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Plant Evolution and Diversity Part 1: Bryophytes and Ferns
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The Three Domains
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• Plant-like protists are autotrophs – they contain chloroplasts and make their own food.
• Animal-like and fungus-like protists and are heterotrophs.
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Fungi – not plants Non-photosynthetic eukaryotes, saprophytic, Reproduce by spores, chitin cell walls (not cellulose)
Includes yeast
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What is a plant? Traditional View of Biology: Animals and Plants
Problem: Microscopic Organisms (Bacteria, Fungi, Algae)
Complication:
Endosymbiotic origin of organelles (Lynn Margulis)
Membrane-bound structures in eukaryotic cells are derived from formerly free-living organisms that have become intimately symbiotic
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What is a Plant? 1. Eukaryotic - nucleus
2. Chloroplasts present
3. Cell wall with cellulose
4. Autotrophic – make own food
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What is a Plant? 1. Eukaryotic
2. Chloroplasts present
3. Cell wall with cellulose
4. Autotrophic
5. Complex Life Cycle (alternation of generations)
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Algae - Diverse, single-celled to complex seaweeds Photosynthetic eukaryotes, green plants
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• Diverse group – green, red, and brown algae.
• Single celled or multicellular.
• Autotrophs (plants), form the foundation of Earth’s food chains.
• Produce much of Earth’s oxygen.
Plant-like protists – “Algae”
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Green Algae – Chlorophytes and Charophytes
• Chlorophyll a and b, like land plants
• Many forms – single celled, filamentous, colonial, sheets
• May have other pigments, orange or red
• Related to land plants
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Ulva – Sea Lettuce
• Chlorophyte - Marine • Sheets 2 cells thick • Alternation of Generations like land plants
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a: © Bob Gibbons/Alamy; b: © Kingsley Stern
main axis
node a. Chara, several individuals b. One individual
branch
Chara – Stonewort
• Charophyte • Freshwater • Calcium carbonate
deposits, crusty feel • Whorls of branches • Reproductive
structures at nodes
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The phylogeny of land plants The likely ancestor are charophycean algae • same chloroplast DNA, ribosomal DNA • same membrane structure, peroxisomes, sperm cells
Chara
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Land plants are most closely related to freshwater green algae known as charophytes.
– Charophytes and land plants are in the same clade. – Their common ancestor no longer exists. – Characteristics common between charophytes and
land plants: • Photosynthetic pigments a and b • Cellulose cell walls • Apical cells • Plasmodesmata • Cell division • Placenta (retain and care for zygote)
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Phylogeny of land plants
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Colonization of the Land by Plants
Drying out is a big problem to overcome
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Roots or rhizoids to hold on Cuticle – waxy coat to prevent dessication Stomata – pores for breathing Protected gametangia Vascular system Xylem – move water Phloem – move food Leaves – microphylls and megaphylls Lignin – strengthening material in wood Pollen grains Seeds Flowers
Colonization of the Land by Plants
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Fungi may have been important
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Waxy Cuticle
Stomata – openings for gas exchange
Adaptations for Life on Land
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Adaptations for Life on Land
Gametangia – organ that produces gametes, protected by jacket of cells Antheridia Archegonia
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Non-vascular Plants – no xylem and phloem, small • Bryophytes - mosses, liverworts, hornworts Vascular Plants - well developed tissues that conduct and distribute water. Roots, stems and leaves • Ferns, Horsetails, Clubmosses; no seeds • Gymnosperms - Conifers, Ginkgo, Cycads; seeds
naked • Angiosperms - seeds enclosed in ovary, flowers
Major Groups of Plants:
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Four main groups of Land Plants
• Bryophytes (mosses, etc.) – no vascular tissue, small
• Ferns and relatives – vascular tissue, no seeds, spores, small to very large
• Gymnosperms – vascular tissue, seeds, no flowers
• Angiosperms – vascular tissue, seeds, flowers (fruits), diverse
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Bryophytes (Mosses, etc.)
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Bryophyte diversity
Hornworts 100 species
Liverworts 6,500 species
Mosses
12,000 species
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Mosses
Mosses - 12,000 species
• Widely distributed, especially in alpine, boreal, temperate and tropical forests
• Able to live in very dry or very cold habitats • Many can dry out entirely, then rehydrate
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Famous mosses: Sphagnum
Wetland moss -
“peat moss”
• Boggy regions dominated by it
known as peat bogs or peatlands. • Used in potting soil
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• In bryophytes the gametophyte (haploid n) is the dominant generation and the sporophyte (diploid 2n) is dependent on the gametophyte.
