RESEARCH Open Access
Qualitative and quantitative ethnobotanicalstudy of the Pangkhua community inBilaichari Upazilla, Rangamati District,BangladeshMohammad Omar Faruque1,2,3,4†, Gang Feng5†, Md Nurul Amin Khan6, James W. Barlow7, Umme Ruman Ankhi1,Sheng Hu8, M. Kamaruzzaman9, Shaikh Bokhtear Uddin1* and Xuebo Hu2,3,4*
Abstract
Background: The present study documents the ethnomedicinal knowledge among the traditional healers of thePangkhua indigenous community of Bangladesh. The documented data from this area was quantitatively analyzedfor the first time. We aimed to record ethnomedicinal information from both the traditional healers and also theelderly men and women of the community, in order to compile and document all available information concerningplant use and preserve it for the coming generations. We aimed to compare how already known species are usedcompared to elsewhere and particularly to highlight new ethnomedicinal plant species alongside their therapeuticuse(s).
Methods: All ethnomedicinal information was collected following established techniques. Open-ended and semi-structured techniques were primarily utilized. Data was analyzed using different quantitative indices. The level ofhomogeneity between information provided by different informants was calculated using the Informant ConsensusFactor. All recorded plant species are presented in tabular format, alongside corresponding ethnomedicinal usageinformation.
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* Correspondence: [email protected]; [email protected];[email protected]†Mohammad Omar Faruque and Gang Feng contributed equally to thiswork.1Ethnobotany and Pharmacognosy Lab, Department of Botany, University ofChittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh2Laboratory of Drug Discovery and Molecular Engineering, Department ofMedicinal Plants, College of Plant Science and Technology, HuazhongAgricultural University, Wuhan 430070, ChinaFull list of author information is available at the end of the article
© The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link tothe Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0287-2
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Results: This investigation revealed the traditional use of 117 plant species, distributed among 104 genera andbelonging to 54 families. There was strong agreement among the informants regarding ethnomedicinal uses ofplants, with Factor of Informant Consensus (FIC) values ranging from 0.50 to 0.66, with the highest number ofspecies (49) being used for the treatment of digestive system disorders (FIC 0.66). In contrast, the least agreement(FIC = 0.50) between informants regarding therapeutic uses was observed for plants used to treat urinary disorders.The present study was compared with 43 prior ethnomedicinal studies, conducted both nationally and inneighboring countries, and the results revealed that the Jaccard index (JI) ranged from 1.65 to 33.00. The highestdegree of similarity (33.00) was found with another study conducted in Bangladesh, while the lowest degree ofsimilarity (1.65) was found with a study conducted in Pakistan. This study recorded 12 new ethnomedicinal plantspecies, of which 6 have never been studied pharmacologically to date.
Conclusions: This study showed that the Pangkhua community still depends substantially on ethnomedicinalplants for the treatment of various ailments and diseases and that several of these plants are used in novel ways orrepresented their first instances of use for medicinal applications.
Keywords: Indigenous community, Traditional healer, Ethnomedicine, Ethnobotany, Bangladesh
BackgroundTraditional herbal medicine in Bangladesh has strongcultural and religious foundations. It manifests in differ-ent ways among indigenous groups in their ritual orceremonial practices, spiritual practices, and self-healingpractices. Indigenous communities have utilized thislocal knowledge for centuries to cure different diseases.Reportedly, more than 80% of the Bangladeshi usenon-allopathic medicines (Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, andhomeopathy) for their healthcare, with herbs constitut-ing a major ingredient of these alternative systems ofmedicine [1]. Bangladesh is a country that is consideredrich in medicinal plant genetic resources, by virtue of itsfavorable agroclimatic conditions and seasonal diversity.With productive soils and a tropical climate, more than5000 angiospermic plant species have been recorded inthe country [2], of which about 250 have documenteduse in traditional medicine systems [3]. About 75% ofthe country’s total population lives in rural areas, and al-most 80% is dependent on natural resources (e.g., medi-cinal plants) for their primary healthcare needs [4].Rural/indigenous peoples are capable of identifyingmany species of plants yielding various products, includ-ing food, firewood, medicine, forage, and tools for dailyneeds. With such a high demand for herbal medicines,the medicinal plant sector has been cited as the mostpromising business sector in Bangladesh [5], with morethan 500 companies producing herbal medicines, yetdespite the biodiversity described above, more than 90%of the plants and products needed to meet domestic de-mands are imported from other countries, such as India,Nepal, and Pakistan.Many indigenous Bangladeshi live in deep forest zones.
They include those people living within the three
Chittagong Hill Tract districts (CHTs) of south-easternBangladesh, within which there are 12 indigenous com-munities [6]. The smallest of these communities is thePangkhua, who dwell in the remote Pangkhua paras, anisolated part of the Bilaichari Upazilla of the RangamatiCHT. In the wet season, the only way to reach Pangkhuaparas is by motorboat, taking 6 h, while in the dry sea-son it takes more than 8 h on foot. Like other remotecommunities, the Pangkhua have their own distinct trad-itional healthcare system and practices. In fact, the near-est conventional medicine facility is in BelaichariUpazilla sadar, the only Government health facilitynearby (about 15 km), with basic health facilities. Ser-vices there are provided by two medical practitionersalongside three paramedics. The Pangkhua people thushave inadequate access to modern treatments, and inany case, allopathic medicine is largely unaffordable tothem. Traditional medicinal knowledge, on the otherhand, is orally transmitted from one generation to thenext. Typically, every elderly man and woman of thecommunity can prepare herbal formulations for thetreatment of common ailments, such as fever, cough,cold, dysentery, diarrhea, and gastritis. Typically, theyvisit professional healers only when they suffer frommore serious symptoms or conditions, such as jaundice,cholera, malaria, or cancers. The headmen (karbari) ofeach village also act as professional healers. In fact, manyPangkhua believe that they lose their community spirit ifthey receive allopathic care. Local government has hadto enforce modern treatment in instances of contagiousdisease.Several studies on ethnomedicinal plants of Bangladesh
have been conducted in the past, and comprehensiveworks have already been published [7–13]. However, few
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 2 of 29
studies focus on the Rangamati district [10, 14, 15]with almost nothing on the Pangkhua indigenous com-munity. With this in mind, the Pangkhua indigenouscommunity was selected for the present study, as theirethnomedicinal practices have not been thoroughlyinvestigated to date. It was important to ascertain whoamong them represent the custodians of such know-ledge and to document their uses of medicinal plants.To the best of our knowledge, this is the pioneerquantitative documentation of medicinal plants in thestudied area.
MethodsStudy areaThe present study was carried out in the Pangkhua areas ofthe Belaichhari Upazila within the Rangamati District (Fig. 1).This district is part of the Chittagong division and
Chittagong Hill Tracts. Belaichhari thana (now anupazila) was established in 1976. It consists of 3 Unionparishads, 9 mouzas and 30 villages. The BelaichhariUpazila is situated approximately between 20° 50′ and22° 35′ N latitude and between 90° 38′ and 92° 17′ Elongitude. The Rainkhiang is the main river of the upa-zilla. The district lies in the south-east of Bangladeshand has a tropical monsoon climate. There are threemain seasons: the dry season (November to March),which is sunny and dry; the pre-monsoon (April toMay), which is very hot and sunny with occasionalshowers; and the rainy season (June to October), which iswarm, cloudy, and wet. Temperatures of the BelaichhariUpazila are moderate, with a mean monthly averagetemperature in Rangamati of 25.8 °C and annual monthlyaverage temperatures ranging from 13.4 to 34.6 °C. Themean annual rainfall is 2865.4mm, with mean monthly
Fig. 1 A map of the studied area [16]
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 3 of 29
maxima and minima of 679mm (July) and 7.4mm(January), respectively [16].
Methods of studyThe success of ethnobotanical documentation depends onthe cooperative relationship between the researcher andlocal informant. Knowledgeable informants are very im-portant for the study of ethnobotany [17, 18]. Various tech-niques are recommended for ethnobotanical studies,including (i) direct or participant observation, (ii) checklistinterview, (iii) group interview, (iv) field interview, (v) plantinterview, and (vi) market survey [19, 20]. All of these tech-niques were followed in this study except the use of check-list interviews. The interview is a dynamic processinvolving spoken interactions between two or more people.In general, open-ended and semi-structured techniqueswere followed. Initial contacts are very important to under-stand an area and its people. Initial contacts were madewith headmen, teachers, and students within the area to se-lect informants. Upon identification of informants, if neces-sary, interpreters were also appointed. Ethnobotanicalinformation regarding the usage of medicinal plants avail-able in the local area for treating various ailments and dis-eases was collected through direct interviewing oftraditional healers and other informants possessing trad-itional knowledge about medicinal plants. During the inter-views, information was noted using data documentationsheets; in addition, audio recording was performed with adigital voice recorder. Contact in the field was conductedover a total of 43 days, in different seasons, with interviewsconducted in the Chittagonian language, accompanied by alocal student (Bathue Pankhua) and with consultancy witha local doctor (Dr. Mizanur Rahman).
Quantitative analysisTo analyze the data, we adopted the following quantita-tive ethnobotanical techniques:
Factor of informant consensus (FIC)The level of homogeneity between information providedby different informants was calculated using the factorof informant consensus (FIC) [21, 22]. It is calculated asFIC = Nur – Nt/(Nur – 1), where Nur is the number ofuse reports from informants for a particular plant-usecategory and Nt is the number of taxa or species associ-ated with that plant-use category across all informants.FIC values range between 0 and 1, with FIC = 1 indicat-ing the highest level of informant consensus. A highvalue (close to 1) indicates that relatively few taxa (or,more usually, species) are used by a large proportion ofinformants, while a low value indicates that informantsdiffer on the taxa to be used in treatment within a cat-egory of illness. Therefore, if informants use few taxa,
then a high degree of consensus is reached and medi-cinal tradition is thus viewed as well-defined [23].
Jaccard index (JI)We also wished to calculate similarities between our stud-ies with prior ethnobotanical studies carried out in otherparts of Bangladesh, as well as those from neighboringcountries. This may be expressed using the Jaccard index(JI), which uses the following formula [24, 25]:JI = C × 100/A + B −C, where, A is the recorded number
of species of the current study area a, B is the documentednumber of species of another study area b, and C is thenumber of species common to both areas a and b.
ResultsEnumeration of taxaThe ethnobotanical survey was carried out three timesduring summer and winter seasons from January 2016to September 2017. All plant materials were collectedand identified through expert consultation, by compari-son with herbarium specimens and through use of litera-ture references. Following preservation, plant materialswere numbered and deposited as voucher specimens inthe Chittagong University Herbarium. Descriptions andcurrent nomenclature were compared with the recent“Dictionary of Plant Names of Bangladesh-VascularPlants” [2] and with www.theplantlist.org. The ethnome-dicinal value of each plant was cataloged as follows: bo-tanical name (with voucher number in brackets), Banglaname, Pangkhua name, family, habit, plant part(s) used,disease(s)/illness treated, usage information, and priordocumentation in the allied literature (Table 1).
Demography of informantsA total of 218 people, including traditional healers andother community members, mostly the elderly men andwomen, with ages ranging from 27 to 86 years wereinterviewed, and of them, the majority (65.6%) belongedto the age group of 51–70. We considered as informantsthose reporting one or more ethnomedicinal uses of aspecies (see Additional file 1 as an example). Demo-graphics by gender, age, education, and occupation ofparticipants are summarized in Table 2. Detailed clarifi-cation of informants is presented in an additional file(see Additional file 2).
Ethnomedicinal plants and part(s)The present investigation details 117 species of ethnome-dicinal plants distributed across 104 genera and belongingto 54 families (Table 1). The highest numbers of ethnome-dicinal plants recorded were from the Fabaceae (12 spe-cies). The second largest used families represented werethe Asteraceae and Zingiberaceae (10 species each),followed by the Lamiaceae (5), Caesalpiniaceae (4), and
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 4 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
Acorus
calamus
L.(bot-t1015),
Acoraceae,least
concern
Bach
Thit
HRz
Anthelmintic
(5),gastritis(7)
Ade
coctionof
therhizom
eis
takenat
ado
seof
onecupful
daily
for7days
totreatgastritis,
andas
ananthelmintic.
