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Psychological Disorders
Mental Health Hotline
1 (800)555-HELP
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• Once I had multiple personalities, but now we are feeling well.
• I don't suffer from insanity, I enjoy every minute.
• I used to be indecisive. Now I'm not sure. • The best thing about being schizophrenic is
that I'm never alone. • Just because you are paranoid doesn't
mean people aren't out to get you! • Hypochondria is the only illness that I don't
have. • I've always been a hypochondriac. As a little
boy, I'd eat my M&M's one by one with a glass of water.
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Psychological Disorders
People are fascinated by the exceptional, the unusual, and the abnormal. This fascination
may be caused by two reasons:
1. During various moments we feel, think, and act like an abnormal individual.
2. Psychological disorders may bring unexplained physical symptoms, irrational fears, and suicidal thoughts.
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Psychological Disorders
To study the abnormal is the best way of understanding the normal.
1. There are 450 million people suffering from psychological disorders (WHO, 2004).
2. Depression and schizophrenia exist in all cultures of the world.
William James (1842-1910)
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Rate this person using the following scale:1= Basically OK Psychotherapy is not necessary2=Mild Disturbance. Psychotherapy should be considered3= Significant disturbance. Psychotherapy is definitely required4= Severe disturbance. Hospitalize!
Bob is a very intelligent, 25 year old member of a religious organization that is based on Buddhism. Bob’s working for this organization caused considerable conflict between him and his parents, who are devout Catholics. Recently Bob experiences acute spells of nausea and fatigue that prevent him from working and which have forced him to return home to live with his parents. Various medical tests are being conducted, but as yet no physical causes of his problems have been found.
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Rate this person using the following scale:1= Basically OK Psychotherapy is not necessary2=Mild Disturbance. Psychotherapy should be considered3= Significant disturbance. Psychotherapy is definitely required4= Severe disturbance. Hospitalize!
Jim was vice president of the freshman class at a local college and played on the school’s football team. Later that year he dropped out of these activities and gradually became more and more withdrawn from friends and family. Neglecting to shave and shower, he began to look dirty and unhealthy. He spent most of his time alone in his room and sometimes complained to his parents that he heard voices in the curtains and in the closet. In his sophomore year he dropped out of school entirely. With increasing anxiety and agitation, he began to worry that the “Nazis” were plotting to kill his family and kidnap him.
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Rate this person using the following scale:1= Basically OK Psychotherapy is not necessary2=Mild Disturbance. Psychotherapy should be considered3= Significant disturbance. Psychotherapy is definitely required4= Severe disturbance. Hospitalize!
Mary is a 30 year old musician who is very dedicated and successful in her work as a teacher in a local high school and as a part time member of local musical groups. Since her marriage five years ago, which ended in divorce after six months, she has dated very few men. She often worries that her time is “running out” for establishing a good relationship with a man, getting married, and raising a family. Her friends tell her that she gets way too anxious around men, and that she needs to relax a little in general.
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Rate this person using the following scale:1= Basically OK Psychotherapy is not necessary2=Mild Disturbance. Psychotherapy should be considered3= Significant disturbance. Psychotherapy is definitely required4= Severe disturbance. Hospitalize!
Larry, a homosexual who has lived for three years with a man he met in graduate school, works as a psychologist in a large hospital. Although competent in his work, he often feels strained by the pressures of his demanding position. An added source of tension on the job is his not being able to confide in all his co workers about his private life. Most of his leisure activities are with good friends who belong to the gay subculture.
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Rate this person using the following scale:1= Basically OK Psychotherapy is not necessary2=Mild Disturbance. Psychotherapy should be considered3= Significant disturbance. Psychotherapy is definitely required4= Severe disturbance. Hospitalize!
Bob is a very intelligent, 25 year old member of a religious organization that is based on Buddhism. Bob’s working for this organization caused considerable conflict between him and his parents, who are devout Catholics. Recently Bob experiences acute spells of nausea and fatigue that prevent him from working and which have forced him to return home to live with his parents. Various medical tests are being conducted, but as yet no physical causes of his problems have been found.
