 29 kilometers
north-northwest of Ras Tanura and 11 kilometers offshore. The largest supertankers afloat
take on cargo from six single-point moorings (SPM), each with a crude oil loading rate of up to
130,000 barrels per hour. There is also a two-berth RLPG loading facility at Ju‘aymah, accessible
from the shore via a 10-kilometer trestle.
The Yanbu‘ crude oil terminal consists of four loading berths, two of which can be used
simultaneously for a combined loading rate of 300,000 barrels per hour. Ships taking on cargo at
Yanbu‘ for Europe or North America can save about 7,400 kilometers (4,000 nautical miles) per
round trip, compared with sailing around the Arabian Peninsula from Ras Tanura or Ju‘aymah.
The Yanbu‘ NGL Plant has an associated two-berth RLPG terminal that can also handle
natural gasoline tankers. The nearby Yanbu‘ Refinery also has its own terminal, consisting of four
berths for loading fuel oil and marine diesel for cargo or bunker, motor diesel oil, regular and
premium gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, naphtha and RLPG.
The Jiddah Terminal imports crude oil for the Jiddah Refinery and exports finished and
unfinished naphtha, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel, premium gasoline and fuel oil from four crude oil
and refined product berths and five bunker loading berths.
Saudi Aramco also operates smaller bulk plant marine terminals at Jazan and Duba.
a crude oil loading line is lifted into place aboard a supertanker calling at the Ju‘aymah Offshore Terminal in the arabian Gulf.
refininG Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules, the simplest of which, methane, is
one carbon atom linked with four hydrogen atoms. The three principal groups of hydrocarbon
compounds that occur naturally in crude oil are paraffins, aromatics and naphthenes.
The refining process begins with the distillation, or fractionation, of crude oil into separate
hydrocarbon groups. Each hydrocarbon fraction has its own boiling point. The light fractions,
such as kerosene, have low boiling points while heavier fractions, such as fuel oil, have high
boiling points.
In the refining process, crude oil is heated in a distillation column, and the vapors resulting
from the boiling are drawn off and condensed. The fractions produced by a distillation column are
only the products that are in the crude oil to begin with—to produce more of a desired fraction,
such as gasoline, refineries must add conversion processes.
The earliest conversion process was thermal cracking, in which the heavy fractions of
crude oil are heated to a high temperature and the hydrocarbon molecules “cracked” to release
the lighter fractions, gasoline, for example. In visbreaking, residual (heavy oils leftover from the
distillation process) is heated, cooled with gas oil and rapidly burned or flashed. Visbreaking
reduces the viscosity of heavy oils and produces tar. Coking involves heating residual, but at
higher temperatures than visbreaking, until it cracks into heavy oil, gasoline and naphtha. The
heavy, almost pure carbon residue left behind is called coke and is also a commercial product.
The fractional distillation of crude oil is the first step in the refining process, which yields a range of products, includ-ing petroleum gas (methane, ethane, propane and butane); naphtha; gaso-line; kerosene; gas oil or diesel distillate, used to make diesel fuel and heating oil; lubricating oil; fuel oil; and residuals such as coke, asphalt, tar and waxes.
Light fractions of crude oil, such as methane and butane, are drawn from the top of the distillation column, while heavier molecules, such as diesel, come from lower in the column.
Furnace
Gas
Naphtha*
Reflux
Kerosene**
Heavy Diesel Oil
Fuel Oil
Crude Oil
Asphalt
* For processing into gasoline or petrochemicals** For further processing into jet fuel
Steam
Light Diesel Oil
Crude Oil distillation Column
C16H34– Diesel
C3H8– Propane
CH4– Methane (Natural Gas)
appendix 189188 appendix
Catalytic cracking involves the use of a solid material, called a catalyst, mixed with the oil to help
crack the heavier fractions. The process of hydrocracking adds high-pressure hydrogen gas to catalytic
cracking, producing additional volumes of gasoline and other light fractions. Catalytic reforming uses
a catalyst to combine low-weight naphtha into aromatics, which are used in blending gasoline and
making chemicals.