122
1▲2●
3▲4▲
5●6▲
7♣8▲
9▲10▲10●1
1●12♣
13●1
4●15●1
6▲17●1
8▲19●2
0●21●2
2▲23●2
4●25●2
6▲27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●135▲
36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Aeglemarmelos
(L.)
Correa(bot-t1044),
Rutaceae
Bel
Highshu
TFr
Digestive(3),asthma(1)
Juiceof
thefru
itistaken(as
muchas
possible)for7days
asa
dige
stive.Ade
coctionof
green
fruits
alon
gwith
thebark
ofTerm
inalia
arjuna
istakenat
ado
seof
oneteaspo
onfultwice
daily
totreatasthma.
42
1▲2●
3●4●
5♣6▲
7▲8▲
9●10♣11▲12●1
3●14▲
15♣16●1
7●18●1
9▲20▲21●2
2♣23●2
4●25●2
6●27●2
8●29♣30●3
1●132●
33♣34●3
5●36●3
7♣38●
39●4
0▲41▲42♣43●
Albiziamyrioph
ylla
Benth(bot-t10108),
Fabaceae
Titulyakoroi
Unkno
wn
TL
Asthm
a(8),leucorrhoe
a(4)
Leaf
juice,alon
gwith
hone
yand
othe
r(unkno
wn)
ingred
ientsis
ktaken
atado
seof
onecupful
daily
totreatasthma.Apasteof
theleaves
issm
earedarou
ndthe
vaginalareato
treatleucorrhoe
a.
122
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Aloe
vera
(L.)Bu
rm.f.
(bot-t1032),
Xantho
rrho
eaceae
Ghritkum
ari
Clado
raH
LBu
rns(12)
Juiceof
theleaves
isappliedto
burns.
121
1●2●
3♣4♣
5●6●
7▲8●
9●1011●1
2●13●1
4●15▲
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●2829●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
Alpiniaconchigera
Griff.(bot-t1085),
Zing
iberaceae
Aidul
HRz
Diarrhe
a(5),dysentery(6)
Ade
coctionof
therhizom
eis
takenorallyfor5to
7days
ata
dose
ofon
ecupful
threetim
esdaily
forthetreatm
entof
diarrhea.The
samedo
seisgiven
for3to
4days
indysentery.
112
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10▲11●1
2●13●1
4●15●
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22▲23●2
4●25●2
6●27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Alpinianigra(Gaertn.)
Burtt(bot-t1084),
Zing
iberaceae
Jang
liada
Bawnkaw
rH
RzCou
ghandcolds(10)
Ade
coctionof
therhizom
ewith
hone
yistakenat
ado
seof
one
teaspo
onfulthree
times
daily
for
3days.
101
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Alternan
therapung
ens
Kunth(bot-t10109),
Amaranthaceae
Kakishak
Unkno
wn
HWP
Kidn
eyprob
lems(8)
Ade
coctionof
theplantistaken
forkidn
eyprob
lems.
81
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Alysicarpusmon
ilifer
(L.)DC.(bo
t-t10101),
Fabaceae
Alisim
onUnkno
wn
HWP
Fever(4),jaun
dice
(3),
diabetes
(4)
Boiledplantsaretakendirectly:
asmuchas
possibleisconsum
edto
treatfever;thejuiceof
the
plantalon
gwith
other
(unkno
wn)
ingred
ientsisgiven
forthetreatm
entof
jaun
dice.A
decoctionof
theplantistakento
treatdiabetes.
113
1●2♣
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 5 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
Amaran
thus
spinosus
L.(bot-t1049),
Amaranthaceae
Kantanotey
Unkno
wn
HL
Eczema(26),d
ysuria(6)
Leaf
juicealon
gwith
sugaror
molassesisappliedto
eczema.A
decoctionof
leaves
istakenin
dysuria.
322
1●2●
3●4▲
5♣6♣
7▲8▲
9●1011●1
2▲13●1
4▲15▲16▲17●1
8●19●2
0●21●2
2▲23●2
4●25●
26▲27▲28●▲
29●3
0●31●3
2▲33●3
4●35●3
6●37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
Amberboa
moschata(L.)DC
(bot-t10104),
Asteraceae
Jam
Unkno
wn
HR
Cancer(1),men
strual
prob
lems(3),ulcers(2)
Theroot
isdirectlyeatenfor
men
strualprob
lems.Ade
coction
oftheroot
isgivenat
ado
seof
onecupful
twicedaily
forthe
treatm
entof
cancer
andulcers.
63
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Amman
niamultiflora
Roxb
(bot-t10110),
Lythraceae,least
concern
Niamul
Unkno
wn
HWP
Burns(3),backache
(1)
Apasteof
theplantisappliedto
burns,andthesameform
ulation,
alon
gwith
mustard
oil,isapplied
totreatbackache
.
42
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Amorph
opha
llus
paeoniifolius(Den
nst.)
Nicolson.(bot-t1086),
Araceae,leastconcern
Olkachu
Ranilawng
bal
HTb
Diarrhe
a(20)
Thejuiceextractedfro
mthe
tube
risgivenforthetreatm
ent
ofdiarrhea.
201
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Anacardium
occidentaleL.
(bot-t1087),
Anacardiaceae
Kajubakam
Guestun
utT
BDysen
tery
(13),d
iarrhe
a(9)
Abark
decoctionistakenin
casesof
dysenteryanddiarrhea.
222
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Anan
ascomosus
(L.)
Merr.(bot-t1016),
Brom
eliaceae
Anaras
Lathy
HL,Fr
Anthe
lmintic
(14)
One
teaspo
onfulo
fjuice
from
theleaves
andfru
itistakenon
cedaily
for3days
asan
anthelmintic.
141
1●2●
3●4▲
5●6●
7▲8●
9▲10▲11●1
2●13●1
4●15♣16●1
7●18●1
9▲20●2
1●22♣23●2
4●25●2
6♣27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37●3
8▲39●4
0▲41●4
2●43●
Antidesma
velutinosum
Blum
e(bot-t10111),
Phyllanthaceae
Pashmi
salishiabuka
Nandu
lT
FrMen
strualdisorders(4),
fever(2)
Ade
coctionof
thefru
it(abo
ut3
teaspo
onfulsthreetim
esdaily
for
7days)isprescribed
tocure
men
strualprob
lemsandhigh
fever.
62
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
ArecacatechuL.
(bot-t1035),Arecaceae
Supari
Pantho
ngT
FrCarminative(12)
Fruitsaretakenas
acarm
inative.
121
1▲2●
3●4▲
5●6●
7▲8▲
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●
15●1
6●17●1
8●19●2
0●21●2
2●23●2
4●25●2
6●27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
Argyreiasplend
ens
(Horne
m.)Sw
eet
(bot-t10112),
Con
volvulaceae
Cho
ttorup
atola
Ramsing
kholon
gC
LUlcers(6)
One
cupful
oftheleaf
decoction
istakentw
icedaily
before
meals
for15
days
totreatulcers.
61
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Artocarpus
heteroph
yllusLam.
(bot-t1083),
Kathal
Luwe
TL
Skin
disease(16)
Apasteof
theyoun
gleaves
isappliedto
theaffected
areasof
skin.
161
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7▲8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 6 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
Moraceae
Azadirachta
indica
A.
Juss.(bo
t-t1079),
Meliaceae
Neem
Neem
TL,B
Scabies(11),m
alaria(8)
Boiledleaves
andbark
areused
inabath
forthetreatm
entof
scabies.Ade
coctionof
the
leaves
istakenin
malaria.
192
1●2▲
3♣4♣
5♣6▲
7♣8●
9♣10♣11♣12♣13♣14♣
15♣16▲17▲18●1
9●20♣21♣22●2
3●24●2
5●26♣
27●2
8●29▲30●3
1●32●3
3▲34●3
5●36●3
7●38♣
39●4
0●41●4
2♣43●
Azolla
pinn
ataR.Br.
(bot-t1097),
Salviniaceae,least
concern
Jalpai
Anu
ran
Herb
WP
Skin
disease(3),diarrhea
(6),pn
eumon
ia(3)
Apasteof
theplantisrubb
edon
theaffected
area
inskin
diseases.
Ade
coctionof
theplantistaken
with
hone
yto
treatdiarrhea
and
pneumon
ia.
123
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Baliospermum
solanifolium
(Burm.)
Suresh
(bot-t1080),
Euph
orbiaceae
Danti
Ankhu
US
LScabies(20)
Boiledleaves
areused
inabath
forthetreatm
entof
scabies.
201
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Bauh
iniaacum
inataL.
(bot-t1033),
Caesalpiniaceae
Kanchan
Senp
uiT
RBu
rns(22)
Ade
coctionof
theroot
isbo
iled
with
coconu
toiland
appliedto
burns.
221
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Bauh
iniascan
dens
L.(bot-t10113),
Fabaceae
Gun
dagilla
Dim
onon
gT
R,L
Respiratory
prob
lems(4),
rheumaticpain
(5)
Ade
coctionof
theprep
ared
root
isgivento
treatrespiratory
prob
lems.Thejuiceof
theleaves
istakenat
ado
seof
one
teaspo
onfuld
ailyfor7days
for
reliefof
rheumaticpain.
92
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Bidens
pilosa
L.
(bot-t10114),
Asteraceae
Bide
nlosa
Sakbal
HWP
Cou
ghandcolds(11)
Ade
coctionprep
ared
from
the
plantistakento
treatcoug
hsandcolds.
111
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7▲38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Biophytum
sensitivum
(L.)DC.(bo
t-t1096),
Oxalidaceae
Bann
aringa
Arikbe
lH
LWou
ndsandcuts(24)
Apasteof
theleaves
isapplied
towou
ndsandcutsto
stop
bleeding
.
242
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Blum
eabalsa
mifera
(L.)DC.(bo
t-t1052),
Asteraceae
Nagor
chandal
Pang
khaper
HL
Con
junctivitis(29)
twoto
threedrop
sof
fresh
leaf
juiceisdrop
pedinto
theeyes
inchroniceyedisease.
291
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10▲11●1
2●13●1
4●15●
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38▲39●
40●4
1●42●4
3●
Blum
ealacera
(Burm.f.)
DC.(bo
t-t1017),
Asteraceae
Kukursun
gaVaiankasa
HL
Anthe
lmintic
(9),coug
h(3)
Twoteaspo
onfulsof
leaf
juice
aretakenthreetim
esadayfor
10days
asan
anthelmintic
and
totreatcoug
h.
122
1●2●
3▲4●
5●6▲
7●8●
9●10▲11▲12●1
3●14●
15●1
6●17●1
8●19●2
0▲21●2
2●23●2
4●25●2
6●27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
BombaxceibaL.(bot-
t1058),Bom
bacaceae
Shim
ulOmpang
TR
Gon
orrhea
(12)
Twoto
threeteaspo
onfulsof
root
juicearetakentw
iceaday
121
1●2●
3●4▲
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1▲12♣13●1
4●15▲16●1
7●18●1
9●20▲21●2
2●23●2
4●25●2
6●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 7 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
totreatgo
norrhe
a.27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6▲37●3
8▲39●4
0▲41●4
2▲43●
Breoniachinensis
(Lam
.)Capuron
(bot-t1088),
Rubiaceae,least
concern
Kadam
Zacibg
oar
TB
Diarrhe
a(7)
Ade
coctionof
bark
with
hone
yandsaltistakenorallyat
ado
seof
onecupful
twicedaily
for
7days.
71
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
BuddlejaasiaticaLour.
(bot-t1084),
Budd
lejaceae
Budb
hota
Lang
tel
US
RSkin
disease(6),
pneumon
ia(5)
Aninfusion
oftheroot
isapplied
inskin
disease.Ade
coctionof
theroot
istakento
treat
pneumon
ia.
112
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10▲11▲12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22▲23●2
4●25●2
6●27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Buteamon
osperm
a(Lam
.)Taub
.(bot-t1025),Fabaceae
Palas
Tuangtoapar
TB,Sd
Anthe
lmintic
(4),dysentery
(10),urin
aryinfections
(4),
coug
h(3)
Juices
prep
ared
from
bark
and
seed
areused
asan
anthelmintic
andto
treatdysentery.In
additio
n,ade
coctionof
thebark
istakento
treaturinaryinfections
andcoug
h.