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Rate this person using the following scale:1= Basically OK Psychotherapy is not necessary2=Mild Disturbance. Psychotherapy should be considered3= Significant disturbance. Psychotherapy is definitely required4= Severe disturbance. Hospitalize!
Jim was vice president of the freshman class at a local college and played on the school’s football team. Later that year he dropped out of these activities and gradually became more and more withdrawn from friends and family. Neglecting to shave and shower, he began to look dirty and unhealthy. He spent most of his time alone in his room and sometimes complained to his parents that he heard voices in the curtains and in the closet. In his sophomore year he dropped out of school entirely. With increasing anxiety and agitation, he began to worry that the “Nazis” were plotting to kill his family and kidnap him.
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Rate this person using the following scale:1= Basically OK Psychotherapy is not necessary2=Mild Disturbance. Psychotherapy should be considered3= Significant disturbance. Psychotherapy is definitely required4= Severe disturbance. Hospitalize!
Mary is a 30 year old musician who is very dedicated and successful in her work as a teacher in a local high school and as a part time member of local musical groups. Since her marriage five years ago, which ended in divorce after six months, she has dated very few men. She often worries that her time is “running out” for establishing a good relationship with a man, getting married, and raising a family. Her friends tell her that she gets way too anxious around men, and that she needs to relax a little in general.
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Rate this person using the following scale:1= Basically OK Psychotherapy is not necessary2=Mild Disturbance. Psychotherapy should be considered3= Significant disturbance. Psychotherapy is definitely required4= Severe disturbance. Hospitalize!
Larry, a homosexual who has lived for three years with a man he met in graduate school, works as a psychologist in a large hospital. Although competent in his work, he often feels strained by the pressures of his demanding position. An added source of tension on the job is his not being able to confide in all his co workers about his private life. Most of his leisure activities are with good friends who belong to the gay subculture.
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It’s All a Matter of Degree
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Defining Psychological Disorders
Mental health workers view psychological disorders as persistently harmful thoughts,
feelings, and actions.
When behavior is deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional psychiatrists and psychologists
label it as disordered (Comer, 2004).
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Deviant, Distressful & Dysfunctional
1. Deviant behavior (going naked) in one culture may be considered normal, while in others it may lead to arrest.
2. Deviant behavior must accompany distress.
3. If a behavior is dysfunctional it is clearly a disorder.
In the Wodaabe tribe men wear costumes to attract
women. In Western society this would be considered
abnormal.
Carol B
eckwith
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Psychological Disorders
Psychological Disorder a “harmful dysfunction” in which
behavior is judged to be: atypical--not enough in itself disturbing--varies with time and culture maladaptive--harmful unjustifiable--sometimes there’s a good
reason
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Historical Perspective Perceived Causes
movements of sun or moon lunacy--full moon
evil spirits Ancient Treatments
exorcism, caged like animals, beaten, burned, castrated, mutilated, blood replaced with animal’s blood
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Understanding Psychological Disorders
Ancient Treatments of psychological disorders include trephination, exorcism, being caged like
animals, being beaten, burned, castrated, mutilated, or transfused with animal’s blood.
Trephination (boring holes in the skull to remove evil forces)
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Medical Model
When physicians discovered that syphilis led to mental disorders, they started using medical models
to review the physical causes of these disorders.
1. Etiology: Cause and development of the disorder.
2. Diagnosis: Identifying (symptoms) and distinguishing one disease from another.
3. Treatment: Treating a disorder in a psychiatric hospital.
4. Prognosis: Forecast about the disorder.
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Medical Perspective
Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) from France, insisted that madness was not due to demonic possession, but an ailment of the mind.
Dance in the madhouse.
Ge
orge W
esle
y Be
llow
s, Da
ncer in a
Ma
dhou
se, 1907
. © 1
997 T
he A
rt Institute of C
hica
go
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Biopsychosocial Perspective
Assumes that biological, socio-cultural, and psychological factors combine and interact to
produce psychological disorders.
