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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Predicting the Global Distribution of Arsenic Pollution in Groundwater
Peter RavenscroftDepartment of Geography,
Cambridge University
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
PURPOSETo show how:
ii. The distribution of arsenic pollution can be explained by four geochemical mechanisms that operate in specific climatic and tectonic-geomorphic settings, and
iii. presently unrecognised occurrences can be predicted.
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Structure1. Extent of arsenic pollution
2. Four mechanisms of arsenic pollution, and their relation to climate and geology.
3. Generalise where and how arsenic pollution occurs, and where it is absent.
4. The nature of contaminated and uncontaminated river basins.
5. Predict where else arsenic pollution may, and may not, be found.
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
History of Discovery of Natural Arsenic Pollution
• Germany, 1885; Poland, 1898• 1920’s Cordoba, Argentina (HACRE)• 1930’s Canada, New Zealand• 1950’s Region-II, Chile• 1960’s Taiwan (BFD)• 1969, USA: “no current threat to public health”1
• 1975 & 1983, India• 1993/5, Bangladesh• 1997 onwards – many discoveries• BUT how complete is the present mapping of arsenic?
1. cited by Ferguson and Gavis (1972)
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
First Publication on Arsenic Pollution by Country
First Arsenic Related Publication in Country
0
5
10
15
20
2519
36-4
0
1941
-45
1946
-50
1951
-55
1956
-60
1961
-65
1966
-70
1971
-75
1976
-80
1981
-85
1986
-90
1991
-95
1996
-00
2001
-05
2006
-07
Cou
ntrie
s in
per
iod
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Cum
ulat
ive
nr o
f dis
cove
ries
Countries published in period
Cumulative nr of countries described
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Extent and Severity of Arsenic Pollution
• >230 occurrences:– 70 countries– 6 continents + oceans
• At peak exposure:– 57M drinking >50 ppb– 137M drinking >10 ppb
Peak Exposure (millions)
?1.5Vietnam
2.00.4Mexico
2.50.5Nepal
?2.0Argentina
5.02.0Pakistan
?2.5(?)Myanmar
303.0USA
155.6China
3011India
5027Bangladesh
>10 ppb>50 ppbCountry
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Known Extent of Contamination
? ?
?
?
?
?
??
?
?
?
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Four Mobilisation Mechanisms
1. Reductive-Dissolution (RD) produces near-neutral reducing (NNR) waters: anoxic; pH≈7; high Fe, Mn, NH4, HCO3; low SO4,NO3
2. Alkali-Desorption (AD) produces alkali-oxic (AO) waters: oxic (DO, NO3), pH≥8, low Fe
3. Sulphide Oxidation (SO) produces acid-sulphate (AS) waters: oxic, pH<<7, high SO4
4. Geothermal (GT) waters: high T, Cl
5. ± Evaporative-concentration
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Arsenic contamination in Asia
• >230 occurences• 70 countries• 5 continents + ocean basins
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Africa
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Australasia
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
South America
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
North and Central America
Alkali-DesorptionReductive-Dissolution
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Europe
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Arsenic occurrence: Geology and Climate• Consider a matrix of arsenic occurrences, classified by aquifer geology, climate and process
Geology: Cool-temperate
Humid - tropical
Semi-arid, warm
Alluvium: deltaic, aeolian & lacustrine
Alluvial-volcaniclastic
Glacial, and fluvio-glacial
Alluvium over limestone 1
Laterite
2
3 8
Tertiary, intracontinental sediments
Tertiary-Recent, volcanic terrain 2
2
2
7 2 3
1
4
1
1
20 13
3 4
Palaeozoic - Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
Palaeo- & Mesozoic, igneous &metamorphic rock
PreCambrian-Palaeozoic crystalline bedrock
15
6
7
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Reductive-Dissolution
NE & midwest USA
Po & Danube
Indus, Ganges &Brahmaputra
Red, Mekong, & Irrawaddy
China, Japan &Taiwan
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Reductive-DissolutionGeology: Cool-temperate Humid - tropical Semi-arid, warm Arid, hot
Wairu Plain, New Zealand Tripura, India Indus valley, Pakistan Sindh Province, PakistanBridgwater, UK Assam, India Inner Mongolia, China Carson Desert, NevadaDanube Basin, Hungary Bengal Basin, BGD & India Osaka, JapanGouda, Netherlands Ganga Plains, India Shanxi province, ChinaPaderborn, Germany Chittagong coast, Bangladesh Transyvania, Romania
Hat Yai, Thailand Okavango Delta, BotswanaIrrawaddy Delta, MyanmarMekong Delta, VietnamMekong plains, CambodiaNakorn Chaisi, ThailandRed River Delta, VietnamSW Taiwan
Alluvial-volcaniclastic
Cook Inlet, Alaska, USAMidwest, USAFairbanks, Alaska, USAIllinois & Michigan, USASaskatchewan, Canada
Alluvium over limestoneLaterite
Tertiary-Recent, volcanic rocksPalaeozoic - Mesozoic-
Chattisgarh, IndiaPreCambrian- Palaeozoic crystalline bedrock
Palaeozoic - Mesozoic, granitic
Tertiary, sedimentary rocks
Alluvium; alluvial-deltaic / lacustrine / aeolian
Palaeozoic - Mesozoic, metamorphic
Glacial, and fluvio-glacial sediments
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Alkali-Desorption
Basin and Range
Chaco-Pampean Plain
New England
Finland
Madrid basin
XinjiangDatong Basin
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Alkali-DesorptionGeology: Cool-temperate Humid-tropical Semi-arid, warm Arid, hot
Basin and Range, USA Xinjiang province, ChinaDatong Basin, ChinaFukoka Prefecture, JapanStuarts Point, NSW, Australia
Alluvial-volcaniclastic Williamette Bsn, Org, USA Chaco-Pampean plains, Argentina