214
1▲2●
3●4●
5●6▲
7▲8●
9▲10●1
1●12●1
3●14●
15●1
6●17●1
8●19●2
0♣21●2
2▲23●2
4●25●2
6●27♣28●2
9▲30●3
1●32●3
3♣34●3
5●36●3
7●38●
39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
Cajanu
scajan(L.)
Millsp.(bo
t-t1055),
Fabaceae
Arhar
Koklang
SL,Sd
Gastritis(23),jaund
ice(11)
One
cupful
ofleaf
extractis
takentw
iceadayfor5days
before
mealsin
gastritis.C
ooked
seed
saretakendirectlyto
treat
jaun
dice.
342
1●2●
3●4▲
5●6●
7♣8●
9▲10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7♣18●1
9●20♣21●2
2♣23●2
4●25●2
6●27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42▲43●
Callicarpatomentosa
(L.)L.(bot-t1094),
Lamiaceae
Makanchi
Lankia
TSt
Diarrhe
a(14)
Ade
coctionof
thestem
istaken
atado
seof
onecupful
twice
daily
for7days.
141
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Calotropisgigantea
(L.)
Dryand.
Ait.f.(bot-t1069),
Asclepiadaceae
Akand
aNapal
SL
Rheumaticpain
(24)
Leaves
areappliedto
the
affected
area
twiceadayfor
3days
forthetreatm
entof
rheumaticpain.
241
1♣2●
3●4♣
5●6♣
7▲8▲
9▲10♣11●1
2●13♣14▲
15●1
6●17●1
8●19●2
0♣21●2
2♣23●2
4♣25●2
6♣27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2▲43●
Calotropisprocera
(Aito
n)Dryand.
(bot-t1026),
Asclepiadaceae
Akand
aNapal
SF,L
Asthm
a(9),snakebite
(5)
Flow
erextractsareused
inasthma.Ade
coctionof
leaves
isused
totreatsnakebite.
142
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10▲11●1
2●13●1
4●15▲
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22▲23●2
4●25●2
6●27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5♣36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Cann
aindica
L.(bot-t1018),
Cannaceae
Katabo
tiBawnkaw
rH
RzAn
thelmintic
(10),asthm
a(12)
Twoteaspo
onfulsof
therhizom
eextractaretakenon
cedaily
for
5days
early
inthemorning
before
meals,asan
anthelmintic
andto
treatasthma.
222
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Caricapapaya
L.(bot-t1045),
Caricaceae
Pepe
Colra
HFr
Digestiveanddysentery(11)
Ripe
fruits
areeatendirectlyas
adige
stive.Bo
iledgreenfru
itsare
takenwith
leaves
ofCentella
112
1▲2●
3●4♣
5♣6●
7▲8●
9♣10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
219●
20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26▲27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 8 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
asiaticato
treatdysentery.
40●4
1●42●4
3●
CassiafistulaL.
(bot-t1065),
Caesalpiniaceae
Sonalu
Enkhang
TFr
Jaun
dice
(8),dysentery(12)
Anextractof
thefru
itistakenat
ado
seof
onecupful
threetim
esdaily
totreatjaun
dicedpatients.
Thebark
juiceisused
forthe
treatm
entof
dysenteryin
cattle.
202
1●2●
3●4▲
5▲6●
7♣8▲
9●10♣11●1
2▲13●1
4●15●1
6♣17●1
8♣19▲20♣21●2
2●23●2
4▲25●2
6●27●2
8♣29▲30●3
1●32●3
3▲34●3
5♣36●3
7●38▲
39●4
0●41▲42♣43●
Centellaasiatica(L.)
Urb.(bo
t-t1053),
Apiaceae,least
concern
Thun
kuni
Chang
chikhiat
HWP
Con
junctivitis(4),dysentery
(10),im
potence(4),asthma(4)
2–3drop
sof
plantjuiceare
drop
pedtw
icedaily
into
the
eyes
totreatconjun
ctivitis.The
who
leplantiseaten
(asmuchas
possible)as
avege
tableto
treatdysenteryand
impo
tence.Ade
coctionof
the
who
leplant,alon
gwith
hone
y,is
takento
treatasthma.
224
1♣2▲
3●4♣
5♣6♣
7♣8♣
9▲10♣11▲12♣13●1
4♣15▲16●1
7♣18●1
9●20♣21●2
2♣23●2
4●25●2
6♣27▲28♣29●3
0●31♣32▲33▲34●3
5●36♣37▲
38●3
9●40♣41●4
2▲43♣
Cheilocostus
speciosus
(J.Koe
nig)
C.D.Spe
cht
(bot-t1048),Costaceae
Keu
Terpim
ungkho
rolH
L,St
Earache(8)
Thejuiceof
leaves
andstem
sis
takenat
ado
seof
one
teaspo
onfulthree
times
daily
for
3days
totreatearpain.
81
1●2●
3▲4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10▲11●1
2●13●1
4●15●
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Cinn
amom
umtamala
(Buch.-Ham
.)T.Nees&
Eberm.(bo
t-t1095),
Lauraceae
Tejpata
Matuinana
TL
Cou
ghandcold
(12)
Aleaf
decoctionistakenorallyto
treatcoug
hsandcolds.
122
1●2●
3●4●
5▲6▲
7●8●
9▲10●1
1●12●1
3●14●
15●1
6●17●1
8●19●2
0●21●2
2●23●2
4●25●2
6●27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
Cissus
repens
Lam.
(bot-t1046),Vitaceae
Marmariapata
Puipal
CR
Dog
bites(12)
Apasteof
theroot
isappliedto
dogbites.
121
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Citrus
aurantifolia
(Christm
).Sw
ingle
(bot-t1059),Ru
taceae
Lebu
Charm
umS
Fr,L
Headache(9),Malaria(3)
Thefru
itjuiceistakento
treat
malaria.The
leaf
pasteisrubb
edto
theforehe
adin
patientswith
headache
.
142
1●2●
3●4▲
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20▲21●2
2●23●2
4●25●2
6▲27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Citrus
maxima(Burm.)
Merr.(bot-t1090),
Rutaceae
Jambu
raSherthur
TFr
Fever(17),cou
gh(5)
Fortreatm
entof
feverand
coug
h,fru
itsaredirectlyeaten
with
atraceam
ount
ofsaltand
redchili.
222
1●2●
3●4▲
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●11●1
2●13●1
4●15●1
6●17●1
8●19●2
0●21●2
2●23●2
4●25●2
6●27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
Clerodendrum
viscosum
Vent.
(bot-t1024),
Verben
aceae
Bhat
Kuidim
SL
Anthe
lmintic
(8),coug
h(7),
dysentery(7)
Aleaf
extractistakenas
ananthelmintic;the
leaf
juiceis
takenat
ado
seof
twoteaspo
ons
threetim
esdaily
for7days
totreatcoug
handdysentery.
223
1●2●
3●4♣
5♣6▲
7▲8●
9●10●1
1●12♣13●1
4▲15▲16●1
7▲18●1
9▲20●2
1▲22♣23●2
4●25●
26▲27●2
8♣29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6▲37●
38●3
9●40●4
1♣42♣43▲
Clerodendrum
indicum
(L.)Ku
ntze
Bamun
hatti
Senkuide
mS
LCou
ghandasthma(13)
Ade
coctionprep
ared
from
the
leaves
isgivento
treatcoug
h13
21●
2●3♣
4♣5●
6▲7●
8●9●
10▲11●1
2●13●1
4●15●
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 9 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
(bot-t1096),
Lamiaceae
andasthma.
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Coccinia
gran
dis(L.)
Voigt(bot-t1070),
Cucurbitaceae
Telakucha
Thiback
CL
Jointpain
(33)
Bakedleaves
areappliedin
joint
pain.
331
1●2●
3●4▲
5●6●
7▲8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14♣
15▲16●1
7●18●1
9▲20▲21●2
2●23●2
4●25▲
26▲27●2
8▲29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37●
38●3
9●40●4
1●42▲43●
Cocosnu
cifera
L.(bot-t1037),
Arecaceae
Narkel
Lukluk
HFr
Carminative(8),dige
stive
(6),fever(2)
Green
coconu
twater
istakenas
acarm
inativeanddige
stive,and
isalso
takendu
ringfever.
163
1●2●
3●4♣
5▲6●
7▲8●
9●10●1
1▲12▲13●1
4▲15▲16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●
27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
Commelinadiffusa
Burm
.f.(bot-t1029),
Com
melinaceae,least
concern
Mon
ayna
Kanshira
Don
gjal
HSt
Boilin
theearcanal(4)
Anextractprep
ared
from
tend
erstem
sisappliedto
theearfor
thetreatm
entof
boils.
41
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Coriand
rum
sativum
L.(bot-t1071),Apiaceae
Dhaniya
Chang
roi
HFr
Stom
achache(32)
Dry
fruits
areeatenwith
betel
leaf
toob
tain
relieffro
mstom
achache.
321
1▲2●
3●4●
5●6●
7♣8●
9●10▲11▲12●1
3●14▲
15●1
6●17●1
8●19●2
0●21●2
2●23●2
4●25●2
6●27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
Crassoceph
alum
crepidioides
(Ben
th.)S.
Moo
re(bot-t1090),
Asteraceae
Duu
bbecrepi
Baiunkasa
HWP
Stom
achpain
(33)
Theplantextractistakenas
aremed
yforstom
achpain.
331
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Crateva
unilocularisBu
ch.-H
am(bot-t10115),
Capparaceae
Ekkoshabarun
Ushsak
TL
Urin
arydisorders(4),high
bloo
dpressure
(2)
Anextractof
theleaves
istaken
threetim
esadayforaweekfor
thetreatm
entof
urinary
prob
lemsandhigh
bloo
dpressure.
62
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1♣32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●.
Crotalariapallida
Aito
n(bot-t1060),
Fabaceae
Jhanjuni
Rockac
pabe
lH
RIndige
stion(13)
Aroot
extractistakenat
ado
seof
onecupful
daily
for15
days
totreatindige
stion.
131
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1▲12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1▲42●4
3●
Cucurbita
maxima
Duche
sne(bot-t1034),
Cucurbitaceae
Mistikum
raMypore
Herb
L,F,Fr,
SdBu
rnsandbo
ils(22)
Thefru
itpu
lpisuseful
inbu
rns
andbo
ils.The
youn
gleaves,
flowersandfru
itsarecooked
asvege
tables.Friedseed
sareeaten.
Fruitsarebo
iledto
make
smashe
d(bharta).The
fruitskin
isalso
cooked
asavege
table.
221
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5♣26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Curcum
acaesiaRo
xb.
(bot-t1092),
Zing
iberaceae
Kalahalood
Aailiedu
mH
RzFever(5),Tumor
(1),snake
bite
(1)
Arhizom
ede
coctionisused
orally,atado
seof
one
teaspo
onfultwicedaily
with
cow’smilk
totreatfever.Apaste
71
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 10 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
oftherhizom
eisused
totreat
tumor
andsnakebite.
Curcum
along
aL.
(bot-t1050),
Zing
iberaceae
Halud
Chang
HRz,F
Eczema(11),d
ysen
tery
(12),cou
ghs,cold
and
fever(19),laxative(3)
Therhizom
eiscooked
andtaken
totreatdysentery.Flow
ersare
used
asadditives
incurries.A
pasteof
therhizom
eisused
for
thetreatm
entof
eczema;juiceof
therhizom
eistaken(one
teaspo
onthreetim
esadayfor7
days)tocure
coug
h,coldsand
feverandisalso
takenas
alaxative.
456
1●2●
3●4♣
5▲6●
7♣8♣
9▲10▲11▲12▲13▲14●
15♣16●1
7●18●1
9●20▲21●2
2▲23●2
4●25●2
6▲27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33▲34●3
5●36●3
7●38▲
39●4
0▲41●4
2♣43▲
Curcum
azedoaria
(Christm
.)Ro
scoe
(bot-t1091),
Zing
iberaceae
Sothi
Aaiangp
orH
Rz,F
Diarrhe
a(8),coug
hs(2)
Ade
coctionof
therhizom
eis
givenin
diarrhea.Flowersare
directlyeatenwith
riceto
treat
coug
hs.
102
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10▲11●1
2●13●1
4●15●
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22▲23●2
4●25●2
6●27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Cyperusrotund
usL.