The various products from the distillation and cracking processes must be treated to remove
undesirable compounds, such as sulfur, and to meet various performance and environmental specifica-
tions.
Saudi Aramco operates four domestic refineries, at Riyadh, Ras Tanura, Yanbu‘ and Jiddah,
and owns 50 percent of two domestic joint-venture refineries, with ExxonMobil in Yanbu‘ (SAMREF)
and with Shell in Jubail (SASREF). Saudi Aramco also has a 37.5 percent stake in Petro Rabigh, with
Sumitomo Chemical Co. holding 37.5 percent and the Saudi public 25 percent. Work is also under
way on three additional refining complexes. Two of the projects are 400,000-bpd full-conversion
refineries integrated with petrochemical facilities: The Saudi Aramco Total Refining and Petroleum
The Saudi aramco Shell Refinery Co. (SaSReF), a joint venture between Saudi aramco and Shell, operates this refinery complex in Jubail.
Company (SATORP), a venture with Total of France, will be located in Jubail, and the Red Sea Refining
Co., a subsidiary of Saudi Aramco, will be located in Yanbu‘. The third project is a company-owned
refinery and terminal in the Jazan region of southwestern Saudi Arabia. Internationally, Saudi Aramco,
through subsidiary offices, is a joint or equity venture partner in refineries in the United States, the
Republic of Korea, China and Japan.
The Ras Tanura Refinery is the most complex refinery in the company’s domestic portfolio. The
refinery includes facilities for crude oil stabilization and distillation, NGL processing, gas condensate
distillation, hydrocracking, visbreaking and catalytic reforming.
The Yanbu‘ Refinery is a hydroskimming plant, which is more complex than a topping refinery,
and it produces liquefied petroleum gas, gasoline, jet fuel, diesel oil and fuel oil, mainly for the domestic
market. The Jiddah Refinery features catalytic cracking and a catalytic reformer, and is a key supplier
of fuel to the Jiddah and Makkah areas, especially during peak demand periods such as Ramadan and
hajj. The Riyadh Refinery, like the Jiddah facility, contains a vacuum column, which permits processing
of the heavier crude fractions. The Riyadh plant also features a hydrocracker and a catalytic reformer.
appendix 191190 appendix
Gas fractionation Natural gas liquids recovered at the gas plants are sent to the NGL frac-
tionation plants at Yanbu‘, Ju‘aymah and Ras Tanura for further processing. Typically, NGL plants
receive ethane plus NGL in a combined feed from the gas plants via pipelines. The NGL is then
pumped to the de-ethanizer columns in the fractionation modules, where the ethane is separated
overhead as a vapor product. The ethane is sent to consumers as petrochemical feedstock or
injected into the sales gas system. The heavier gas at the bottom of the de-ethanizer column is
fractionated in additional steps, yielding propane, butane, natural gasoline, hexane and pentane.
Natural gasoline and pentane are blended and sent to refining, while the hexane and heavier
components are used as feedstock for petrochemical plants.
The sales gas (methane) system is extensive, covering large areas of Saudi Arabia from
coast to coast. Adding to its complexity is the integration and interdependence of the three main
systems: oil, gas and NGL.
The sales gas system depends greatly on oil production, since associated gas represents a
significant part of the system feed. It is also fully integrated into the NGL system, since any NGL
component recovered during processing causes a reduction in the sales gas supply. Sales gas is
piped to more than 54 industrial customers, including power, desalination and petrochemical
plants, throughout the Eastern, Central and Western provinces of Saudi Arabia.
