ED 383 498
AUTHORTITLE
DOCUMENT RESUME
RC 020 081
Cuban, LarryHow Teachers Taught: Constancy and Change in AmericanClassrooms, 1890-1980. 1st Edition. Research onTeaching Monograph Series.
REPORT NO ISBN-0-582-28481-3PUB DATE 84NOTE 306p.; Photographs will not reproduce adequately.
PUB TYPE Books (010) Historical Materials (060) Reports
Research/Technical (143)
EDRS PRICE MFO1 /PC13 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Case Studies; Classroom Techniques; *Educational
Change; Educational History; *Educational Practices;Elementary Secondary Education; Open Education;*Progressive Education; *Resistance to Change; RuralEducation; Teacher Behavior; Teaching Methods; UrbanEducation
IDENTIFIERS School Culture; *Teacher Centered Instruction;Virginia (Arlington)
ABSTRACTThis book investigates teaching practices before,
during, and after reform impulses in the 20th century aimed atchanging what teachers routinely do. Patterns of stability and changeover a 90-year period are developed from evidence from a wide variety
of sources, including classroom photographs, textbooks and testsused, student recollections, teacher reports of how they taught, andclassroom observations by parents and administrators. A continuumstretching from teacher-centered instruction to student-centeredinstruction provides a tool to help map the intricate complexity ofclassroom practices. Part I covering 1890-1940 consists of threechapters: (1) a description' of teaching at the turn of the century,including progressive reforms of that era; (2) case studies ofclassroom practices in New York City, Denver, and Washington, D.C.during the 1920s and 1930s; and (3) a survey of teaching practicesnationally during those 2 decades, particularly in rural schools.Part II summarizes case studies of informal and open education inWashington, D.C., New York City, and North Dakota during 1965-1975,and provides an intensive look into Arlington (Virginia) classroomsduring 1969-1980. Part III examines five possible explanations forcontinuity/change in teaching during this century: (1) school as a
form of social control and sorting; (2) constraints related to the
organizational structure of school and classroom; (3) the culture of
teaching; (4) individual and shared beliefs about child development,the role of school, and authority; and (5) the nature andeffectiveness of reform implementation. This book contains over 300references, many photographs, and an index. (SV)
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Res
earc
h on
Tea
chin
gM
onog
raph
Ser
ies
ED
ITO
RIA
L B
OA
RD
Dav
id B
erlin
er, U
nive
rsity
of A
rizo
na
Jere
E. B
roph
y, M
ichi
gan
Stat
e U
nive
rsity
Susa
n Fl
orio
-Rua
ne, M
ichi
gan
Stat
e U
nive
rsity
Tho
mas
L. G
oad,
Uni
vers
ityof
Mis
sour
i
Vir
gini
a K
oehl
er, N
atio
nal I
nstit
ute
of E
duca
tion
Hug
h M
ehan
, Uni
vers
ity o
fC
alif
orni
a, S
an D
iego
Lee
S. S
hulm
an, S
tanf
ord
Uni
vers
ity
Rob
ert S
lavi
n, J
ohns
Hop
kins
Uni
vers
ity
Jane
Sta
lling
s, V
ande
rbilt
Uni
vers
ity
PUB
LIS
HE
D T
ITL
ES
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E E
. BR
OPH
YA
ND
CA
RO
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N M
. EV
ER
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Stud
ent C
hara
cter
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s
and
Tea
chin
gSU
SAN
UR
MST
ON
PH
ILIP
S,T
he in
visi
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Cul
ture
:C
omm
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Cla
ssro
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omm
unity
on
the
War
m S
prin
gs I
ndia
nR
eser
vatio
n
HA
RR
IS M
. CO
OPE
RA
ND
TH
OM
AS
L. G
OO
D,
Pygm
alio
n G
row
s U
p: S
tudi
es
in th
e E
xpec
tatio
nC
omm
unic
atio
n Pr
oces
s
TH
OM
AS
L. G
OO
D, D
OU
GL
AS
GR
OU
WS,
AN
DH
OW
AR
D E
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EIE
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ctiv
e
Mat
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each
ing
RO
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oope
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e L
earn
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AR
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ILB
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AIL
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UT
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N,
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IAN
E W
.