(bot-t1089),
Cyperaceae,least
concern
Mutha
Belring
HWP
Diarrh
eaanddysentery(20)
Ade
coctionprep
ared
from
the
who
leplantmixed
with
rice-
washe
dwater
istakenat
ado
seof
onecupful
threetim
esdaily
until
cure,incasesof
diarrhea
anddysentery.
202
1▲2●
3●4♣
5●6●
7▲8●
9●10▲11●1
2●13●1
4●15●1
6●17●1
8●19●2
0●21●2
2●23●2
4●25●2
6●27●2
8●29●3
0▲31●3
2●33●3
4▲35●3
6▲37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2▲43●
Derris
indica
(Lam
k.)
Benn
et.(bo
t-t1031),
Fabaceae
Pitago
laThaino
ngpai
TSd
Bron
chitis(4),who
oping
cough(8),anthelmintic
(11)
Thepo
wde
redseed
isappliedin
bron
chitisandwho
opingcoug
h.Theseed
oilistakenas
ananthelmintic.
233
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Dioscorea
bulbifera
L.(bot-t1019),
Dioscoreaceae
Metealu
Ram
bara
CTb
Anthe
lmintic
(21)
Boiledtube
rsaretakenas
ananthelmintic.
211
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1♣32●3
3●34●3
5●36▲37●3
8●39●
40●4
1▲42●4
3●
Dioscorea
hispida
Den
nst.(bot-t1047),
Dioscoreaceae
Lomaalu
Chaiaibu
CL
Dog
bites(9),fever(14)
Apasteprep
ared
from
theleaves
isused
totreatdo
gbitesand
fever.
231
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9▲30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Drim
iaindica
(Roxb.)
Jessop
(bot-t10107),
Asparagaceae
Banpiaj
Sommulun
gH
BbCou
gh(5),asthma(9)
Ade
coctionof
thebu
lbistaken
atado
seof
abou
t100mlp
erdayfor10
days
inasthma.A
pasteof
thebu
lbistakenwith
hone
yto
treatcoug
h.
142
1●2●
3●4♣
5●6●
7●8●
9●10▲11●1
2●13●1
4●15●
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Elaeocarpus
floribun
dusBlum
e(bot-t1088),
Elaeocarpaceae
Jalpai
Anu
ran
TFr,Sd
Skindisease(4),rheumatism
(3),cough(6)dysenteryand
diarrhea
(10)
Thefru
itistakento
treat
dysenteryanddiarrhea.The
seed
oilisused
tolessen
inflammation
dueto
rheumatism.The
seed
oil
235
1●2●
3●4♣
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 11 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
isalso
used
totreatvario
usskin
diseases.Inadditio
n,thewarm
seed
oilisused
tomassage
the
chestof
childrento
treatcoug
h.
Entada
rheediiSpren
g.(bot-t1072),
Mim
osaceae
Gilla
Pai
HR,Sd
Jointpain
(9),diarrhea
(13)
Aseed
pasteisused
totreat
jointpain.A
root
extractistaken
atado
seof
twospoo
nfulsthree
times
daily
for10
days
tocure
diarrhea.
222
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Erigeron
sublyratus
Roxb.exDC
(bot-t1098),
Asteraceae
Binajeron
unknow
nH
LAbd
ominalpain
(1),
diarrhea,(2),cancer(2)
Ade
coctionof
leaves
istaken,at
ado
seof
abou
t30
mltwicedaily
for3days,for
abdo
minalpain
andcancer.Juice
oftheleaves
istakento
treatdiarrhea.
53
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
FicushispidaL.f.
(bot-t1066),
Moraceae
Dum
urThem
aset
TFr
Jaun
dice
(8),fever(8),
tumor
(7)
Fruitsarecooked
with
othe
r(unkno
wn)
ingred
ientsand
consum
edas
vege
tables,taking
asmuchas
possiblefor1mon
thto
treatjaun
dice
andfever.A
pasteof
thefru
itsissm
earedto
treattumors.
231
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10▲11●1
2●13●1
4●15●
16●1
7●18●1
9●20▲21●2
2●23●2
4●25●2
6●27▲
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36▲37●3
8▲39●
40●4
1▲42●4
3●
Ficusreligiosa
L.(bot-t1085),
Moraceae
Panbat
Robang
TL
Skin
disease(14)
Leaves
areused
totreatskin
diseases.
141
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3♣24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3♣34●3
5●36▲37♣38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Foeniculum
vulgare
Mill.(bo
t-t1036),
Apiaceae
Mou
riDeinak
HSd
Carminative(19)
Apasteprep
ared
from
theseed
sistakenas
acarm
inative.
191
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Gardeniacorona
riaBu
ch.-H
am.
(bot-t1076),
Rubiaceae
Bankam
alMolaihang
TL
Rheumaticpain
(7)
Anextractof
theleaves
isused
forthetreatm
entof
rheumatic
pain.
071
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Glinus
oppositifolius
(L.)Aug
.DC.
(bot-t1086),
Molluginaceae
Gim
aBacchain
HL
Skin
disease(17)
Leaf
juiceistakenat
ado
seof
twoteaspo
onfulstw
icedaily
for
7days
totreatskin
diseases.
171
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Gom
phrena
globosaL.
(bot-t1099),
Amaranthaceae
Botamph
ulMeilingp
erH
RzDiarrhe
a(19)
Ade
coctionof
therhizom
eis
used
totreatdiarrhea.
191
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Grewianervosa(Lou
r.)Assorgu
lar
Hasalcong
SL
Jaun
dice
(23)
Ade
coctionof
theleaves
is23
11●
2●3●
4●5●
6●7●
8●9●
10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 12 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
Panigrahi(bo
t-t1062),
Malvaceae
mixed
with
othe
r(unkno
wn)
substances
andho
ney,andis
takenat
ado
seof
onecupful
daily
totreatjaun
dice.
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Helianthu
san
nuus
L.(bot-t1068),
Asteraceae
Surjamuki
Nam
heiper
HL,Sd
Malaria(9),coug
hsand
colds(24)
Anextractof
leaves
istakenat
ado
seof
oneteaspo
onfulthree
times
daily
aftermealsfor
2mon
thsto
treatmalaria.A
pasteof
theseed
sisused
totreatcoug
hsandcolds.
333
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Hibiscus
rosa-sinensis
L.(bot-t1073),
Malvaceae
Jaba
Send
opui
TF
Piles(15),leucorrho
ea(7)
Apasteof
theflowersisused
inpiles.Ade
coctionof
theflowers
istakenat
ado
seof
onecupful
twicedaily
until
cure
ofleucorrhoe
aisob
served
.
222
1●2●
3▲4●
5▲6●
7▲8♣
9●10▲11●1
2▲13●1
4●15●1
6●17●1
8●19▲20▲21●2
2●23●2
4●25●2
62▲
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3♣34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40▲41●4
2▲43●
Hygroph
iladifform
is(l.f.)Blum
e(bot-t10117),
Acanthaceae,
leastconcern
Filamish
Unkno
wn
HWP
Toincrease
sexualdesire(4)
Ade
coctionof
theplantistaken
toincrease
sexualde
sire.
41
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Hyptis
suaveolens
(L.)
Poit.(bot-t1093),
Lamiaceae
Tokm
aBiparthu
HSd,L
Tumor
(6),constip
ation(9)
Asoftdrinkprep
ared
from
the
seed
sistaken,consum
ingas
muchas
possibleto
treat
constip
ation.Theleaf
juiceis
takenat
ado
seof
two
teaspo
onfulsdaily
for10
days
for
thetreatm
entof
tumors.
152
1●2●
3●4●
5▲6▲
7●8●
9▲10▲11▲12▲13▲
14●1
5●16▲17●1
8●19●2
0▲21●2
2▲23●2
4▲25●2
6▲27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
Imperata
cylindrica(L.)
Raeusch.(bot-t10100),
Poaceae
Ulu
Lieloang
HR
Feverandcoug
h(6)
Ade
coctionof
theroot
with
hone
yistakenat
ado
seof
one
teaspo
onfultwicedaily
for
3days,tocure
feversandcoug
h.
62
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7▲38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Ipom
oeamauritiana
Jacq.(bo
t-t1082),
Con
volvulaceae
Bhuikumra
Ratrui
HTb
Sexualdisabilities(18)
Tube
rsareused
forthe
treatm
entof
sexualdisabilities.
181
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Jasm
inum
sambac(L.)
Aito
n(bot-t1087),
Oleaceae
Beli
Then
erpe
rS
FSkindisease(20),asthm
a(14)
Apasteprep
ared
from
the
flowersisappliedin
skin
disease.
Ade
coctionof
flowerswith
mustard
oilistakenin
asthma.
342
1●2●
3●4●
5●6♣
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42▲43●
Jasm
inum
scan
dens
(Retz.)V
ahl
(bot-t1038)
Banjui
Chilokong
SL
Con
junctivitis(12)
Twoto
threedrop
sof
theleaf
extractaredrop
pedinto
theeyes
forthetreatm
entof
conjun
ctivitis.
121
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1▲12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 13 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
Justiciaadha
toda
L.(bot-t1028),
Acanthaceae
Basak
Tumpang
SL
Bron
chitis(6),high
bloo
dpressure
(10)
Theleaf
extractistakenat
ado
seof
threeteaspo
onfulson
cedaily
for5days,totreatbron
chitisand
high
bloo
dpressure.
162
1●2●
3▲4♣
5▲6▲
7▲8●
9●10▲11♣12▲13▲
14▲15●1
6▲17▲18●1
9▲20▲21●2
2●23●2
4▲25●2
6▲27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33♣34▲35●3
6●37●3
8●39●4
0●41▲42▲43▲
Lablab
purpureus(L.)
Sweet(bot-t1051),
Fabaceae
Shim
Barui
CL
Eczema(19),ringw
orm
(14)
Apasteof
theleaves
isapplied
totheaffected
areasof
eczematou
sskin.The
same
form
ulationalon
gwith
hone
yis
also
appliedto
ringw
orm.
332
1●2●
3●4♣
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Lasia
spinosa(L.)
Thwaites(bot-t1074),
Araceae,leastconcern
Kantakachu
Manitri
HL
Piles(19),bonefractures
(4)
Anextractof
theleaves
istaken
atado
seof
onecupful
daily
for
15days
totreatpiles.Apasteof
theleaves
isused
totreat
fractures
ofbo
ne.
232
1●2●
3♣4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
536●
37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
●
Mikan
iamicrantha
Kunth(bot-t1041),
Asteraceae
Toop
ainn
alata
Belnum
HL
Cutsandwou
nds(5),
dysentery(5),gastric
ulcers
(4),dyspep
sia(3),
hemorrhage(1)
Theleaves
areused
indysentery
andgastric
ulcers.A
decoctionof
theleaves
isconsidered
useful
indyspep
sia.Crushed
fresh
leaves
areappliedto
cutsandwou
nds
tostop
hemorrhages.
186
1●2●
3●4●
5●6▲
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●●3
6●37●3
8♣39●
40♣41●4
2●43●
Mimosapudica
L.(bot-t1075),
Mim
osaceae,least
concern
Lajjabati
Beljak
US
RPiles(8),dysentery(4)
Anextractprep
ared
from
the
root
istakentw
iceadayfor
1mon
thto
treatpilesand
dysentery.
122
1♣2▲
3●4▲
5▲6▲
7▲8●
9♣10▲11●1
2▲13●
14●1
5▲16●1
7▲18●1
9▲20♣21▲
22♣23●2
4●25●2
6▲27●2
8●29●3
0▲31●3
2●33♣34●3
5●36●
37●3
8▲39♣40♣41●4
2●43♣
Miscan
thus
fuscus
(Roxb.)B
enth
(bot-t10118),Poaceae
Fusca
Champu
ither
HR
Cancer(4),coug
h(7)
Ade
coctionof
theroot,along
with
unknow
ningred
ients,is
takenat
ado
seof
onecupful
twicedaily
totreatcancer.A
nextractof
theroot
isdirectly
takento
treatcoug
h.
112
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42▲43●
Mom
ordica
charan
tiaL.(bot-t1022),
Cucurbitaceae
Kakrol
Vurlu
kH
FrAnthe
lmintic
(7),dysentery
(10),fever
(6),jaun
dice
(6),
pneumon
ia(3)
Thefru
itistakenas
acurry,
which
isuseful
indysentery,
feverandjaun
dice.The
leaves
areused
asan
anthelmintic.The
youn
gleaves
areeatenas
leafy
vege
tables
totreatjaun
dice
and
pneumon
ia.