The Ju‘aymah and Yanbu‘ gas plants receive ethane (C2) plus NGL, and Ras Tanura receives
propane (C3) plus NGL for fractionation and sweetening. The Ju‘aymah plant also receives C3 plus
NGL streams from the Berri Gas Plant and the Qatif and Abqaiq crude stabilization facilities. The
Ju‘aymah and Yanbu‘ gas plants produce ethane, propane, butane and natural gasoline products,
while the Ras Tanura Refinery produces all but ethane. The Ju‘aymah facility also has a depentanizer
column and associated facilities necessary for the delivery of a hexane (C6) stream to petrochemical
customers in Jubail. Propane is primarily used as petrochemical feedstock in the industrial cities of
Yanbu‘ and Jubail and the excess is exported. Butane is used as domestic petrochemical feedstock
and is also exported as a liquid. NGL products are used to produce more than 50 petrochemical
products and are sold to customers in more than 100 countries worldwide.
distriBution In addition to the giant storage tank farms that feed shipping terminals with crude
oil, NGL and refined products, Saudi Aramco operates a vast network of bulk plants and air fueling
units strategically located throughout Saudi Arabia. Overall capacity of the company’s storage
facilities for all hydrocarbons is roughly 200 million barrels. Pipelines, marine crude oil tankers,
product carriers and trucks are the principal delivery systems for the company’s petroleum and
petroleum products.
Through its 19 bulk plant operations, Saudi Aramco annually supplies around 375 million
barrels of refined products to about 5,000 domestic bulk customers. Compliance reviews and
periodic spot checks are conducted to assist in maintaining product quality and to assure opera-
tions compliance with established safety and environmental policies and procedures.
Approximately 2,000 trucks are used to transport refined products over the Kingdom’s
150,000 kilometers of highways. The use of these trucks, which are subject to strict safety and
quality standards, is being minimized as Saudi Aramco replaces them with new pipeline systems.
Shipping vessels account for almost all of Saudi Aramco exports of crude oil, NGL and
refined products and are also used to transport hydrocarbons to supply and distribution facilities
on the Red Sea.
The company’s shipping subsidiary, Vela International Marine Limited, was established in
1984, when rights to Vela’s name and four existing tankers were acquired. Vela currently operates
a fleet of 17 very large crude carriers (VLCCs), each capable of carrying 2.1 million barrels of crude
oil. Vela also owns and operates five product tankers that perform coastal trade in the Red Sea
and the Arabian Gulf. Overall, Vela ships make roughly 1,000 voyages per year—83 percent of
which are international, with the remainder domestic—safely transporting roughly 2 million bpd.
The Master Gas System, which handles more than 9 billion standard cubic feet per day of gas, provides fuel and feedstock to domestic indus-tries, such as this plant in Jubail.
The Saiph Star, a double-hull crude oil carrier, joined the Vela fleet in 2009.
appendix 193192 appendix
The next year, Saudi Aramco and The Dow Chemical Co. began exploring the possibility of
building a petrochemical complex. The proposed joint venture, to be located in the Jubail industrial
area, is perhaps the largest and most complex project in Saudi Aramco’s downstream portfolio.
The project proposal includes chemicals and plastics production units and an associated conversion
park for local and foreign private-sector companies to build industries to use the products.
Petrochemicals The petrochemical industry traces its roots to World War II, when the demand
for synthetic materials rose due to shortages of, and lack of access to, natural resources. Before
the war, petrochemicals were an experimental sector: synthetic rubbers were developed in the
early 1900s; Bakelite, the first petrochemical-derived plastic, in 1907; and polystyrene in the
1930s. Today, petrochemicals are found in furniture, kitchen appliances, medical equipment,
automobiles, airplanes and ships, soaps and detergents, solvents, drugs, fertilizers, pesticides,
computers, paints, epoxies, clothing and shoes, flooring and insulating materials, cosmetics,
luggage, and recording disks and tapes.
Petrochemical facilities receive their raw material, known as feedstocks, from refineries
and NGL and gas plants. Feedstocks include ethane, naphtha, propane, butane and hexane,
among others. These feedstocks are then further cracked to create the basic building blocks for
petrochemical products: olefins (mainly ethylene, propylene and the C4 derivatives, including
butadiene) and aromatics (benzene, toluene, xylene and naphthalene).