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Psychological Disorders
Thomas Szasz
believes that mental illnesses are socially, not medically, defined.
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Classifying Psychological Disorders
The American Psychiatric Association rendered a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) to describe psychological
disorders.
The most recent edition, DSM-IV-TR (Text Revision, 2000), describes 400 psychological
disorders compared to 60 in the 1950s.
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Multiaxial Classification
Are Psychosocial or Environmental Problems (school or housing issues) also present?
Axis IV
What is the Global Assessment of the person’s functioning?Axis V
Is a General Medical Condition (diabetes, hypertension or arthritis etc) also present?Axis III
Is a Personality Disorder or Mental Retardation present?
Axis II
Is a Clinical Syndrome (cognitive, anxiety, mood disorders [16 syndromes]) present?
Axis I
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Multiaxial ClassificationNote 16 syndromes in Axis I
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Multiaxial ClassificationNote Global Assessment for Axis V
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Goals of DSM
1. Describe (400) disorders.2. Determine how prevalent the
disorder is.
Disorders outlined by DSM-IV are reliable. Therefore, diagnoses by different professionals are similar.
Others criticize DSM-IV for “putting any kind of behavior within the compass of psychiatry.”
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Prevalence
Approximately 48% of adults experienced symptoms at least once in their lives
Approximately 80% who experienced symptoms in the last year did NOT seek treatment
Most people seem to deal with symptoms without complete debilitation
Women have higher prevalence of depression and anxiety
Men have higher prevalence of substance abuse and antisocial personality disorder
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Psychological Disorders- Etiology
Neurotic Disorder (term seldom used now) usually distressing but that allows one
to think rationally and function socially Psychotic Disorder
person loses contact with reality experiences irrational ideas and
distorted perceptions
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Labeling Psychological Disorders
1. Critics of the DSM-IV argue that labels may stigmatize individuals.
Asylum baseball team (labeling)
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Labeling Psychological Disorders
2. Labels may be helpful for healthcare professionals when communicating with one another and establishing therapy.
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Labeling Psychological Disorders
3. “Insanity” labels raise moral and ethical questions about how society should treat people who have disorders and have committed crimes.
Theodore Kaczynski
(Unabomber)
Elaine T
hompson/ A
P P
hoto
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Labeling Psychological Disorders (David Rosenhan)
David Rosenhan and seven others went to mental hospital admissions offices, complaining of “hearing voices” that were saying “empty,” “hollow,” and “thud.” Apart from this complaint and giving false names and occupations, they answered all the questions truthfully. All eight were diagnosed as mentally ill.
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David Rosenhan: Pseudo-Patient Experiment
Investigated reliability of psychiatric diagnoses Eight healthy people entered psychiatric
hospitals complaining of hearing strange voices
Once admitted to the hospital, they behaved normally and claimed that the voices had disappeared
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Rosenhan: Results
Staff treated patients as if they were really ill Staff noted “abnormal” symptoms Kept patients for an average of 19 days Discharged with diagnosis of “schizophrenia in
remission”
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Rosenhan: Nonexistent Impostor Experiment
Told hospital staff to expect pseudo-patients (“impostors”)
No pseudo-patients were actually sent, but staff identified 41 anyway (these were, in fact, real patients)
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Rosenhan: Implications
Psychiatrists disputed the results
Prompted changes in psychiatric diagnosis
The DSM-IV
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
More or less constant worry about many issues
The worry seriously interferes with functioning
Physical symptoms headaches stomach aches muscle tension irritability
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder
1. Persistent and uncontrollable tenseness and apprehension.
2. Autonomic arousal.
3. Inability to identify or avoid the cause of certain feelings.
Symptoms
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Model of Development of GAD
GAD has some genetic component Related genetically to major depression Childhood trauma also related to GAD
Genetic predispositionor childhood trauma
GAD following life change or major event
Hypervigilance
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Panic Disorder
Minute-long episodes of intense dread which may include feelings of terror, chest pains, choking, or other frightening sensations.
Anxiety is a component of both disorders. It occurs more in the panic disorder, making
people avoid situations that cause it.