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Moss Sporophye - Sporangium
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Moss (Polytrichum) Life Cycle Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
23.9(sporophyte): © Peter Arnold, Inc./Alamy; 23.9(gametophyte): © Steven P. Lynch
1. The mature
gametophytes:
In mosses, the leafy
gametophyte shoots
bear either antheridia
or archegonia, where
gametes are
produced by mitosis.
2. Fertilization:
Flagellated sperm
produced in
antheridia swim in
external water to
archegonia, each
bearing a single egg.
FERTILIZATION
Archegonia
Antheridia
egg
rhizoids
Gametophytes
sperm
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Moss Gametophytes – produce the gametes!
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Alternation of Generations in Land Plants
zygote (2n)
spore (n)
gametes
(n) (n)
diploid (2n) MEIOSIS
haploid (n)
sporangium (2n)
sporophyte
(2n)
FERTILIZATION
gametophyte
(n)
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Reduction in the Size of the Gametophyte
34
Moss Fern Gymnosperm Angiosperm
roots
roots
roots
rhizoids
rhizoids
seed seed spores spores
S
p
o
r
o
p
h
y
t
e
(2n)
G
a
m
e
t
o
p
h
y
t
e
(n)
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Liverworts
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Liverwort, Marchantia
36
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Liverworts
• Flattened thallus body • Found on rocks in wet areas • Gemma Cups – asexual reproduction
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Hornwort, Anthoceros sp.
sporophyte
gametophyte
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Ferns and fern allies • Lycophytes • Pteridophytes
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Evolution of Lycophytes: Vascular Tissue
• Vascular plants – Dominate the natural landscape
– Can achieve great heights because of roots and vascular tissue and nutrient-conducting tissue
– Xylem conducts water and dissolved minerals up from roots.
– Phloem conducts sucrose and other organic compounds throughout the plant.
– Lignin strengthens cell walls of conducting cells in xylem.
– Most seedless vascular plants are homosporous. • Windblown spores are dispersal agents.
– Cooksonia, early vascular plant
43
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A Cooksonia Fossil
sporangia
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Silurian Plants – 450 MY
Lived near shorelines and in shallow waters
Slowly ‘invaded’ the land area by spreading in from rivers and lakes
Cooksonia
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Leaves – microphylls and megaphylls
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Leaf Adaptation to Prevent Desiccation
48
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Vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)
Adaptations for Life on Land
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Lignin - strengthening chemical compound in wood, allowed growth of stems and branches. Allowed trees and forests to appear
Adaptations for Life on Land
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The Plant Body
Shoot System
Root System
Vascular System for transporting water and food up and down
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Carboniferous Forests - Lycophytes
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Seedless vascular plants: Ferns and fern allies
• Giant tree ferns, horsetails and lycopods were the dominant vegetation of the Carboniferous period.
• Their fossilized remains formed extensive coal beds.
• They were ultimately superseded by the seed plants and far fewer survive today.
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Carboniferous Forest – 300 mya
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Coal Fromation
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Ferns and Fern Allies Vascular plants (Xylem, Phloem) No flowers, no seeds, reproduce by spores
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Present day fern allies
• Lycopods: About 1,000 species. Includes tropical epiphytes and northern hemisphere low growing club mosses.
• Horsetails: today about 15 species of Equisetum occur in northern hemisphere in damp conditions.
• Quillworts - Isoetes
• Whisk Ferns - Psilotum
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Equisetum Lycopod
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Ferns
• A very diverse group about 12,000 species most abundant in the tropics, but distributed worldwide.
• Most are small to moderately large plants, but tree ferns are many meters tall.
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Common ferns Boston fern
Pteris
Staghorn fern
Maidenhair fern
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Diversity of Ferns
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Fern morphology Underground rhizome (stem)
Fronds = leaves
Sori - sporangia
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Fern life cycle - spores
• Produced by sporangia
• Sporangia clustered in sori
(singular = sorus)
• Usually small button-like
dots on backs of fronds
• Sometimes covered by
indusium
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Fern Sori, Sporangia
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Fern Life Cycle
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Fern Sporophyte
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The Uses of Ferns
• Economic and medicinal value.
• Edible ferns are used as a food source.
• Azolla harbors nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria and is grown in rice paddies, where it fertilizes rice plants.
• Ferns and their allies are used as medicines in China.
• Extracts from ferns have also been used to kill insects.
• Ferns are used as decoration.
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Azolla Fern • Pockets with cycanobacteria • Used to fertilize rice paddies
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Horsetail, Equisetum
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Whisk Fern, Psilotum
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Spores and seeds
• The spores of ferns are tiny and vast numbers are produced. However, their prospects of survival are low.
• A new evolutionary innovation, the seed, arose in the Carboniferous Period. Seeds and later fruit proved to be enormously successful and seed plants especially angiosperms came to dominate the planet.
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Glossopteris – Seed Ferns Permian
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