325
1●2♣
3▲4●
5●6●
7▲8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5▲16●1
7●18●1
9●20▲21●2
2●23●2
4●25♣26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38♣39●4
0●41●4
2♣43▲
Nicotiana
tabacum
L.(bot-t1091),
Solanaceae
Tamak
Bilao
HL
Toothache(14),stim
ulant(20)
Apo
wde
rprep
ared
from
thedry
leaves
isappliedto
theaffected
area
asaremed
yfortoothache
andalso
used
asstim
ulant.
341
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10▲11●1
2●13●1
4●15●
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3▲34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Ocimum
basilicum
L.(bot-t1043),
Babu
iTulsi
Voiperfu
HL
Bron
chitis(5),diarrhea
and
dysentery(18)
Theleaves
areused
incurriesas
anadditiveforarom
a.This
223
1♣2●
3▲4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16▲17●1
8▲19●2
0▲21▲22●2
3●24●2
5●26●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 14 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
Lamiaceae
speciesisplantedin
home
garden
sforits
pleasant
smell
andalso
asan
ornamen
tal.The
leaves
areused
forthetreatm
ent
ofdiarrhea,d
ysen
tery
and
bron
chitis.
27●2
8▲29●3
0●31●3
2●33●tpins34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1▲42●4
3●
Ocimum
sanctum
L.(bot-t1039),
Lamiaceae
Tulsi
Voiperfu
HL
Cou
ghandcolds(15)
Apasteprep
ared
from
theleaves
isused
totreatcoug
hsand
colds.
152
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8♣
9♣10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5♣16●1
7♣18●1
9●20♣21●2
2♣23●2
4●25●2
6●27♣
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42▲43▲
Operculinaturpethu
m(L.)SilvaManso
(bot-t1020),
Con
volvulaceae
Dud
hkalm
iKainem
CR
Anthe
lmintic
(10)
Theroot
extractistakenas
ananthelmintic.
101
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Oryza
sativaL.
(bot-t1067),Po
aceae
Dhan
Chang
HSd
Malaria(11),abd
ominal
pain
(12)
Abe
erprep
ared
from
riceis
takento
preven
tmalaria.In
additio
n,theaqueou
sliquo
rfro
msteeping
ricein
water
overnigh
tistakento
treat
abdo
minalpain.
232
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Otteliaalism
oides(L.)
Pers(bot-t1093),
Hydrocharitaceae,
leastconcern
Panicola
Unkno
wn
HWP
Eyedisease(7),
tube
rculosis(5),tumor
(6)
Who
leplantsarewrapp
edin
banana
leaves
andhe
ated
for10
min.A
nextractof
theprep
ared
plantispo
ured
(2–3
drop
s)into
theeyes,totreateyedisease.A
decoctionof
thewho
leplantis
taken(asmuchas
possible)to
treattube
rculosis.A
pasteof
the
plant,alon
gwith
leaves
ofPaederiafoetida,issm
earedon
tumors.
183
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Phyllanthu
sem
blicaL.
(bot-t1054),
Euph
orbiaceae
Amloki
Cho
alu
TFr
Gastritis(5),high
bloo
dpressure
(4)
Fruitsareeatento
treatgastritis
andhigh
bloo
dpressure.
92
1●2▲
3●4♣
5●6♣
7♣8▲
9●10●1
1▲12♣13●1
4●15♣16▲17♣18●1
9▲20♣21●2
2▲23●2
4▲25●
26▲27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6▲37♣
38●3
9●40●4
1●42▲43●
PiperbetelL.
(bot-t1061),
Pipe
raceae
Pan
Pantho
ngna
CL
Indige
stion(2),colic
(1),
diarrhea
(2),he
adache
(2),
masticatorysubstance(1),
stim
ulant(1)
Leaves
areused
forthe
treatm
entof
indige
stion,colic,
diarrhea
andhe
adache
.Leaves
arealso
used
asamasticatory
substanceandstim
ulant.
96
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7▲8●
9▲10●1
1▲12▲13●1
4●15▲16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●
27▲28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●
39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
Portulacaoleracea
L.(bot-t1092),
Portulacaceae
Nun
eBakche
nH
SdToothache(8),asthma(12)
Thefried
seed
pasteisused
for
toothacheandasthma.
202
1▲2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34♣35●3
6●37●3
8●39●
40●4
1●42●4
3●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 15 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
Psidium
guajavaL.
(bot-t1042),Myrtaceae
Peyara
Kainem
TB,Fr
Diarrh
eaanddysentery(22)
Green
andrip
efru
itsareeatento
cure
diarrhea.A
decoctionof
the
bark
isused
indysentery.
222
1♣2●
3●4●
5♣6●
7♣8♣
9●10♣11▲12♣13●1
4●15♣
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22♣23●2
4●25●2
6▲27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3▲34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42♣43●
Saraca
asoca(Roxb.)
Willd.
(bot-t10102),
Fabaceae,vulne
rable
Asok
Licung
TB
Diarrh
ea(6),leucorrhoea(4)
Adecoctionprepared
from
the
bark,along
with
leaves
ofCentella
asiatica,istakenorallyatado
seof
onecupfultwicedaily
for7
days
totreatleucorrhoea.Juiceof
the
barkistakenindiarrhea.
102
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7▲8●
9▲10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20▲21●2
2●23●2
4●25●2
6●27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3♣34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Senn
aalata(L.)Ro
xb.
(bot-t1078),
Caesalpiniaceae
Dadmordan
Pailang
SL
Ringworm
andeczema(16)
Theleaf
juiceistakento
treat
ringw
orm,w
hileyoun
gleaves
areused
totreateczema.
162
1●2●
3●4●
5●6♣
7♣8♣
9●10♣11♣12♣13●1
4●15♣
16♣17●1
8♣19♣20♣21●2
2♣23●2
4●25●2
6●27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7♣38●3
9●40♣41♣42♣43●
Senn
aoccidentalis(L.)
Link
(bot-t1063),
Caesalpiniaceae
Baro
Kalkasun
daKalbeia
US
LJaun
dice
(10),m
alaria(16)
Thejuiceof
theleaves
istaken
once
daily
for3days,along
with
beet
salt,to
treatjaun
dice
and
malaria.
262
1●2●
3●4▲
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30▲31●3
2●33▲34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Sesban
iasesban
(L.)M
err.(bot-t1021),
Fabaceae
Dhaincha
Send
opui
TL
Anthe
lmintic
(6),colds(5)
Thejuiceof
thefre
shleaves
isused
asan
anthelmintic
andto
treatcolds.
112
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Smilaxovalifolia
Roxb.exD.Don
(bot-t1094),
Smilacaceae
Kumarilata
Voishisong
CSt,L
Ulcer
(11)
Anextractof
leaves
andstem
sis
mixed
with
blackpe
pper
and
takenthreetim
esdaily
totreat
ulcers.
111
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Solanu
mtorvum
Sw.
(bot-t1056),
Solanaceae
Titbagun
Anchang
tiS
FrGastritis(16),fever
(5)
Unripefru
itsarecooked
asvege
tables
andaretakenforthe
treatm
entof
gastritisandfever.
212
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7♣8♣
9●10♣11●1
2●13●1
4●15●
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22♣23●2
4●25●2
6▲27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36▲37▲38●3
9●40♣41●4
2●43●
Spilanthesacmella
(L.)
L.(bot-t1081),
Asteraceae
Marhatitiga
Ankasa
HWP
Scabies(10),colic(7)
Apasteprep
ared
from
thewho
leplantisused
totreatscabiesand
colic.
171
1●2●
3●4●
5●6▲
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Spon
dias
pinn
ata(L.f.)
Kurz(bot-t1077),
Anacardiaceae
Amra
Thaipial
TFr
Rheumatism
(10),sore
throat
(5)
Fruitsareeaten.Theun
ripefru
itisuseful
forrheumatism
andsore
throat.
152
1●2●
3●4●
5●6▲
7●8●
9▲10●1
1●12▲13●1
4●15●1
6●17●1
8●19●2
0●21●2
2●23●2
4▲25●2
6●27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6▲37●3
8●39●4
0●41●4
2▲43●
Sterculia
villosa
Roxb.
(bot-t1095),
Malvaceae
Udal
Guiza
TL
Urin
aryprob
lems(22)
Leaf
juiceistakenearly
inthe
morning
forreliefof
urinary
prob
lems.
221
1●2●
3▲4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1▲12●1
3●14●1
5●16▲17▲18●1
9●20●2
1●22▲23●2
4●25●2
6●27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38▲39●
40●4
1▲42●4
3●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 16 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
Syzygium
cumini(L.)
Skeels(bot-t1023),
Myrtaceae
Jam
Inmui
TB,Fr
Anthe
lmintic
(10),b
lood
dysentery(12)
Bark
isused
asan
anthelmintic
andforbloo
ddysentery.Ripe
fruits
areeatenas
ananthelmintic.
222
1●2♣
3●4●
5♣6●
7●8●
9▲10●1
1●12♣13●1
4●15●
16●1
7●18●1
9▲20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Syzygium
fruticosum
DC.(bo
t-t10103),
Myrtaceae
Inmui
TL
Bloo
ddysentery(13)
Apasteof
theleaves
isgivenat
ado
seof
oneteaspo
onfulthree
times
daily
totreatbloo
ddysentery.
131
1●2●
3●4♣
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20♣21●2
2●23●2
4●25●2
6●27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Tageteserecta
L.(bot-t1040),
Asteraceae
Gen
daDarken
HL
Haemostatic
(9)
Theleaf
pasteisappliedto
fresh
cutsto
stop
bleeding
.9
11●
2●3▲
4♣5●
6●7●
8●9●
10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38♣39●
40●4
1●42●4
3●
Tamarindusindica
L.(bot-t10105),
Fabaceae
Tatul
Then
thelakung
TFr
Cou
gh(7),dysenteryand
diarrhea
(27)
Afru
itde
coctionisused
orallyto
treatdiarrhea,d
ysen
tery
and
coug
h.
343
1●2▲
3●4▲
5▲6●
7▲8●
9▲10●1
1●12♣13●1
4▲15▲16●1
7●18●1
9●20▲21●2
2♣23●2
4●25●2
6●27●2
8●29●3
0▲31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37●3
8♣39●4
0●41●4
2●43●
Tecton
agran
disL.f.
(bot-t1030),
Lamiaceae
Segu
nSagu
nkun
gT
St,B
Eczema(10),ringw
orm
(14),d
iarrhe
a(10)
Anoilyprod
uctfro
mstem
chips
isused
ineczemaandrin
gworm.
Thebark
isconsidered
useful
inrin
gworm
anddiarrhea.
343
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7▲8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Teph
rosia
purpurea
(L.)
Pers.(bo
t-t1064),
Fabaceae
Bann
ilBairi
HL,Sd
Jaun
dice
(11),scabies
(3),
eczema(10),skindiseases
(8),tube
rculosis(2),
Theleaves
areused
inthetreatment
ofjaundice
andtuberculosis.The
seed
oilisused
totreatscabies,
eczemaandotherskin
diseases.
345
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22♣23●2
4●25●2
6●27●
28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Term
inaliachebula
Retz.(bo
t-t1057),
Com
bretaceae
Haritaki
Sikabu
TFr
Gastritis(5),pain
durin
gmen
struation(2),asthma
(3),bron
chitis(2)
Ripe
nedgreenfru
itsaretakenfor
thetreatm
entof
gastritis.A
decoctionof
fruits
with
hone
yis
takenat
ado
seof
one
teaspo
onfulthree
times
daily
inasthmaandbron
chitis.Apaste
ofthefru
itissm
earedarou
ndthevaginalareato
give
relief
from
pain
durin
gmen
struation.
124
1●2▲
3●4♣
5▲6▲
7▲8▲
9●10●1
1●12▲13♣
14▲15▲16●1
718●
19●2
0▲21●2
2▲23▲24▲
25●2
6▲27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33▲34●3
5●36●
37♣38▲39●4
0▲41●4
2♣43●
Trevesiapalmata
(Roxb.ex
Lind
l.)Vis.