Symptoms
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Phobia
Marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that disrupts behavior.
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Kinds of Phobias
Phobia of blood.Hemophobia
Phobia of closed spaces.
Claustrophobia
Phobia of heights.Acrophobia
Phobia of open places.Agoraphobia
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Anxiety Disorders Common and uncommon fears
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Anxiety Disorders
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions)
and/or actions (compulsions)
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Psychological Disorders
I felt the need to clean my room … spent four to five hour at it … At the time I loved it but then didn't want to do it any more, but could not stop … The clothes hung
… two fingers apart …I touched my bedroom wall before leaving the house … I had constant anxiety … I
thought I might be nuts.
Marc, diagnosed with
obsessive-compulsive disorder
(from Summers, 1996)
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Anxiety Disorders
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Anxiety Disorders
PET Scan of brain of person with Obsessive/ Compulsive disorder
High metabolic activity (red) in frontal lobe areas involved with directing attention
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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Four or more weeks of the following symptoms constitute post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD):
1. Haunting memories
2. Nightmares
3. Social withdrawal
4. Jumpy anxiety
5. Sleep problems
Bettm
ann/ Corbis
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Resilience to PTSD
Only about 10% of women and 20% of men react to traumatic situations and develop PTSD.
Holocaust survivors show remarkable resilience against traumatic situations.
All major religions of the world suggest that surviving a trauma leads to the growth of an
individual.
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Explaining Anxiety Disorders
Psychoanalytic PerspectiveFreud suggested that we repress our painful and intolerable ideas, feelings, and thoughts,
resulting in anxiety.
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The Learning Perspective
Learning theorists suggest that fear
conditioning leads to anxiety. This anxiety
then becomes associated with other
objects or events (stimulus
generalization) and is reinforced.
John Coletti/ S
tock, Boston
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The Learning Perspective
Stimulus Generalization Conditioned fears may remain long after
we have forgotten the experiences that produced them.
Stimulus generalization may occur when a person who fears heights after a fall may be afraid of airplanes without ever having flown.
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The Learning Perspective
Reinforcement
Once phobias and compulsions arise, reinforcement helps maintain them. Avoiding or escaping the feared situation reduces anxiety, thus reinforcing the phobic behavior.
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The Learning Perspective
Investigators believe that fear responses are inculcated through observational learning.
Young monkeys develop fear when they watch other monkeys who are afraid of snakes.
Parents transmit their fears to their children.
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The Biological Perspective
Natural Selection has led our ancestors to learn to fear snakes, spiders, and other animals.
Therefore, fear preserves the species.
Twin studies suggest that our genes may be partly responsible for developing fears and
anxiety. Twins are more likely to share phobias.
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The Biological Perspective
General anxiety, panic attacks, and even obsessions and compulsions are biologically measurable as an overarousal of brain areas involved in impulse control and habitual behaviors. (PET scans)
Anterior Cingulate Cortexof an OCD patient.
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Somatoform Disorders
Somatoform Disorders
psychological disorders in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause.
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Somatoform Disorders
Conversion Disorders
a rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found.
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Somatoform Disorders
Hypochondriasis
a somatoform disorder in which a person misinterprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease.
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Mood Disorders Mood Disorders
characterized by emotional extremes Major Depressive Disorder
a mood disorder in which a person, for no apparent reason, experiences two or more weeks of depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities
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Major Depressive Disorder
Depression is the “common cold” of psychological disorders. In a year, 5.8% of men
and 9.5% of women report depression worldwide (WHO, 2002).
Chronic shortness of breath
Gasping for air after a hard run
Major Depressive DisorderBlue mood
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Major Depressive Disorder
Major depressive disorder occurs when signs of depression last two weeks or more and are not
caused by drugs or medical conditions.
1. Lethargy and fatigue
2. Feelings of worthlessness
3. Loss of interest in family & friends
4. Loss of interest in activities
Signs include:
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Symptoms of Major Depression
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Dysthymic Disorder
Dysthymic disorder lies between a blue mood and major depressive disorder. It is a disorder characterized by daily depression lasting two
years or more.