A significant proportion of the basic petrochemicals are converted into polymers: polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride and polystyrene, all derived from ethylene, and polypropylene, derived from
propylene. Polymers are used in plastics, synthetic rubbers and synthetic fibers, such as polyester,
nylon and acrylic.
Beginning in the 1990s with a series of international joint and equity ventures in refining and
marketing, Saudi Aramco has been transforming itself from a crude oil producing and exporting
company into an integrated petroleum enterprise, with activities all along the value chain. The
most recent development in the company’s transformation is the petrochemical sector. The
goal is to create more value from Saudi Arabia’s hydrocarbon resources, principally by bringing
petrochemicals processing and manufacturing to the Kingdom rather than exporting commodity
petrochemicals to foreign markets where they are used in associated industries.
In March 2006, Saudi Aramco and Sumitomo Chemical Co. of Japan broke ground on the
Petro Rabigh joint venture, one of the world’s largest integrated refining and petrochemical facilities.
The complex commenced operations in early 2009 and has the capacity to produce 18.4 million
tons of high-value petroleum products and 2.4 million tons of ethylene- and propylene-based
petrochemical derivatives per year. An associated industrial city will use the materials produced by
Petro Rabigh to manufacture a wide range of products for local and international consumption.
The final destination of most crude oil is the fuel tank of a vehicle, whether a motorcycle, car, truck, airplane or train. Saudi aramco exports of crude oil power the transportation industries in europe, north america and asia— in this case, China.
Petrochemicals
The petrochemical industry converts crude oil and natural gas into basic petrochemical building blocks that, in turn, are used to produce consumer goods ranging from heart valves to raincoats.
* Butylene, butadiene and derivatives
ethylene
Plastics, polyesters and synthetic rubber used in products such as luggage, appliances, automo-tive parts, footwear, flooring and tires.
ProPylene
Resins, fibers and plastics used in such products as detergents, solvents, varnishes, super-absorbent materials, acrylic fibers, pharmaceu-ticals, cosmetics and food packaging.
c4 Box*
Synthetic rubbers and plastics used in such products as automotive parts, tires, aviation gaso-line and the gasoline additive MTBE.
PyGas
Used for gasoline blending or as feedstock.
Benzene
Plastics used in boats, cars, computers, food containers and pack-aging, construction materials, nylon, toys, carpets, shampoo, cleaning products, emulsifiers and pharmaceuticals.
toluene
industrial chemicals used in coatings, sealants, adhesives, paints and the foam used in furniture, bedding, car seats and building insulation.
xylenes
Solvents, dyes, fibers and films used in products such as polyester fibers and plastics and in plasticizers, sub- stances that make plastics more flex-ible and are used in medical tubing and blood bags, toys and footwear.
C4 box*
olef ins
Pygas
Crude Oil
Propylene
LPG
Associated Gases
Methane Ethane
EthyleneToluene BenzeneXylenes
aromatics
NGL
Methane
Natural Gas
Naphtha
appendix 195194 appendix
domest ic oPerations
major crude oil P iPel ine
major nGl P iPel ine
trans-araBian P iPel ine
shayBah-aBqaiq P iPel ine
scale in k ilometers
0 200
key
toWns
caPital
seaWater treatment Plant
inteGrated ref inery and Petrochemical Plant
major oil Process inG comPlex
domest ic ref ined Products d istr iBut ion facil ity
Gas Process inG Plant
domest ic ref inery
joint /equity venture ref inery
oil f ield
Gas f ield
crude oil terminal
ref ined Products terminal
nGl terminal
domest ic ref ined Products terminal
saudi araBia
yemen
iraq
jordan
united araBemirates
kuWait
oman
Dammam
Ras Tanura
Ju‘aymah
Jubail
‘Uthmaniyah‘Udhailiyah
Haradh
Tanajib
Safaniya
Abqaiq
Shedgum
Khurais
Qurayyah
BerriKhursaniyah
Nariya
Qatif
al-hasa
Dhahran
Layla
al-Kharj
al-Sulayyil
SafaniyaTanajib
Jubail
Ras TanuraQatifDhahranAbqaiq
Hofuf
Salwah
Haradh
Nariya
Riyadh
al-hasa
Dammam
al-Khafji
Khurais
al-Zilfi
Tabuk
TaymaDuba
al-‘Ulaal-Wajh
Madinah
MakkahTayif
al-BahahBishah
Tathlith
Khamis Mushayt
ash-Sharawrah
al-Dawadimi
Buraydah
Yanbu‘
Rabigh
Jiddah
Abha
Jazan
Najran
Hayil
Turaif
‘Unayzah
Rafha
Hafar al-BatinQaisumah
Sakaka
Dawmat al-Jandal
al-Jawf
Badanah
Khaybar
EAST-WEST CRUDE OiL PiPELiNE
EAST-WEST NGL PiPELiNE
Hawiyah
■ domestic operations map■ international operations map■ oil and Gas operations■ Production and Workforce history
Operations Data
appendix 197196 appendix
SingaporeSaudi Petroleum Ltd.
