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POMDPs: Partially Observable
Markov Decision Processes
Robotics II
Wolfram Burgard
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Types of Planning Problems
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State Action Model
Classical Planning
observable Deterministic, accurate
MDP, universal plans
observable stochastic
POMDPs partially observable
stochastic
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Classical Planning
3
hell heaven
• World deterministic • State observable
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MDP-Style Planning
4
hell heaven
• World stochastic • State observable
[Koditschek 87, Barto et al. 89]
• Policy • Universal Plan • Navigation function
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Stochastic, Partially Observable
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sign
hell? heaven?
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Stochastic, Partially Observable
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sign
hell heaven
sign
heaven hell
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Stochastic, Partially Observable
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sign
heaven hell
sign
? ?
sign
hell heaven
start
50% 50%
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Stochastic, Partially Observable
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sign
? ?
start
sign
heaven hell
sign
hell heaven
50% 50%
sign
? ?
start
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Combination of Markov Decision Processes and Bayes Filtering
§ Markov Decision Processes provide us with the optimal action given the state is known
§ Recursive Bayes filtering provide us with an estimate about the current state of the system given all observations and actions carried out thus far.
§ Can we extend MDPs to partially observable states
using Recursive Bayes filtering?
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Value Iteration
§ Given this notation the value iteration formula is
§ with
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POMDPs § In POMDPs we apply the very same idea as in
MDPs.
§ Since the state is not observable, the agent has to make its decisions based on the belief state which is a posterior distribution over states.
§ Let b be the belief of the agent about the state under consideration.
§ POMDPs compute a value function over belief space:
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Problems § Each belief is a probability distribution, thus,
each value in a POMDP is a function of an entire probability distribution.
§ This is problematic, since probability distributions are continuous.
§ Additionally, we have to deal with the huge complexity of belief spaces.
§ For finite worlds with finite state, action, and measurement spaces and finite horizons, however, we can effectively represent the value functions by piecewise linear functions.
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An Illustrative Example
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2x1x 3u8.0
2z1z
3u
2.0
8.02.0
7.0
3.0
3.0
7.0
measurements action u3 state x2
payoff
measurements
1u 2u 1u 2u100− 50−100 100
actions u1, u2
payoff
state x1
1z
2z
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The Parameters of the Example § The actions u1 and u2 are terminal actions. § The action u3 is a sense action that potentially
leads to a state transition.
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Payoff in POMDPs
§ In MDPs, the payoff (or return) depended on the state of the system.
§ In POMDPs, however, the true state is not exactly known.
§ Therefore, we compute the expected payoff by integrating over all states:
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Payoffs in Our Example (1) § If we are totally certain that we are in state x1 and execute
action u1, we receive a reward of -100 § If, on the other hand, we definitely know that we are in x2
and execute u1, the reward is +100. § In between it is the linear combination of the extreme values
weighted by the corresponding probabilities
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Payoffs in Our Example (2)
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The Resulting Policy for T=1
§ Given we have a finite POMDP with T=1, we would use V1(b) to determine the optimal policy.
§ In our example, the optimal policy for T=1 is
§ This is the upper thick graph in the diagram.
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Piecewise Linearity, Convexity
§ The resulting value function V1(b) is the maximum of the three functions in at each point
§ It is piecewise linear and convex.
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Pruning
§ If we carefully consider V1(b), we see that only the first to components contribute.
§ The third component can therefore safely be pruned away from V1(b).
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Increasing the Time Horizon § If we go over to a time horizon of T=2, the agent
can also consider the sensing action u3. § Suppose we perceive z1 for which p(z1 | x1)=0.7 and
p(z1| x2)=0.3. § Given the observation z1 we update the belief using
Bayes rule. § Thus V1(b | z1) is given by
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Expected Value after Measuring
§ Since we do not know in advance what the next measurement will be, we have to compute the expected belief
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Resulting Value Function § The four possible combinations yield the
following function which then can be simplified and pruned.
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State Transitions (Prediction)
§ When the agent selects u3 its state potentially changes.
§ When computing the value function, we have to take these potential state changes into account.
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Resulting Value Function after executing u3
§ Taking also the state transitions into account, we finally obtain.
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Value Function for T=2
§ Taking into account that the agent can either directly perform u1 or u2, or first u3 and then u1 or u2, we obtain (after pruning)
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Graphical Representation of V2(b)
u1 optimal u2 optimal
unclear
outcome of measurement is important here
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Deep Horizons and Pruning
§ We have now completed a full backup in belief space.
§ This process can be applied recursively. § The value functions for T=10 and T=20 are
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Why Pruning is Essential § Each update introduces additional linear
components to V. § Each measurement squares the number of
linear components. § Thus, an unpruned value function for T=20
includes more than 10547,864 linear functions. § At T=30 we have 10561,012,337 linear functions. § The pruned value functions at T=20, in
comparison, contains only 12 linear components. § The combinatorial explosion of linear components
in the value function are the major reason why POMDPs are impractical for most applications.
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Summary on POMDPs
§ POMDPs compute the optimal action in partially observable, stochastic domains.
§ For finite horizon problems, the resulting value functions are piecewise linear and convex.
§ In each iteration the number of linear constraints grows exponentially.
§ POMDPs so far have only been applied successfully to very small state spaces with small numbers of possible observations and actions.