Major Depressive
Disorder
Blue
Mood
Dysthymic
Disorder
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Dysthymic Disorder
Chronic, low-grade depressed feelings that are not severe enough to be major depression
May develop in response to trauma, but does not decrease with time
Can have co-existing major depression
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Seasonal Affective Disorder
Cyclic severe depression and elevated mood
Seasonal regularity Unique cluster of symptoms
intense hunger gain weight in winter sleep more than usual depressed more in evening than morning
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Prevalence and Course
Most common of psychological disorders
Women are twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with major depression
Untreated episodes can become recurring and more serious
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)—onset with changing seasons
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Mood Disorders Bipolar Disorder
a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania
formerly called manic-depressive disorder Manic Episode
a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state
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Bipolar Disorder
Formerly called manic-depressive disorder. An alternation between depression and mania
signals bipolar disorder.
Multiple ideas
Hyperactive
Desire for action
Euphoria
Elation
Manic Symptoms
Slowness of thought
Tired
Inability to make decisions
Withdrawn
Gloomy
Depressive Symptoms
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Bipolar Disorder
Many great writers, poets, and composers suffered from bipolar disorder. During their
manic phase creativity surged, but not during their depressed phase.
Whitman Wolfe Clemens Hemingway
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Prevalence and Course
• Bipolar Disorder
• Onset usually in young adulthood
(early twenties)
• Mood changes more abrupt than in major depression
• No sex differences in rate of bipolar disorder
• Commonly recurs every few years
• Can often be controlled by medication (lithium)
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Mood Disorders-Depression
Boys who were later convicted of a crime showed relatively low arousal
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Mood Disorders-Depression
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Suicide
The most severe form of behavioral response to depression is suicide. Each year some 1 million
people commit suicide worldwide.
1. National differences
2. Racial differences
3. Gender differences
4. Age differences
5. Other differences
Suicide Statistics
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Explaining Mood Disorders
Since depression is so prevalent worldwide, investigators want to develop a theory of
depression that will suggest ways to treat it.
Lewinsohn et al., (1985, 1995) note that a theory of depression should explain the
following:1. Behavioral and cognitive changes
2. Common causes of depression
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Theory of Depression
3. Gender differences
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Theory of Depression
4. Depressive episodes self-terminate.
5. Depression is increasing, especially in
the teens.
Post-partum depression
Desiree N
avarro/ Getty Im
ages
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Neurotransmitters & Depression
Post-synapticNeuron
Pre-synapticNeuron
Norepinephrine Serotonin
A reduction of
norepinephrine and
serotonin has been
found in depression.
Drugs that alleviate
mania reduce
norepinephrine.
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Biological Perspective
Genetic Influences: Mood disorders run in families. The rate of depression is higher in identical (50%) than fraternal twins (20%).
Linkage analysis and
association studies link
possible genes and
dispositions for depression.
Jerry Irwin P
hotography
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The Depressed Brain
PET scans show that brain energy consumption rises and falls with manic and depressive
episodes.
Cou
rtesy o
f Le
wis B
axter an
Mich
ae
l E.
Phe
lps, U
CL
A S
choo
l of M
ed
icine
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Social-Cognitive Perspective
The social-cognitive perspective suggests that depression arises partly from self-defeating
beliefs and negative explanatory styles.
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Cognitive Bases for Depression
A.T. Beck: depressed people hold pessimistic views of themselves the world the future
Depressed people distort their experiences in negative ways exaggerate bad experiences minimize good experiences
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Cognitive Bases for Depression
Hopelessness theory depression results from a pattern of thinking person loses hope that life will get better negative experiences are due to stable,
global reasons e.g., “I didn’t get the job because I’m stupid
and inept” vs. “I didn’t get the job because the interview didn’t go well”
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Depression Cycle
1. Negative stressful events.
2. Pessimistic explanatory
style.
3. Hopeless depressed state.
4. These hamper the way the
individual thinks and acts,
fueling personal rejection.