KY
LE
, Cla
ss S
ize
and
Inst
ruct
ion
PHIL
IP A
. CU
SIC
K, T
heE
galit
aria
n Id
eal a
nd th
eA
mer
ican
Hig
h Sc
hool
LA
RR
Y C
UB
AN
, How
Tea
cher
s T
augh
t: C
onst
ancy
and
Cha
nge
in A
mer
ican
Cla
ssro
oms:
189
0-19
80
GA
RY
NA
TR
IEL
LO
AN
DSA
NFO
RD
M. D
OR
NB
USC
H,
Tea
cher
Eva
luat
ive
Stan
dard
s an
d St
uden
t Eff
orts
HO
WT
EA
CH
ER
ST
AU
GH
TC
ON
ST
AN
CY
AN
DC
HA
NG
E IN
AM
ER
ICA
NC
LAS
SR
OO
MS
1890
-198
0
Larr
y C
uban
ST
AN
FO
RD
UN
IVE
RS
ITY
:?. 1
e::
:i. 9
8 4
.;5:3
'7.
-4-
iI.
III
I ,.
2- -
-:PI
PI
PI
..... /A v
III
11 1
1no
wL
ongm
anN
ew Y
ork
& L
ori o
n11
.4,,.
I
How
Tea
cher
s T
augh
t
Lon
gman
Inc
., 15
60 B
road
way
, New
Yor
k, N
.Y. 1
0036
Ass
ocia
ted
com
pani
es, b
ranc
hes,
and
rep
rese
ntat
ives
thro
ugho
ut th
e w
orld
.
Cop
yrig
ht
198
4 by
Lon
gman
Inc
.
All
righ
ts r
eser
ved.
No
part
of
this
pub
licat
ion
may
be
repr
oduc
ed, s
tore
d in
a r
etri
eval
sys
tem
, or
tran
smitt
edin
any
for
m o
r by
any
mea
ns, e
lect
roni
c, m
echa
nica
l,ph
otoc
opyi
ng, r
ecor
ding
, or
othe
rwis
e, w
ithou
t the
pri
orpe
rmis
sion
of
the
publ
ishe
r.
Dev
elop
men
tal E
dito
r: L
ane
Ake
rsE
dito
rial
and
Des
ign
Supe
rvis
or: R
usse
ll T
illPr
oduc
tion
and
Man
ufac
turi
ng S
uper
viso
r: F
erne
Y. K
awah
ara
Lib
rary
of
Con
gres
s C
atal
ogin
g in
Pub
licat
ion
Dat
a
Cub
an, L
arry
.H
ow te
ache
rs ta
ught
.
Bib
liogr
aphy
: p.
Incl
udes
inde
x.1.
Edu
catio
nUni
ted
Stat
esH
isto
ry-1
9th
cent
ury.
2. E
duca
tionU
nite
d St
ates
His
tory
-20t
h ce
ntur
y.3.
Tea
chin
g.I.
Titl
e.L
A2I
6.C
8219
8437
0'.9
7383
1755
9IS
BN
0-5
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MA
NU
FA
CT
UR
ED
IN T
HE
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ITE
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TA
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S O
F A
ME
RIC
A9
87
65
43
21
9291
94/
8988
8786
8584
Con
tent
s
Fore
wor
d
Ack
now
ledg
men
ts
Intr
oduc
tion
PAR
T I
. PR
OG
RE
SSIV
ISM
AN
D C
LA
SSR
OO
M P
RA
CT
ICE
,18
90-1
940
1T
each
ing
at th
e T
urn
of th
e C
entu
ry: T
radi
tion
and
Cha
lleng
e
2B
ehin
d th
e C
lass
room
Doo
r in
Thr
ee C
ities
, 192
0-19
40
3R
ural
and
Urb
an S
choo
ls, 1
920-
1940
PAR
T I
I. O
PEN
CL
ASS
RO
OM
S A
ND
AL
TE
RN
AT
IVE
SC
HO
OL
S:PR
OG
RE
SSIV
ISM
RE
VIS
ITE
D, 1
965-
1975
4In
form
al E
duca
tion,
196
5-19
75: N
ew W
ine
in O
ld B
ottle
s?14
7
5C
lass
room
Pra
ctic
e in
a S
choo
l Dis
tric
t:A
rlin
gton
, Vir
gini
a, 1
969-
1980
208
PAR
T I
II. S
TA
BIL
ITY
AN
D C
HA
NG
E I
N C
LA
SSR
OO
MS,
1890
-198
023
7
6E
xpla
inin
g H
ow T
hey
Tau
ght:
An
Exp
lora
tory
Ana
lysi
s23
7
vii xi 17 41 112
App
endi
x
Bib
liogr
aphy
Inde
x
272
274
287
w CO
elt
Nbl
icca
t Ala
rms
Aer
ial C
lass
room
,G
eogr
aphy
Les
son,
Los
Ang
eles
Pub
licSc
hool
s, 1
927
7
Fore
wor
d
Tho
se w
ho c
ondu
ct r
esea
rch
on te
achi
ngra
rely
con
side
r hi
stor
ical
inve
stig
atio
ns
germ
ane
to th
eir
wor
k. T
here
is a
sen
se in
whi
ch h
isto
ry is
trea
ted
as a
rcan
e,
esot
eric
, and
of
little
impo
rt to
the
conc
erns
of p
ract
ice
and
polic
y. I
n re
adin
g
this
boo
k, 1
am
con
vinc
ed th
atpr
ecis
ely
the
oppo
site
is tr
ue. C
aref
ully
cond
ucte
d
hist
oric
al in
quir
y m
ay w
ell p
rovi
de u
sw
ith th
e m
ost p
ower
ful g
uide
s av
aila
ble.