Alluvium over Zimapan, MexicolimestoneLaterite
Tertiary, Madrid Basin, Spainsedimentary rocks Duero Basin, Spain
Tertiary-Recent, volcanic
Oklahoma, USA
sedimentary rocksBowen Island, CanadaSunshine Coast, Canada
New England, USASW Finland
PreCambrian -Palaeozoic crystalline bedrock
Palaeozoic - Mesozoic, granitic
Alluvium; alluvial-deltaic / lacustrine / aeolian
Palaeozoic - Mesozoic, metamorphic
Glacial, and fluvio-glacial sediments
Palaeozoic - Mesozoic-
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Sulphide Oxidation
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Sulphide OxidationGeology: Cool-temperate Humid - tropical Semi-arid, warm Arid, hot
Perth, AustraliaRio Verde basin, Mexico
Alluvial-volcaniclastic
Alluvium over limestone
Tertiary-Recent, volcanic
Wisconsin, USA
E. Thessalonika, Greece
Washington State, USA Iron Quadrangle, Brazil Ashanti, GhanaNova Scotia, CanadaFinnish Lapland, Finland
PreCambrian -Palaeozoic crystalline bedrock
Palaeozoic - Mesozoic, granitic
Alluvium; alluvial-deltaic; alluvial-lacustrine; alluvial-aeolian
Palaeozoic - Mesozoic-sedimentary
Laterite
Glacial, and fluvio-glacial sediments
Palaeozoic - Mesozoic, metamorphic
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Where arsenic is present and absent
• Principal occurrence in Alluvial Aquifers (59%), especially:
– Holocene age– Foreland Basins
• Principally mobilised by:1. Reductive Dissolution in humid / anoxic depositional
environments2. Alkali-Desorption in arid climates
• NO reports from – vast areas of Africa, Australia, South America and
Peninsular India (Gondwanaland!)• BUT is this evidence of absence, or absence of
evidence?
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The Character of Gondwanan Terrain
• Ancient peneplains
• Weathering processes
• Ferallitic and fersialitic soils
• Kaolinite and iron oxide residues
To see the breakup of Gondwanaland, and relate it to the occurrences of arsenic shown earlier
Visit: http://www.kartografie.nl/gondwana/ftp.html
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Arsenic In River Basins
Arsenic Affected basins:e.g. Ganges, Brahmaputra, Indus,
Mekong, Red, Yellow, Irrawaddy, Salween
Unaffected basins:e.g. Congo, Nile, Amazon, Orinoco
•Physical weathering in upper catchment
•Gradient & sediment load
•Humid lower catchment, abundant OM
•Rapid subsidence
•Deep incision in Delta
•Chemical weathering dominant•Gentle gradients & low sediment load•Humid lower catchment, abundant OM•Gentle uplift of coastal regions•Little incision & shallow bedrock
Can we find a simple approach to predicting the occurrence of arsenic contamination in river basins?
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
• As-affected basins have characteristic weathering regimes in the upper and lower catchments
• consider chemical and physical weathering indices1 (relative to the Amazon).
• Note the Po was identified subsequent to creating the original diagram
Chemical and Weathering Indices
1. Gaillardet et al. (1999, Chemical Geology; 159, 30-30)
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• QFR (quartz, feldspar and rock) diagrams reflect:– The source rocks– Chemical weathering
River Sand Composition
Po
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
River Water Composition
• Data from Gaillardet et al. (1999)
Po
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Predictions: 1. Where can arsenic be expected?
• South and East Asia:– SE China, Yangtze-Kiang basin (RD)– Indonesia and Malaysia (RD + GT)– Siberia
• West Asia and Middle East– Arabian Peninsula (AD + GT)– Turkey and Iran (AD + GT)
• South America– Western Amazonia (RD)– Pacific Plains (AD)
• Europe– Danube delta– Baltic fringes
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
• South and East Asia:– SE China, Yangtze-Kiang basin (RD)– Indonesia and Malaysia (RD + GT)– Siberia
• West Asia and Middle East– Arabian Peninsula (AD + GT)– Turkey and Iran (AD + GT)
• South America– Western Amazonia (RD)– Pacific Plains (AD)
• Europe– Danube delta– Baltic fringes
Predictions: 1. Where can arsenic be expected?
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
2: Where extensive arsenic pollution of river basins is NOT expected
• Alluvial basins draining Gondwanan terrain, including large parts of:– Africa– Australia– Eastern South America– Peninsular India
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
• Alluvial basins draining Gondwanan terrain, including large parts of:– Africa– Australia– Eastern South America– Peninsular India
2: Where extensive arsenic pollution of river basins is NOT expected
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
3. Some predictable exceptions
• Areas of intense sulphide mineralisation
– SW Ghana, Chhattisgarh(?)
• Areas of recent mountain building in Africa
– Atlas Mts, Tibesti and Ahaggar Massifs, SW Cameroon (now identified)
• Areas of geothermal activity
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
3. Some predictable exceptions
Southwest Cameroon
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Royal Geographical Society Annual International Conference 2007
Conclusions
• The distribution of arsenic is rational but incomplete.
• Pollution occurs dominantly in alluvial aquifers, by reductive-dissolution, and in all climates.
• Significant gaps are identified adjacent to young mountain chains in NE, SE & SW Asia; and S. America
• Despite serious data gaps, it is predicted that tropical basement is substantially free of extensive As pollution, but ...
• Exceptions WILL occur, especially in areas of shallow sulphide mineralisation.
• Past predictions of arsenic occurrence have often been wrong, hence:
• URGENTLY survey areas lacking data to establish the safety of water supplies.