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Example
Explanatory style plays a major role in becoming depressed.
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Dissociative Amnesia Also known as psychogenic amnesia Memory loss the only symptom Often selective loss surrounding traumatic
events person still knows identity and most of their past
Can also be global loss of identity without replacement with a new one
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Dissociative Amnesia Margie and her brother were recently
victims of a robbery. Margie was not injured, but her brother was killed when he resisted the robbers. Margie was unable to recall any details from the time of the accident until four days later.
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Dissociative Fugue Also known as psychogenic fugue Global amnesia with identity replacement
leaves home develops a new identity apparently no recollection of former life called a ‘fugue state’
If fugue wears off old identity recovers new identity is totally forgotten
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Dissociative Fugue
• Jay, a high school physics teacher in New York City, disappeared three days after his wife unexpectedly left him for another man. Six months later, he was discovered tending bar in Miami Beach. Calling himself Martin, he claimed to have no recollection of his past life and insisted that he had never been married.
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Dissociative Identity Disorder
Dissociative Identity Disorder rare dissociative disorder in which a person
exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities
formerly called multiple personality disorder
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Dissociative Identity Disorder
Pattern typically starts prior to age 10 (childhood)
Most people with disorder are women
Most report recall of torture or sexual abuse as children and show symptoms of PTSD
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Dissociative Disorder
Conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories,
thoughts, and feelings.
Symptoms
1. Having a sense of being unreal.
2. Being separated from the body.
3. Watching yourself as if in a movie.
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Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
Is a disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities,
formerly called multiple personality disorder.
Chris Sizemore (DID)
Lois Bernstein/ G
amm
a Liason
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Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
Norma has frequent memory gaps and cannot account for her whereabouts during certain periods of time. While being interviewed by a clinical psychologist, she began speaking in a childlike voice. She claimed that her name was Donna and that she was only six years old. Moments later, she seemed to revert to her adult voice and had no recollection of speaking in a childlike voice or claiming that her name was Donna.
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Causes of Dissociative Disorders?
Repeated, severe sexual or physical abuse
However, many abused people do not develop DID
Combine abuse with biological predisposition toward dissociation? people with DID are easier to hypnotize than others may begin as series of hypnotic trances to cope with
abusive situations
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DID Critics
Critics argue that the diagnosis of DID increased in the late 20th century. DID has
not been found in other countries.Critics’ Arguments
1. Role-playing by people open to a therapist’s suggestion.
2. Learned response that reinforces reductions in anxiety.
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The DID Controversy
Some curious statistics 1930–60: 2 cases per decade in USA 1980s: 20,000 cases reported many more cases in US than elsewhere varies by therapist—some see none, others
see a lot
Is DID the result of suggestion by therapist and acting by patient?
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Schizophrenia
If depression is the common cold of psychological disorders, schizophrenia is the
cancer.Nearly 1 in a 100 suffer from schizophrenia, and
throughout the world over 24 million people suffer from this disease (WHO, 2002).
Schizophrenia strikes young people as they mature into adults. It affects men and women equally, but men suffer from it more severely
than women.
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Schizophrenia Schizophrenia
literal translation “split mind” a group of severe disorders
characterized by: disorganized and delusional thinking disturbed perceptions inappropriate emotions and actions
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What is Schizophrenia?
Comes from Greek meaning “split” and “mind” ‘split’ refers to loss of touch with reality not dissociative state not ‘split personality’
Equally split between genders, males have earlier onset 18 to 25 for men 26 to 45 for women
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Schizophrenic Disorders
Symptoms
Disorganized Thoughts
Hallucinations
Delusions
Garbled Speech
Word Salad
Clanging
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Other forms of delusions include, delusions of persecution (“someone is following me”) or
grandeur (“I am a king”).
Disorganized & Delusional Thinking
This morning when I was at Hillside [Hospital], I was making a movie. I was surrounded by movie stars … I’m Marry Poppins. Is this room painted blue to get me upset? My grandmother died four weeks after my eighteenth birthday.” (Sheehan, 1982)
This monologue illustrates fragmented, bizarre thinking with distorted beliefs called delusions
(“I’m Mary Poppins”).