jaPan
rePuBl ic of korea
Hong KongAramco Overseas Company B.V.Saudi Aramco Sino Co. Ltd.
Aramco Overseas Company B.V.Shanghai
Fujian
> Fujian Refining and Petrochemical Co. Ltd.> Sinopec SenMei (Fujian) Petroleum Co. Ltd.
Seoul
> S-Oil Corporation
Saudi Petroleum Ltd.Beijing
Toyko> Saudi Petroleum Ltd. > Aramco Overseas Company B.V.> Showa Shell Sekiyu K.K.
> Saudi Petroleum Overseas Ltd.> Aramco Overseas Company B.V.
| Aramco Overseas Company B.V.The Hague
Dubai Vela International Marine Limited
Dhahran
al-Khafji
Aramco Gulf Operations Co. Ltd.
Jubail | > Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Co. (SASReF)
> MARAFIQ
Ras Tanura
Ju‘aymah
Sidi Kerir
Ain SukhnaSUMeD Arab Petroleum Pipelines Co.
Rabigh | Petro Rabigh
Yanbu‘
> Luberef> Saudi Aramco Mobil Refinery Co. Ltd. (SAMReF)> MARAFIQ
Thuwal Jiddah > Luberef> Jiddah Oil Refinery Co.
saudi araBia
Rotterdam> Texaco esso AOC Maatschap> TeAM Terminal B.V.
New York City Saudi Petroleum International Ltd.
Washington, D.C. Aramco Services Company
Houston
> Aramco Services Company> Saudi Refining Inc.> Motiva enterprises LLC
LOOP
P a c i f i c o c e a n
a t l a n t i c o c e a n
i n d i a n o c e a n
united states
international oPerations
saudi aramco headquarters
marafiq : electric ity and Water ut il ity for juBail and yanBu‘
lonG-term storaGe and terminal facil it ies
key
toWns
aff il iate , suBs idiary or jo int /equity venture
Ports
looP: louis iana offshore oil Port
l iGhterinG areas
PrinciPal exPort routes
vela shiPP inG routes
London
> >
luBeref : saudi aramco luBricat inG oil ref inery co.
> Aramco Overseas Company B.V. New Delhi
Okinawa
appendix 199198 appendix
Abu Hadriya
Zuluf
SafaniyaMarjan
Qatif Khursaniyah
Abu Sa‘fah Berri
Shaybah Ghawar
Abqaiq Harmaliyah
Abqaiq
Dhahran Tanks
Bahrain*Ras TanuraKhurais
Jubail***
Ju‘aymah
Ras Tanura
Riyadh Yanbu‘** Jiddah
Yanbu‘
Qatif Ras Tanura
Central Arabian
Fields
Tapline
Petro Rabigh
Gas produced with crude oil is collected from gas-oil separation plants and fed to gas processing plants. There, impurities are removed, hydrogen sulfide is recovered for conversion into elemental sulfur, and sweet, dry gas is extracted for use as an industrial fuel or feedstock. From gas processing centers at Shedgum, Hawiyah, Khursaniyah and
‘Uthmaniyah, NGL (natural gas liquids) and ethane are piped to plants at Yanbu‘ and Ju‘aymah for fractionation. After removal of the ethane, the NGL is further fractionated into LPG (propane and butane) and natural gasoline.
