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Perception and Learning in Organizations
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Regina Peruggi, Back to the Floor
• Regina Peruggi, president of New York’s Central Park Conservancy, got her perceptions back in focus by spending a week working on the front line. © BBC Photolibrary
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Emotions andEmotions andBehaviorsBehaviors
Organization andOrganization andInterpretationInterpretation
Selective AttentionSelective Attention
Perceptual Process Model
Feeling Hearing Seeing Smelling TastingFeeling Hearing Seeing Smelling Tasting
Environmental StimuliEnvironmental Stimuli
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Selective Attention
• Characteristics of the object– size, intensity, motion, repetition, novelty
• Perceptual context
• Characteristics of the perceiver– attitudes– perceptual defense– expectations -- condition us to expect events
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Splatter Vision Perception
• Fighter pilots, police detectives, and truck drivers use splatter vision -- scanning everything and focusing on nothing. This reduces the chance of screening out potentially important information.
© Corel Corp. Used with permission
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An Individual’sAn Individual’sSocial IdentitySocial Identity
IBMIBMEmployeeEmployee
Social Identity Theory
Live inLive inU.S.A.U.S.A.
Univ. of VermontUniv. of VermontGraduateGraduate
Employees atEmployees atother firmsother firms
People livingPeople livingin other countriesin other countries
Graduates fromGraduates fromother schoolsother schools
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Social Identity Theory Features
• Comparative process– define ourselves by differences with others
• Homogenization process– similar traits within a group; different traits across
groups
• Contrasting process– develop less favorable images of people in groups
other than our own
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Ottawa Citizen
Sex Role Stereotyping in Engineering
• Women are underrepresented in engineering partly because:– Social identity -- few women
identify with the “geek” image portrayed of engineers
– Sex role stereotyping -- women are not encouraged to become engineers because the profession has a male stereotype
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Stereotyping
• Process of assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category– Categorical thinking– Strong need to understand
and anticipate others’ behavior
– Enhances our self-perception and social identity
Ottawa Citizen
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Minimizing Stereotyping Biases
• Diversity awareness training– Educate employees about the benefits of
diversity and dispel myths
• Meaningful interaction– Contact hypothesis
• Decision-making accountability– Use objective criteria in decision-making
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Attribution Process
• Internal Attribution– Perception that outcomes are due to
motivation/ability rather than situation or fate
• External Attribution– Perception that outcomes are due to
situation or fate rather than the person
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Rules of Attribution
External AttributionExternal Attribution
FrequentlyFrequently
ConsistencyConsistency
SeldomSeldom
Internal AttributionInternal Attribution
FrequentlyFrequently
DistinctivenessDistinctiveness
SeldomSeldom
SeldomSeldom
ConsensusConsensus
FrequentlyFrequently
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Attribution Errors
• Fundamental Attribution Error– attributing own actions to external factors
and other’s actions to internal factors
• Self-Serving Bias– attributing our successes to internal
factors and our failures to external factors
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle
SupervisorSupervisorformsforms
expectationsexpectations
ExpectationsExpectationsaffect supervisor’saffect supervisor’s
behaviorbehavior
Supervisor’sSupervisor’sbehavior affectsbehavior affects
employeeemployee
Employee’sEmployee’sbehavior matchesbehavior matches
expectationsexpectations
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Other Perceptual Errors
• Primacy– first impressions
• Recency– most recent information dominates perceptions
• Halo– one trait forms a general impression
• Projection– believe other people do the same things or have
the same attitudes as you
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Improving Perceptions
• Empathy– Sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situation
of others– Cognitive and emotional component
• Self-awareness– Awareness of your values, beliefs and prejudices– Applying Johari Window
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Known to Self Unknown to SelfKnown
to Others
Unknownto Others
OpenOpenAreaArea BlindBlind
AreaArea
UnknownUnknownAreaArea
HiddenHiddenAreaArea
Know Yourself (Johari Window)
OpenOpenAreaArea
BlindBlindAreaArea
HiddenHiddenAreaArea
UnknownUnknownAreaArea
DisclosureDisclosure
FeedbackFeedback
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Definition of Learning
• A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior tendency) that occurs as a result of a person’s interaction with the environment
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Behavior Modification
• We “operate” on the environment– alter behavior to maximize positive and minimize
adverse consequences
• Learning is viewed as completely dependent on the environment
• Human thoughts are viewed as unimportant
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A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification
ConsequencesConsequences
What happensWhat happensafter behaviorafter behavior
Co-workersCo-workersthank thank
operatoroperator
ExampleExample
BehaviorBehavior
What personWhat personsays or doessays or does
Machine Machine operator turnsoperator turns
off poweroff power
AntecedentsAntecedents
What happensWhat happensbefore behaviorbefore behavior
WarningWarninglightlight
flashesflashes
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Contingencies of Reinforcement
Behaviorincreases/maintained
Behaviordecreases
Consequenceis introduced
Consequenceis removed
PunishmentPunishment
PositivePositivereinforcementreinforcement
ExtinctionExtinction PunishmentPunishment
NegativeNegativereinforcementreinforcement
Noconsequence
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Schedules of Reinforcement Behaviors
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Continuous
Fixed ratio
Variable ratio
Fixed interval
Time (Days)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Variable interval
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Behavior Modification Limitations
• More difficult to apply to conceptual activities• Reward inflation • Ethical concern that variable ratio schedule is
a lottery • Behaviorist philosophy vs. learning through
mental processes
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Social Learning Theory
• Behavioral modeling– Observing and modeling behavior of others
• Learning behavior consequences– Observing consequences that others
experience
• Self-reinforcement– Reinforcing our own behavior with
consequences within our control
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Experiential Learning in Warwick, RI
• These Warwick, Rhode Island, fire department recruits are recapping an experiential learning exercise in which their task was to control the fire and save victims (dummies lying on the ground in this photo).© Bill Murphy/The Providence Journal
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ConcreteConcreteexperienceexperience
ReflectiveReflectiveobservationobservation
AbstractAbstractconceptualizationconceptualization
ActiveActiveexperimentationexperimentation
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model
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Developing a Learning Orientation
• Value the generation of new knowledge• Reward experimentation• Recognize mistakes as part of learning• Encourage employees to take reasonable risks
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Action Learning
• Experiential learning in which employees are involved in a ‘real, complex and stressful problem’, usually in teams, with immediate relevance to the company– Concrete experience– Learning meetings– Team conceptualizes and applies a solution to a
problem