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Schizophrenia Delusions
false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders
In a psychiatrist's waiting room two patients are having a conversation. One says to the other, "Why are you here?"The second answers, "I'm Napoleon, so the doctor told me to come here."The first is curious and asks, "How do you know that you're Napoleon?"The second responds, "God told me I was."At this point, a patient on the other side of the room shouts, "NO I DIDN'T!"
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Disorganized & Delusional Thinking
Many psychologists believe disorganized thoughts occur because of selective attention
failure (fragmented and bizarre thoughts).
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Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Delusions of persecution ‘they’re out to get me’ paranoia
Delusions of grandeur “God” complex megalomania
Delusions of being controlled the CIA is controlling my brain with a radio
signal
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Disorganized Thinking
Word Salad
jumping from one idea to another even within sentences.
Clang Associations
rhyming the last word of a sentence.
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Disorganized Thinking
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Symptoms of Schizophrenia Hallucinations
hearing or seeing things that aren’t there contributes to delusions command hallucinations: voices giving orders
Disorganized speech Over-inclusion—jumping from idea to idea without the
benefit of logical association Paralogic—on the surface, seems logical, but seriously
flawed e.g., Jesus was a man with a beard, I am a man with a beard,
therefore I am Jesus
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Disturbed Perceptions
A schizophrenic person may perceive things that are not there (hallucinations). Frequently such hallucinations are auditory and lesser
visual, somatosensory, olfactory, or gustatory.
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Inappropriate Emotions & Actions
A schizophrenic person may laugh at the news of someone dying or show no emotion at all
(apathy).
Patients with schizophrenia may continually rub an arm, rock a chair, or remain motionless for
hours (catatonia).
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Positive and Negative Symptoms
Schizophrenics have inappropriate symptoms (hallucinations, disorganized thinking, deluded ways) that are not present in normal individuals
(positive symptoms).
Schizophrenics also have an absence of appropriate symptoms (apathy, expressionless faces, rigid bodies) that are present in normal
individuals (negative symptoms).
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Frequency of positive and negative symptoms in individuals at the time they were hospitalized for schizophrenia. Source: Based on data reported in Andreasen & Flaum, 1991.
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Disorganized Symptoms
Disorganized behavior and affect behavior is inappropriate for the situation
e.g., wearing sweaters and overcoats on hot days affect is inappropriately expressed
flat affect—no emotion at all in face or speech inappropriate affect—laughing at very serious
things, crying at funny things
catatonic behavior unresponsiveness to environment, usually marked
by immobility for extended periods
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Chronic and Acute Schizophrenia
When schizophrenia is slow to develop (chronic/process) recovery is doubtful. Such
schizophrenics usually display negative symptoms.
When schizophrenia rapidly develops (acute/reactive) recovery is better. Such
schizophrenics usually show positive symptoms.
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Subtypes of Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a cluster of disorders. These subtypes share some features, but there are
other symptoms that differentiate these subtypes.
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Schizophrenia
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Understanding Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a disease of the brain exhibited by the symptoms of the mind.
Chemical Factors:Dopamine Overactivity: Researchers found that schizophrenic patients express higher levels of
dopamine D4 receptors in the brain.
Brain Abnormalities
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Genetic Factors
Genetic Factors
1 in 100 odds of any person being diagnosed with schizophrenia.
1 in 10 chance among those who have an afflicted sibling or parent.
1 in 2 chance among those who have an afflicted identical twin.
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Genetic Factors
The likelihood of an individual suffering from schizophrenia is 50% if their identical twin has
the disease (Gottesman, 1991).0 10 20 30 40 50
Identical
Both parents
Fraternal
One parent
Sibling
Nephew or niece
Unrelated
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Psychological Factors
Psychological and environmental factors can trigger schizophrenia if the individual is
genetically predisposed.
Genain Sisters
The genetically identical Genainsisters suffer from
schizophrenia. Two more than others, thus there are
contributing environmental factors.