Gas produced independently of crude oil (non-associated gas) is processed at the Haradh and Hawiyah gas plants for delivery into the sales gas system. The Hawiyah NGL Plant processes sweet gas from the Hawiyah and Haradh gas plants. NGL from the Berri Gas Plant goes to Ju‘aymah or Ras Tanura for fractionation. LPG is exported from Yanbu‘ and Ju‘aymah. From the fractionation plants, ethane is delivered to the industrial complexes at Yanbu‘ and Jubail for use as a petrochemical feedstock.
Gas oPerations key
Gas Plant
nGl : natural Gas l iquids Plant
industrial comPlex
GosP : Gas-oil seParation Plant
fract ionation Plant
marafiq : electric ity and Water ut il ity for juBail and yanBu‘ sWcc: sal ine Water conversion corPoration
terminal
saudi electric comPany
other industry
keyoil oPerations
The crude oil produced by Saudi Aramco from both onshore and offshore fields first goes to gas-oil separation plants for removal of gases, water and salt, after which it is sent for further processing at stabilizers or refineries. Most of the crude oil is delivered to tankers at Ras Tanura, Ju‘aymah or Yanbu‘.
staBil izer
* The refinery in Bahrain is not a Saudi Aramco facility.
** Two Yanbu‘ refineries (one joint venture)
GosP : Gas-oil seParation Plant
Plant
oil f ield
terminal
ref inery
local customer
inteGrated ref inery and Petrochemical Plant
*** Joint venture
non-associated Gas Wells
Abqaiq
Jubail Yanbu‘
Yanbu‘Ju‘aymahRas Tanura
Ju‘aymahRas Tanura Yanbu‘
MARAFiQSWCC
MARAFiQ
Qatif
HawiyahHaradhShedgum ‘Uthmaniyah Khursaniyah
Hawiyah
Berri
appendix 201200 appendix
saudi aramco Production h istory 1938–2010 (THOUSANDS OF BARRELS) key
crude oil
natural Gas l iquids
Average daily production of crude oil and NGL
1971
1972
1973
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
7,33
4.65
97
.12
5,73
3.40
54
.07
4,49
7.58
52
.07
3,54
8.87
52
.12
2,99
2.66
46
.17
2,82
9.98
38
.47
2,59
7.56
20
.40
2,39
2.74
15
.56
2,02
4.87
13
.87
1,71
6.11
11
.01
1,62
9.02
5.
80
1,52
0.70
2.
90
1,39
2.52
1,24
7.14
1,09
5.40
1,01
5.03
992.
11
986.
13
965.
04
953.
00
844.
64
824.
76
761.
54
546.
70
476.
74
390.
31
246.
17
164.
23
58.3
9
21.3
0
13.3
4
12.4
1
11.8
1
13.8
7
10.7
8
1.36
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
8,92
4.14
1,
098.
92
8,53
1.91
1,
081.
00
8,91
2.17
1,
093.
24
9,06
4.62
1,
096.
94
8,61
0.58
1,
058.
14
8,10
3.45
94
5.43
6,79
2.32
86
8.32
7,57
0.64
80
1.05
7,80
0.07
77
8.71
7,27
4.05
73
7.35
8,00
6.24
76
4.83
7,75
1.93
76
7.45
7,86
4.83
75
6.15
7,80
7.63
73
1.85
7,83
3.28
68
7.93
7,85
4.74
63
9.76
8,15
6.57
62
2.06
8,05
3.40
58
6.74
6,25
7.56
53
3.23
4,86
3.53
42
0.95
4,92
8.10
41
6.21
3,99
1.00
34
4.92
4,68
9.80
30
4.18
3,04
1.10
31
6.31
3,92
2.08
35
5.07
4374
.30
330.