(bot-t1089),Araliaceae
Argoja
Mun
iavang
hem
TR,Fr
Snakeb
ite(15)
Apasteprep
ared
from
theroot
andfru
itsisappliedto
snakeb
ite.
151
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7▲38●3
9▲40▲41●4
2●43●
Urena
lobata
L.(bot-t10106),
Malvaceae
Jang
ligh
agra
Cop
trit
SF
Cou
gh(20),fever
(12)
Juiceof
theflowers,with
mustard
oil,istakento
treatcoug
hand
fever.
322
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10▲11●1
2●13●1
4●15●
16●1
7●18●1
9▲20●2
1●22▲23●2
4●25●2
6●27●
28●2
9●30●3
1▲32▲33●3
4●35●3
6●37▲38▲
39●4
0●41♣42●4
3▲
Urginea
indica
Kunth
Banpiaj
Sommulun
gH
BbAsthm
a(6),dysentery(15)
Thebu
lbextractisused
forthe
212
1●2●
3●4●
5●6●
7●8●
9●10●1
1●12●1
3●14●1
5●
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 17 of 29
Table
1Listof
theethn
omed
icinalplantspeciesused
bythePang
khua
commun
ityof
theRang
amatid
istrict,Bang
lade
sh(Con
tinued)
Scientificname,
vouche
rnu
mbe
r,family
and
conservatio
nstatus
Bang
laname
Pang
khua
name
Habit
Parts
used
Num
berof
citatio
nspe
railm
entcatego
ryUsage
inform
ation
FCUR
Allied
literature
(bot-t1027),Liliaceae
treatm
entof
asthmaand
dysentery.
16●1
7●18●1
9●20●2
1●22●2
3●24●2
5●26●2
7●28●2
9●30●3
1●32●3
3●34●3
5●36●3
7●38●3
9●40●4
1●42●4
3●
Zing
iberofficinale
Roscoe
(bot-t1014),
Zing
iberaceae
Ada
Aaithing
HRz,L
Food
additive(1),stim
ulant
(1),abdo
minalprob
lems
(1),laxative(1),dyspep
sia
(1),dysenteryandvomiting
(3),coug
hs,b
ronchitis,
asthmaandtuberculosis(5)
Therhizom
eisused
asaspice,
whileleaves
areused
asan
additive,stim
ulant,forabdo
minal
prob
lemsandas
alaxative.An
infusion
oftherhizom
eisused
indyspep
sia,coug
h,bron
chitis,
asthma,dysentery,vomiting
and
tube
rculosis.
1311
1●2●
3●4♣
5♣6♣
7●8●
9♣10♣11▲12♣13●1
4▲15♣16●1
7●18●1
9●20♣21●2
2♣23●2
4●25●2
6●27●2
8●29●3
0●31●3
2●33●3
4●35●3
6●37♣38●
39●4
0●41●4
2♣43●
Lege
nd:C
clim
ber,Hhe
rb,S
shrub,
Ttree,U
Sun
dershrub,
Bba
rk,Frfruit,Bb
bulb,F
flower,L
leaves,Sdseed
,Ststem
,Rzrhizom
e,Rroot,Tbtube
r,WPwho
leplan
t,FIfreq
uencyof
inform
ants,FCfreq
uencyof
citatio
n,URuserepo
rt♣similaruse,
▲dissim
ilaruse,
●useno
trepo
rted
1=[27];2
=[44];3
=[10];4
=[36];5
=[8];6=[35];7
=[34];8
=[3];9
=[42];1
0=[7];11
=[9];12
=[8];13
[49];1
4=[50];1
5=[51];1
6=[39];1
7=[40];1
8=[52];1
9=[11];2
0=[12];2
1=[53];2
2=[13];2
3=[15];2
4=[54];2
5=[47];2
6=[55];2
7=[56];2
8=[57];2
9=[58];3
0=[59];3
1=[41];3
2=[43];3
3=[45];3
4=[60];3
5=[61];3
6=[62];3
7=[63];3
8=[64];3
9=[65];4
0=[66];4
1=[67];4
2=[68];4
3=[69]
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 18 of 29
Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Poaceaehaving 3 species each. The remainder of families was rep-resented by two or one species. However, most of thesefamilies are documented to contain active constituentsand feature in different traditional systems of medicine.
Of all recorded species, herbs (55 species) were found toaccount for the greatest number, followed by trees (35species), shrubs (13 species), climbers (10 species), andunder-shrubs (4 species). Different parts of ethnomedic-inal plants are used in herbal formulations by local trad-itional healers for the treatment of different ailments.Among such plant parts, leaves (34.07%) were found to bethe most frequently used for the preparation of herbaldrugs, followed by other parts (Fig. 2).Considering the mode of preparation of traditional
medicines by the Pangkhua community, the range ofmethods reported for various species included decoc-tions, juices, extracts, pastes, powders, infusions, oils,and the use of fresh plant parts. Among these, the mostcommon formulations were decoctions (25.93%) andfresh plant parts (23.46%), followed by juices (16.05%),pastes (14.81%), extracts (13.58%), oils (3.70%), and infu-sions and powders (1.23% each). Decoctions are oftenthe most commonly encountered preparation methodreported [26–30]. In some cases, processing involveddrying of the plant material followed by grinding into afine powder. Water was most commonly used if a solv-ent was required, with cow’s milk or honey sometimesused as a matrix or as an adjuvant to increase viscosity.Within the study community, plant medicines were
Table 2 Demographics of the Informants
Variable Categories Percentage
Gender Male 66.97
Female 33.03
Age group < 30 9.63
30–50 16.51
51–70 65.60
70> 8.26
Education Illiterate 45.87
Primary 30.73
High school 22.02
University 1.38
Profession Daily laborer 28.44
Farmer 47.71
Professional healer 6.88
Other 16.97
Fig. 2 Plant parts used for the preparation of herbal medicines
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 19 of 29
usually administrated orally. Bathing in a decoction orrubbing and massaging using the plant parts were alsoencountered.
Conservation statusThe conservation status of all recorded plant species waschecked using the International Union for Conservationof Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species [31]. Atotal of 12 species, namely Acorus calamus, Amorphophal-lus paeoniifolius, Ammania multiflora, Azolla pinnata,Breonia chinensis, Centella asiatica, Cyperus rotundus,Commelina diffusa, Hygrophila difformis, Lasia spinosa,Mimosa pudica, and Ottelia alismoides were recorded as“of Least Concern,” while only one species (Saraca asoca)was recorded as “vulnerable,” with all other species not in-cluded on the list.
Quantitative analysisThe present study records the use of ethnomedicines totreat 11 categories of ailments. Of these, the most com-mon uses were for digestive system disorders (49 spe-cies), followed by respiratory complaints (39 species)(Table 3). To ascertain the level of agreement among theinformants of the Pangkhua community regarding theuse of plants to treat certain disease categories, FIC
values were determined. The FIC values are presented inTable 3. It is clear that the FIC values showed variation,varying from 0.50 to 0.66. In the treatment of digestivesystem disorders, the highest FIC value (0.66) wasencountered, with 141 use-reports for 49 plant species.This was followed by plants used to treat respiratorysystem disorders (FIC = 0.64) and so on (Table 3). Incontrast, the least agreement (FIC = 0.50) between infor-mants regarding therapeutic uses was observed forplants used to treat urinary disorders. The calculated JIindices (Table 4) ranged from 1.65 to 33.00. The highestdegree of similarity was found with a study conducted inBangladesh, while the lowest degree of similarity wasfound with a study conducted in Pakistan.
New ethnomedicinal plant species and usesOur comparative analysis revealed that out of 117ethnomedicinal plant species documented, 37 specieshad either no similar or any use (Table 1). Therefore,these species were compared with the research data-bases of SCOPUS, PubMed, Biomed Central, andGoogle Scholar, and the results showed that use of 12of these species has heretofore been unreported inBangladesh (Table 5), while 6 species have never beenscreened pharmacologically.
Table 3 Categories of ailments and Informant Consensus Factors (FIC)
Use category. In brackets, local name of illness used by the informants and local people Number oftaxa (Nt)
Number of usereports (Nur)
Informantconsensus factor
Digestive system disorders: diarrhea (patla paikhana), gastritis(gastic, petod gas), dysentery (bikar, amasha), carminative (hozmi, petodgas komibo), digestive (hozomi), ulcer (petod gha), vomiting (bomi),indigestion (hozom n hoile), piles (arsha), constipation (paikhana kosha),anthelmintic (krimir osod), dyspepsia (hozom n hoile), laxative (paikhananorom goribellai).
49 141 0.66
Respiratory disorders: cough (kof), colds (thanda), pneumonia(newmonia), bronchitis (jolkhashi), tuberculosis (jokkha), asthma (shashkosto), whooping cough (khungri khas).
39 109 0.65
Cancer (kancer) and tumors (tumar) 7 18 0.64
Malaria (maleria) 5 11 0.60
Snake and dog bites (hap and kutta kamor) 4 8 0.57
Skin diseases: eczema (kaur), ringworm (dad), boils (fura), scabies(chulkani), burns (pora), cuts (kata) and wounds (khoto/gha).
24 55 0.57
Sexual and menstrual disorders: leucorrhoea (shet shrab), dampenedsexual desire (sex barabelllai), impotence (bondha), pain duringmenstruation (masik kale betha), sexual disabilities (bikolango)
10 22 0.57
Pain: Abdominal pain (tolpetod betha), backache (pit betha), earache(kanot betha), headache (matha betha), joint pain (girad betha), rheumaticpain (bater betha), sore throat (golat betha), stomachache (pedot betha),toothache (dat betha).
18 39 0.55
Urinary disorders: dysuria (proshaber somot betha), kidney problems(kidnir somossa), urinary tract infections (proshaber rastat gha)
6 11 0.50
Jaundice (jondis) 7 18 0.64
General disorders: fever (jor), high blood pressure (pressure bari gele),colic (shul betha), stimulant (uttejok), conjunctivitis (chokh utha).
22 58 0.63
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 20 of 29
DiscussionOverall, this study revealed the traditional use of 117plant species, distributed among 104 genera and belong-ing to 54 families to treat 11 categories of ailments, re-corded from 218 traditional healers and elderly men andwomen. The highest number of species belonged to theFabaceae; this dominancy may be due to the worldwidedistribution of species from this family [32, 33] and, fur-thermore, that the Fabaceae constitute the second lar-gest family in the flora of Bangladesh [2]. Similar resultshave been reported by other ethnobotanists [10, 27, 34]while [7] reported the Asteraceae as the largest familyand the Fabaceae the third largest family in their studyconducted in Bangladesh.Herbs are naturally abundant in the study areas, which
were mostly hilly and covered by a forest canopy, creat-ing favorable conditions for their growth. Similar resultswere observed with other studies conducted in differentregions of Bangladesh [3, 27, 34–36].The preference for the use of leaves in the preparation
of herbal medicines by the healers is likely due to theyear-round availability of leaves, and the fact that theyare easier to collect, store, process, and handle. Similarobservations have been reported in allied studies inBangladesh and other countries [28, 35, 37, 38]. Healersusually however prefer to use fresh plant materials in-stead of dry and stored ones for herbal preparations.In the study area, digestive system disorders are com-
mon, largely due to a deficiency of pure water, especiallyin the dry season, coupled with a lack of awareness of its
Table 4 Jaccard similarity index (JI) for local and neighboringcountries
Area of study Indices JI Reference
S.N.