Cou
rtesy o
f Gen
ain
Fa
mily
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Warning Signs
Early warning signs of schizophrenia include:
Birth complications, oxygen deprivation and low-birth weight.
2.
Short attention span and poor muscle coordination.
3.
Poor peer relations and solo play.6.
Emotional unpredictability.5.
Disruptive and withdrawn behavior.4.
A mother’s long lasting schizophrenia.1.
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Biological FactorsAbnormal Brain Morphology
Schizophrenia patients may exhibit morphological changes in the brain like
enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles.
Both P
hotos: Courtesy of D
aniel R. W
einberger, M.D
., NIH
-NIM
H/ N
SC
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Abnormal Brain Activity
Brain scans show abnormal activity in the frontal cortex, thalamus, and amygdala of
schizophrenic patients. Adolescent schizophrenic patients also have brain lesions.
Paul T
hompson and A
rthur W. Toga, U
CLA
Laboratory of Neuro
Imaging and Judith L. R
apport, National Institute of M
ental Health
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Environmental FactorsViral Infection
Schizophrenia has also been observed in individuals who contracted a viral infection (flu)
during the middle of their fetal development.
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Family Influences on Schizophrenia
Family variables parental communication that is
disorganized, hard-to-follow, or highly emotional
expressed emotion• highly critical, over-enmeshed families
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Cultural Differences in Schizophrenia
Prevalence of symptoms is similar no matter what the culture
Less industrialized countries have better rates of recovery than industrialized countries families tend to be less critical of the patients less use of antipsychotic medications, which may
impair full recovery think of it as transient, rather than chronic and lasting
disorder
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Summary of Schizophrenia
Many biological factors seem involved heredity neurotransmitters brain structure abnormalities
Family and cultural factors also important Combined model of schizophrenia
biological predisposition combined with psychosocial stressors leads to disorder
Is schizophrenia the maladaptive coping behavior of a biologically vulnerable person?
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Personality Disorders
Personality disorders are characterized by
inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that
impair social functioning. They are
usually without anxiety, depression, or
delusions.
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These people have unstable and intense relationships with others.
They are dependent on others and yet, sabotage those relationships.
They have problems controlling their impulses; their perceptions andthoughts are distorted.
Personality Disorders
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Antisocial Personality Disorder
A disorder in which the person (usually men) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even
toward friends and family members.
Formerly, this person was called a sociopath
or psychopath.
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Understanding Antisocial Personality Disorder
Like mood disorders and schizophrenia, antisocial personality disorder has
biological and psychological reasons.
Youngsters, before committing a crime, respond with lower
levels of stress hormones than others
do at their age.
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Understanding Antisocial Personality Disorder
PET scans of 41 murderers revealed reduced activity in the frontal lobes. In a follow-up study
repeat offenders had 11% less frontal lobe activity compared to normals (Raine et al., 1999; 2000).
Normal Murderer
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Understanding Antisocial Personality Disorder
The likelihood that one will commit a crime doubles when childhood poverty is compounded with
obstetrical complications (Raine et al., 1999; 2000).
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Borderline Personality Disorder
Chronic instability of emotions, self-image, relationships
Self-destructive behaviors Intense fear of abandonment and
emptiness Possible history of childhood physical,
emotional, or sexual abuse 75% of diagnosed cases are women
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Paranoid Personality Disorder
Pervasive mistrust and suspiciousness of others are the main characteristic
Distrustful even of close family and friends
Reluctant to form close relationships Tend to blame others for their own
shortcomings
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Histrionic Personality Disorder
Histrionic Personality Disorder displays a shallow, attention-getting emotionality.
Histrionic individuals go to great length to gain others’ praise and reassurance.
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Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Narcissistic Personality Disorder exaggerate their own importance, aided by success fantasies.
They find criticism hard to accept, often reacting with rage or shame.
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Rates of Psychological Disorders
The prevalence of psychological disorders during the previous year is shown below (WHO, 2004).
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Risk and Protective Factors
Risk and protective factors for mental disorders (WHO, 2004).
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Rates of Psychological Disorders