10
6,32
7.22
42
9.50
9,62
3.83
44
8.17
9,63
1.37
36
9.23
9,25
1.08
30
9.26
8,06
6.11
25
3.11
9,01
6.95
21
9.45
8,34
3.95
18
4.78
6,82
6.94
14
1.42
1974
8,20
9.71
13
7.63
2009
2010
7,91
0.20
1,
219.
30
7,91
2.56
1,
123.
96
appendix 203202 appendix
saudi aramco Workforce h istory 1935–2010 (at year-end)
key
saudi
exPatriate
total Workforce
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
44,7
02
6,65
4
44,9
91
6,85
2
45,5
05
7,01
5
46,3
65
7,58
9
46,4
96
7,99
1
45,8
69
8,20
8
46,3
15
8,18
6
45,5
86
8,49
0
46,1
72
9,36
0
46,1
33
10,3
47
12,2
16
5,40
8
46,1
80
11,5
96
44,9
38
12,5
48
34,6
15
14,1
07
33,8
47
13,0
08
32,9
00
12,9
48
32,1
06
11,5
82
31,7
12
12,2
16
32,0
85
12,3
99
31,6
23
12,5
55
31,9
06
13,9
58
33,3
82
18,2
09
34,8
82
23,2
73
34,2
26
24,7
36
33,0
67
28,1
65
29,7
53
27,8
85
26,3
21
24,2
60
21,8
39
20,4
13
17,8
94
16,7
55
16,7
40
8,78
7
15,1
87
6,54
3
14,9
31
5,45
1
12,4
32
4,39
0
10,6
36
3,33
4
1971
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
9,13
3 2,
099
9,43
8 2,
213
9,89
4 2,
483
10,2
94
2,67
8
10,7
61
2,84
8
10,7
93
2,95
8
10,8
05
2,99
9
10,8
92
2,99
8
11,3
41
3,12
4
11,4
42
3,55
8
11,6
60
4,29
6
12,2
16
5,40
8
12,5
72
6,07
6
13,2
22
6,63
5
13,6
71
7,53
5
13,8
44
8,09
1
14,6
65
8,78
2
14,0
51
9,39
3
14,8
19
10,2
73
13,7
86
8,85
2
10,7
67
6,73
4
10,0
26
6,09
9
12,2
26
7,37
9
12,0
18
4,87
9
7,29
7 2,
684
8,08
7 3,
379
7,58
5 1,
475
2,69
2 19
0
1,65
4 17
1
1,64
7 19
3
2,66
8 38
2
3,17
8 46
3
2,74
5 34
0
548 54
1,07
6 62115 26
9,10
9 2,
225
11,3
34141
1,13
8
602
3,08
5
3,64
1
3,05
0
1,84
0
1,82
5
2,88
2
9,06
0
11,4
66
9,98
1
16,8
97
19,6
05
16,1
25
17,5
01
22,6
38
25,0
92
23,4
44
23,4
47
21,9
35
21,2
06
19,8
57
18,6
48
17,6
24
15,9
56
15,0
00
14,4
65
13,8
90
13,8
04
13,7
51
13,6
09
12,9
72
12,3
77
11,6
51
11,2
32
1972
9,59
0 2,
575
12,1
65
13,9
70
16,8
22
20,3
82
21,7
30
25,5
27
34,6
49
42,2
52
50,5
81
57,6
38
61,2
32
58,9
62
58,1
55
51,5
91
45,8
64
44,1
78
44,4
84
43,9
28
43,6
88
45,8
48
46,8
55
48,7
22
57,4
86
57,7
76
56,4
80
56,3
45
55,5
32
54,0
76
54,5
01
54,0
77
54,4
87
53,9
54
52,5
20
51,8
43
51,3
56
2008
2007
45,4
64
6,62
947
,502
6,
939
54,4
41
52,0
93
2010
2009
48,0
53
7,01
347
,741
7,
057
54,7
98
55,0
66