A B C
Bangladesh Eleven districts ofBangladesh
1 104 237 13 3.96 [27]
Dhaka 2 109 29 8 6.15 [44]
Rangamati district 3 104 37 13 10.16 [10]
Panchagarh district 4 88 68 29 22.83 [36]
Garo hills ofDurgapur
5 98 52 19 14.50 [8]
Bandarban district 6 95 44 22 18.80 [35]
Cox’s Bazar district 7 84 49 33 33.00 [34]
Hazarikhil,Chittagong
8 102 28 15 13.04 [3]
Madhupur ForestArea
9 96 57 17 12.5 [42]
Bandarban district 10 85 127 32 17.78 [7]
Chittagong HillTracts
11 97 126 20 9.22 [9]
Durgapur 12 95 49 22 18.03 [8]
Moulivibazardistrict
13 111 09 6 5.26 [49]
Pabna district 14 103 15 14 13.46 [50]
Joypurhat district 15 95 73 22 15.07 [51]
Rangamati district 16 107 31 10 7.81 [39]
Kalenga forest 17 107 25 10 8.20 [40]
Rangamati district 18 113 20 04 3.10 [52]
Bandarban district 19 106 47 11 7.74 [11]
Sandwip Island,Chittagong
20 89 83 28 19.44 [12]
Bandarban district 21 113 29 04 2.90 [53]
Chittagong HillTracts
22 89 119 28 15.56 [13]
Rangamati district 23 114 12 03 2.44 [15]
Bandarban district 24 110 47 07 4.67 [54]
Six districts ofNorthern region
25 114 21 03 2.27 [47]
Sylhet district 26 98 55 19 14.18 [55]
Natore district 27 111 14 06 5.04 [56]
Kurigram district 28 112 26 05 3.75 [57]
Neighboringcountries
Satpuda hills ofIndia
29 111 46 6 3.97 [58]
Uttar Pradesh, India 30 113 36 4 2.76 [59]
Parbat district ofwestern Nepal
31 114 129 4 1.67 [41]
Jajarkot district,Nepal
32 114 57 3 1.79 [43]
Shimoga district,India
33 102 70 15 9.55 [45]
Table 4 Jaccard similarity index (JI) for local and neighboringcountries (Continued)
Area of study Indices JI Reference
S.N.
A B C
Sarban hills,Abbottabad,Pakistan
34 114 71 3 1.65 [60]
Tribal areas,Pakistan
35 113 75 4 2.17 [61]
Manipur, India 36 107 110 10 4.83 [62]
Mizoram, India 37 105 147 12 5.00 [63]
Mizoram, India 38 101 119 16 7.84 [64]
Mizoram, India 39 114 54 03 1.82 [65]
Western Mizoram,India
40 105 77 12 6.74 [66]
Tripura state, India 41 106 114 11 5.26 [67]
South district ofTripura, India
42 97 93 20 11.74 [68]
Assam, India 43 109 31 08 6.06 [69]
Legend: A is the recorded number of species of the current study area a, Bis the documented number of species of another study area b, and C is thenumber of species common to both areas a and b, and S.N is theserial number
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 21 of 29
importance among those living in hilly and remote areas.Similarly, respiratory system disorders were second inoccurrence, due to prevalence of smoking and chewingof leaves of Nicotiana tabacum with those of Piper betel.Analogously to our results, digestive system disorderswere found to be the major ailment category in manyother ethnomedicinal studies conducted in Bangladesh[7, 8, 14, 39, 40]. High FIC values also indicate that suchspecies are worth investigating for bioactive compounds.As discussed earlier, some medicinal plant species used
by the healers of the studied community are also usedby the healers of different communities in different partsof Bangladesh as well as in neighboring countries andbeyond.A total of 19 ethnomedicinal plant species which are
commonly used by the indigenous communities ofBangladesh were selected and their known uses com-pared with our results (Table 6), to ascertain whetherthe Pangkhua community has any novel uses of thesespecies. Alongside, we evaluated the phytochemical lit-erature on these species. From our review, 11 species,namely Acorus calamus, Aegle marmelos, Arecha cat-echu, Calotropis procera, Centella asiatica, Curcumalonga, Justicia adhatoda, Phyllanthes emblica, Saracaasoca, Terminalia chebula, and Zingiber officinale havedistinct uses within the Pangkhua community. For ex-ample, Centella asiatica is used analogously by theMarma community in Bandarban [35], the Rakhaingcommunity in Cox’s Bazar [34], the Tripura communityin Chittagong [3]; the local people in the Panchagarh[36], Garo, Hazong, and Bangalee communities in Dur-gapur [8]; the local people of 11 districts in Bangladesh[27]; and the ethnic people of western Nepal [41]. Thisspecies was also used differently in traditional medicineby traditional healers of Bangladesh and other countries
[37, 42–45]. Interestingly, its use in one ailment, asthma,has been documented for the first time in this study.Similarly, the use of Acorus calamus as an anthelmintichas not been reported before, and the use of fruit ofAegle marmelos to treat asthma is recorded herein forthe first time, while its leaves were used in combinationwith other plants [46]. Other unreported uses of estab-lished ethnomedicinal species include Arecha catechu asa carminative, Calotropis procera to treat asthma andsnake bite, Curcuma longa as a laxative and to treatfever, Justicia adhatoda and Phyllanthes emblica to re-duce high blood pressure, Saraca asoca to treat diarrheaand leucorrhea, Terminalia chebula to reduce pain dur-ing menstruation and to treat bronchitis, and Zingiberofficinale as a laxative and to treat dyspepsia andtuberculosis.To illustrate homogeneity of use or otherwise, the JI
was used to compare our study with 43 previous investi-gations. In total, the JI was calculated for 28 regions ofBangladesh with the Cox’s Bazar district emerging as themost similar to our study area with JI = 33.00, followedby the Panchagarh, Chittagong, and Bandarban districts(JI = 22.83, 19.44, and 18.80 respectively), while the low-est JI (2.77) was found with the study conducted by Rah-man [47]. The high JI may reflect that the study area islocated in the same geological zone, with similar socio-economic and cultural characteristics. On the otherhand, among three neighboring countries (India,Pakistan, and Nepal), the highest similarity was foundwith the adjacent state of Tipura, India (JI = 11.74) whilethe lowest (JI = 1.65) was from Pakistan.
Limitations of the current studyEthnobotanical documentation constitutes field-basedresearch. Nevertheless, the field is not always a safe
Table 5 List of new ethnomedicinal plant species and species as yet unscreened for pharmacological activity
Species used for the treatmentof different ailments in other regions
Species reported for the firsttime with an ethnobotanicaluse in Bangladesh
Species not studiedpharmacologically to date
• Ananas comosus• Artocarpus heterophyllus• Blumea balsamifera• Blumea lacera• Bombax ceiba• Cheilocostus speciosus• Cinnamomum tamala• Coccinia grandis• Dioscorea hispida• Hyptis suaveolens• Mikania micrantha• Nicotiana tabacum• Piper betel• Spilanthes acmella• Spondias pinnata• Sterculia villosa• Tectona grandis• Argyreia splendens
• Albizia myriophylla• Alternanthera pungens• Ammannia multiflora• Amberboa moschata• Antidesma velutinosum• Argyreia splendens• Azolla pinnata• Bauhinia scandens• Erigeron sublyratus• Hygrophila difformis• Miscanthus fuscus• Ottelia alismoides
• Amberboa moschata• Antidesma velutinosum• Argyreia splendens• Bauhinia scandens• Erigeron sublyratus• Miscanthus fuscus
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 22 of 29
Table 6 Comparative ethnobotanical uses of selected species among the Pangkhua and wider Bangladesh
Scientificname
Documented secondary metabolitesin phytochemical studies
Ethnomedicinal application(s)among the Pangkhuaa
Previous ethnomedicinalreport in Bangladesh
Acoruscalamus
β-asarone [70] Anthelmintic, gastritis Asthma [39, 52]; menstrual problem andbowel pain [13]; asthma and wounds [55];eczema [35]; gastritis, vomiting andsplenomegaly [34]; hair problem [10]; cough[71]; constipation, edema, and indigestion [72];indigestion [7]
Aeglemarmelos
Taxol [73]; 2-isopropenyl-4-methyl-1-oxa-cyclopenta[b]anthracene-5,10-dione and(+)-4-(2′-hydroxy-3′-methylbut-3′-enyloxy)-8H-[1,3]dioxolo[4,5-h]chromen-8-one,imperatorin, β-sitosterol, plumbagin,1-methyl-2-(3′-methyl-but-2′-enyloxy)-anthraquinone, β-sitosterol glucoside,stigmasterol, vanillin and salicin [74];anhydromarmeline (1), aegelinosides Aand B [75]
Digestive, asthma Constipation, peptic ulcer and respiratorydisorder [8]; dysentery and indigestion [13];dysentery and diarrhea [9]; sedative [11];abscess, fever, dysentery and indigestion[51]; dysentery [12]; itches [50]; insomnia [35];vomiting [34]; stomachache and blooddysentery [71]; diarrhea, dysentery, constipation,peptic ulcer and respiratory disorder [72];digestive, dysentery and diarrhea [7]
Aloe vera Dihydrocoumarin derivatives, compounds1 and 2 [76]; p –coumaric acid, ascorbicacid, pyrocatechol and cinnamic acid [77];Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate [78]
Burns Piles, menstrual disease and sex problems [51];skin disease [34]; burn and skin disease [10, 78]
Arecacatechu
Fernenol (fern-9(11)-en-3α-ol), arundoin(fern-9(11)-en-3α-ol ME), stigmasterol andβ-sitosterol [79]; NPF-86IA, NPF-86IB, NPF-86IIA, and NPF-86IIB [80]
Carminative Diarrhea [34]; [71]
Azadirachtaindica
Limonoids 3-deacetyl-3-cinnamoylazadirachtin,1-tigloyl-3-acetyl-11-methoxyazadirachtinin,azadirachtin, 22,23-dihydro-23β-methoxyazadirachtin and 3-tigloylazadirachtol [81]
Scabies, malaria Diabetes [44]; allergy, eczema, skin disease anddiabetes [8]; scabies and itches [53]; diabetes[39]; cold and cough [13]; eczema [9]; worm,chicken pox, eczema, itches and helminthiasis[51]; allergy [40]; blood poisoning, itches andeczema [49]; Itches and ringworm [82];toothache, skin disease and insecticide [12];itches [55]; itches [50]; chicken pox and measles[35]; chicken pox, high blood pressure, gastritis,flatulence, jaundice, vomiting and malaria [34];skin disease [10]; pain, wound healing, smallpox, eczema, skin disease, fever and cough [72];insecticide, diabetes, fever, skin diseases, pilesand malaria [7]
Calotropisgigantea
Lupeol [83]; isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside,isorhamnetin-3-O-glucopyranoside andtaraxasteryl acetate, isorhamnetin-3-O-[2-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-6-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl]-β-D-glucopyranoside [84]
Rheumatic pain Rheumatism [13]; Elephantiasis, emollient, pain,boils and abscess [54]; rheumatism [12]; wounds,paralysis and erectile dysfunction [55]; pain [50];pain [35]; gout, toothache, rheumatic pain andcatarrh [34]; rheumatism [71]; constipation, feverand stomach disorder [72]; cough, asthma andrheumatism [7]
Calotropisprocera
5-Hydroxy-3,7-dimethoxyflavone-4′-O-β-glucopyranoside, 2β,19-epoxy-3β,14β-dihydroxy-19-methoxy-5α-card-20(22)-enolide and β-anhydroepidigitoxigenin-3β-O-glucopyranoside,along with two known compounds, uzarigenineand β-anhydroepidigitoxigenin [85]; calotroprocerolA, calotroproceryl acetate A, calotroprocerone Aand calotroproceryl acetate B [86]
Asthma, snake bite Rheumatism [13]; piles [51]; diabetes [7]
Cassiafistula
Catechin [87]; 1, 8- dihydroxyanthraquinone-3-carboxylic acid [88]
Jaundice, dysentery Helminthiasis, cough and nervous weakness [8];constipation [39]; skin disease and jaundice [13];fever [11]; coughs, helminthiasis, diabetes,irregular urination, edema, and constipation [54];tonsillitis, constipation and rheumatic pain [89];constipation [52]; constipation [12]; diarrhea,dysentery and piles [34]; diarrhea [71]; dysenteryand constipation [7]
Centellaasiatica
Asiaticoside G, five triterpenoids, asiaticoside,asiaticoside F, asiatic acid, quadranoside IV, and
Conjunctivitis, dysentery,impotence, asthma
Diabetes [44]; dysentery, wounds, burns, andskin lesion [8]; dysentery [13]; syphilis and ulcer
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 23 of 29
Table 6 Comparative ethnobotanical uses of selected species among the Pangkhua and wider Bangladesh (Continued)
Scientificname
Documented secondary metabolitesin phytochemical studies
Ethnomedicinal application(s)among the Pangkhuaa
Previous ethnomedicinalreport in Bangladesh
2α,3β,6β-trihydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid 28-O-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranosyl] ester, and fourflavonoids, kaempferol, quercetin, astragalin, andisoquercetin [90]
[9]; dysentery, eczema and headache [51];dysentery [40]; dysentery and diarrhea [89];stomach pain and flatulency [82]; spermatorrhea[56]; dysentery and fever [12]; dysentery andintestinal dysfunction [55]; dysentery [50];vomiting, dysentery, diarrhea and dehydration[35]; fever, pyorrhea, impotence, gastritis andjaundice [34]; pain and dysentery [71];hypertension, wounds, burns and skin lesion [72];fever, loss of smell and taste, carbuncles anddysentery [7]; conjunctivitis [91]
Curcumalonga
Curcuminoids [92] (Revathy 2011), curcumin,demethoxycurcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin,ar-turmerone and curlone [93]
Eczema, dysentery, coughs,cold, fever, laxative
Diarrhea and flatulence [8]; joint pain and bloodpurifier [13] blood disease [9]; abscess andeczema [51]; bone fracture and helminthiasis[57]; pain [49]; itches and ringworm [82]; skindisease [12]; bone fracture and sex stimulant[55]; cough and eczema [34, 71]; diarrhea andflatulence [72]; scabies, malaria, chicken pox andblood purifier [7]; dysentery [94]
Justiciaadhatoda
Vasicoline, vasicolinone, vasicinone, vasicine,adhatodine, and anisotine [95]
Bronchitis, high bloodpressure
Intestinal disorder, pneumonia, cough, scabiesand skin disease [8]; coughs [39]; cough, cold,asthma and chest pain [9]; helminthiasis,diarrhea and constipation [11]; malaria, coughand cold [54]; cold and cough [40]; cough [49];skin infections [82]; cough [12, 34, 50, 55, 71];skin cancer, cough and pain [35]; cough andfever [10]; cough, pneumonia and asthma [72];asthma and cough [7]; bronchitis [96]
Ocimumsanctum
[16-Hydroxy-4,4,10,13-tetramethyl17-(4-methyl-pentyl)-hexadecahydro-cyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-one [97]
Cough and colds Diabetes [44]; fever, cold and cough [13]; coughand cold [54]; cough and fever [51]; cold andcough [40]; rheumatic pain [56]; cough andpneumonia [12]
Phyllanthusemblica
Gallic acid, methyl gallate, corilagin, furosin,and geraniin [98]
Gastritis, high bloodpressure
Diabetes [44]; allergy and gastritis [8]; anemia[39]; dysentery, anemia and pain [13]; insomnia[9]; aphrodisiac, energizer and fever [54]; burningsensation, vomiting, cough, indigestion andjaundice [51]; fever and malaria [40]; bleedingfrom gums, loss of appetite and headache [82];paralysis [56]; stimulant [15]; diuretic, tonic,laxative and gastritis [12]; intestinal dysfunctionand blood purifier [55]; abdominal gas and fever[35]; urinary tract infection and hysteria [71];edema, constipation and gonorrhea [72]
Saracaasoca
Lyoniside, nudiposide, 5-methoxy-9-β-xylopyranosyl-(−)-isolariciresinol, icariside E3, schizandriside, (−)-epicatechin, epiafzelechin-(4β→8)-epicatechinand procyanidin B2 [99]
Diarrhea, leucorrhoea Irregular menstruation [12]; ulcer, piles,dyspepsia, dysentery and stomachache [72]
Senna alata Kaempferol and kaempferol 3-O-gentiobioside[100]; 3,5,7,4-tetrahydroxy flavone [101]
Ringworm and eczema Skin disease and scabies [8]; skin disorder andeczema [39]; skin disease [13]; eczema [9];ringworm and eczema [11]; ringworm, eczema,itch, scabies and skin disease [54]; eczema[7, 35, 51, 71, 82]; skin infection [52]; skindisease [12]
Solanumtorvum
Chlorogenone and neochlorogenone [102];solanolide 6-O-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→3)-O-β-D-quinovopyranoside], solanolide 6-O-[β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→3)-O-β-D-quinovopyranoside],yamogenin 3-O-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside] and neochlorogenin 3-O-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside] [103]
Gastritis, fever Urinary problems, sores and fever [13];gastritis and toothache [7]
Tamarindusindica
Proanthcyanidins, procyanidins [104]; furfural,palmitic acid, oleic acid and phenylacetaldehyde [105]
Cough, dysentery anddiarrhea
Diabetes [44]; sinusitis and chronic cold [8];urinary problem, cold and fever [13]; burningsensation and heart disease [51]; chicken pox,
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 24 of 29
environment. A majority of the indigenous communitieswe studied live in forest areas, and there have been se-curity risks due to rebel movement in these areas. It isrisky to carry valuable field equipment like cameras, re-corders, etc. Route access was limited to foot traffic.Language barriers were encountered, as most partici-pants did not speak the national Bangla language requir-ing the use of interpreters. Seasonal variation is animportant factor in the collection of voucher specimens,as in the rainy season it is difficult to both access anddry the specimens, while in the dry season the aerialparts of many plants have withered, coupled with theclearing of forest areas for cultivation during that period.Indigenous peoples are sometimes unwilling to share
their knowledge of medicinal plants with others, specif-ically the Bangali (Bangladeshi). They maintain the se-crecy of medicinal plant use because there is a beliefamong them that the medicines lose their efficacy if toomany people know of them, and additionally, they maybe conscious about economic losses [48]. There may alsobe resistance to allowing themselves to become the sub-ject of study by outsiders [48]. Therefore, potential infor-mants must be encouraged using several techniques.Firstly, emphasis must be given to help them understandthat shared information will be preserved for the benefitof their children and future generations. As their
children are less frequently adopting the role of healers,without documentation, much knowledge of medicinalplants may disappear forever.
Research highlights
1. The present study revealed that the Pangkhuacommunity depends on a variety of ethnomedicinalplants to treat various diseases.
2. Local herbalists are predominantly aging men andwomen, and the Pangkhua younger generation lacksinterest in following the traditional role of thehealer.
3. While in many cases, the plants utilized by thePangkhua are documented in allied literature, theirpreparation, mode of use, and clinical indicationoften differ from that of other indigenouscommunities.
4. The information compiled herein constitutes a richknowledge source for taxonomists, phytochemists,environmentalists, pharmacists, and alliedprofessionals.
ConclusionsIt can be concluded that the Pangkhua indigenous com-munity of the Rangamati district of Bangladesh possess
Table 6 Comparative ethnobotanical uses of selected species among the Pangkhua and wider Bangladesh (Continued)
Scientificname
Documented secondary metabolitesin phytochemical studies
Ethnomedicinal application(s)among the Pangkhuaa
Previous ethnomedicinalreport in Bangladesh
boils, rheumatism and laxative [12]; respiratorydifficulties and bone fracture [50]; conjunctivitis,pain and excessive menstruation [34];constipation and jaundice [72]; constipation,loss of appetite, diarrhea, chronic fever anddysentery [106]
Terminaliachebula
Chebulagic acid [107]; gallic acid, punicalagin,isoterchebulin, 1,3,6-tri-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranose, chebulagic acid and chebulinicacid [108]
Gastritis, pain duringmenstruation, asthma,bronchitis
Diabetes [44]; constipation and vomiting [8];purgative and cardiac disease [13]; aphrodisiac,energizer, fever and body ache [54];constipation, indigestion, rheumatism andurinary disease [51]; fever and malaria [40];toothache, body pain and skin diseases [49];bleeding from gums and loss of appetite,headache [82]; stimulant [15]; constipation [12];indigestion, vomiting, constipation and intestinaldysfunction [55]; loss of appetite [50]; sore throatand cough [35]; cough [34]; constipation, ulcer,and edema [72]; gastritis [109]; asthma, heartdisease, eye disease, itches and nightblindness [91]
Zingiberofficinale
cis- and trans-6-shogaol, 8-shogaol, 10-shogaol,12-shogaol and syn- and anti-methyl-6-shogaol,methyl-8-shogaol, methyl-10-shogaol [110]
Food additive, stimulant,abdominal problems, laxative,dyspepsia, dysentery andvomiting, coughs, bronchitis,asthma and tuberculosis
Cough, stomachache and gastritis [8];stomachache [13]; allergy [9]; fever andbronchitis [51]; abdominal pain [12]; depressionand itches [50]; sore throat and cough [35];indigestion and cough [34]; cough, stomachache,gastritis and vomiting [72]; flatulence, gastritis,carminative, abdominal pain, coughs and colds[7]; edema, asthma, chest diseases, andvomiting [111]
New uses of these plants documented among the Pangkhua are highlighted in bold
Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 25 of 29
rich ethnomedicinal knowledge, as they use many medi-cinal plant species in their healthcare system. The nov-elty of this study is that 12 ethnomedicinal plant specieshave been recorded with new uses, and 6 of these spe-cies have never been screened pharmacologically. Thetraditional plants utilized have in some cases been vali-dated scientifically by isolation of active ingredients, thusshowing that traditional remedies are an important andeffective part of indigenous healthcare systems in thedistrict. Our findings will be helpful to ethnobotanistsand phytochemists for conducting research into the iso-lation of active principles from these species. The preser-vation of these plant species is the gateway towarddeveloping efficacious remedies for treating disease. En-hancing the sustainable use and conservation of indigen-ous knowledge of useful medicinal plants may benefitand improve the living standards of poor people. Hence,it is necessary to document the indigenous knowledge ofuseful plants and their therapeutic uses before they arelost forever.
Additional files
Additional file 1: Group interview. There were 28 Pangkhua peoplepresent while we were conducting an interview about ethnomedicinalplant usage. We considered all 28 Pangkhua people as informants, dueto each person having some knowledge regarding ethnomedicines. (TIF6452 kb)
Additional file 2: List of 218 informants in the study, alongside theirdemographic characteristics (traditional healers highlighted in red). Thedetailed descriptions of all 218 informants, including their age, sex,location, education, and occupation were documented from the studiedareas. (XLSX 19 kb)
AbbreviationsCHTs: Chittagong Hill Tracts districts; FIC: Factor of Informant Consensus;IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature; JI: Jaccard index
AcknowledgementsThe authors express their deep sense of gratitude to the informants and theBangali men and women who helped them in many different ways duringthe field work. The authors declare there is no actual or potential conflict ofinterest pertinent to this study.
FundingThis research was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of HubeiProvince, China, No. 2015CFA091 (XH), the Fundamental Research Funds forthe Central Universities Program No. 2015PY181 (XH), No. 2662017PY104(XH)and National Key R&D Program of China 2017YFD0501500 (XH).
Availability of data and materialsAll documented data will be included online at www.ebbd.info andwww.mpbd.info.
Authors’ contributionsMOF, GF, SBU, and JB conceived and designed the experiments. MOF, MNAK,and URA collected the data. MOF, GF, SH, URA, and MK analyzed the data.MOF, JB, XH, and SBU wrote the manuscript. All of the listed authors haveread and approved the submitted final manuscript.
Ethical approval and consent to participateThere are no formal rules and regulations governing consent fromparticipants in Bangladesh regarding the sharing of ethnomedicinal
knowledge. For the purposes of our study, a consistent approach wasestablished. Each participant agreed to participate voluntarily. The researchstudy was explained to all participants prior to interview. Participants wereallowed to discontinue the interview at any time. For collecting voucherspecimens, permission was taken from the appropriate body/owner/informants.
Completing of interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing of interest.
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Author details1Ethnobotany and Pharmacognosy Lab, Department of Botany, University ofChittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh. 2Laboratory of Drug Discoveryand Molecular Engineering, Department of Medicinal Plants, College of PlantScience and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070,China. 3National-Regional Joint Engineering Research Center in Hubei forMedicinal Plant Breeding and Cultivation, Wuhan 430070, China. 4MedicinalPlant Engineering Research Center of Hubei Province, Huazhong AgriculturalUniversity, Wuhan, China. 5Wuhan Fourth Hospital, Puai Hospital, TongjiMedical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan430034, China. 6Kurigram Government College, Kurigram, Bangladesh.7Department of Chemistry, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin,Ireland. 8Hubei Cancer Hospital, Wuhan 430034, China. 9The State KeyLaboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Department ofPlant Pathology, Collage of Plant Science and Technology, HuazhongAgricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
Received: 9 October 2018 Accepted: 16 January 2019
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