Any
stu
dy o
f te
achi
ng th
at p
urpo
rts
topr
ovid
e gu
idan
ce f
or f
utur
e pr
actic
e or
polic
y m
akes
two.
kin
ds o
f cl
aim
s.Fi
rst,
we
mus
t bel
ieve
that
the
part
icul
ar
clas
sroo
ms
stud
ied
wer
e re
pres
enta
tive
of c
lass
room
s at
larg
e at
the
time
the
inve
stig
atio
n w
as c
ondu
cted
. Sec
ond,
we
mus
tfu
rthe
r be
lieve
that
the
clas
sroo
ms
of in
tere
st to
us,
at a
tim
e an
d pl
ace
typi
cally
dif
fere
nt I
ron
thos
ein
vest
igat
ed,
bear
suf
fici
ent r
esem
blan
ce to
thos
est
udie
d to
pro
vide
hel
pful
insi
ghts
.
Cer
tain
ly it
can
be
argu
ed th
at th
e pa
stpr
efig
ures
the
futu
re, b
ut th
e pr
esen
t
neve
r ex
actly
mim
ics
the
past
.D
o w
e ga
in b
ette
r ad
vice
fro
min
vest
igat
ions
pluc
ked
out o
f th
e te
mpo
ral a
nd c
ultu
ral-
ideo
logi
cal c
onte
xt in
whi
ch th
ey o
c-
curr
ed; u
r ar
c w
e be
tter
info
rmed
thro
ugh
stud
ies
that
ext
end
self
-con
scio
usly
thro
ugh
time,
atte
mpt
ing
expl
icitl
y to
expl
ain
the
phen
omen
a de
scri
bed
by c
on-
nect
ing
them
mea
ning
fully
to o
thet
eve
nts
occu
rrin
g co
ncut
rent
ly a
s w
ell a
s to
thos
e th
at h
ave
prec
eded
? In
an
unpu
blis
hed
essa
y, L
ee C
ronb
ach
refe
rs to
ed-
ucat
iona
l res
earc
h an
d ev
alua
tion
as"q
uant
itativ
ely
assi
sted
his
tory
,"
Whe
n w
e th
ink
of h
isto
rica
l inq
uiry
, we
ofte
n im
agin
e a
scho
lar
read
ing
the
lette
rs, j
ourn
als,
new
spap
er a
ccou
nts,
and
offi
cial
doc
umen
ts o
f a
give
n pe
riod
and
then
agg
rega
ting
thos
e di
vers
efo
rms
of p
erso
nal o
r co
llect
ive
impr
essi
ons
into
the
indi
vidu
al im
pres
sion
of
the
hist
oria
n. A
s w
e re
ad th
is m
onog
raph
by
Lar
y C
uban
, we
can
begi
n to
see
how
the
line
that
div
ides
his
tory
fro
m s
ocio
logy
or p
sych
olog
y, h
ence
educ
atio
nal h
isto
ry f
rom
the
mai
nstr
eam
of e
mpi
rica
l ed-
ucat
iona
l res
earc
h, is
a th
in o
ne.
Cub
an m
akes
use
of
clas
sroo
m o
bser
vatio
n
reco
rds
colle
cted
ove
r m
any
deca
des
for
dive
rse
purp
oses
the
eval
uatio
n ac
-
tiviti
es o
f th
e E
ight
Yea
r St
udy;
syst
em-w
ide
mon
itori
ng o
f cu
rric
ulum
and
or-
gani
zatio
nal c
hang
es in
the
publ
ic s
choo
lsy
stem
s of
New
Yor
k,W
ashi
ngto
n,
Den
ver,
and
Nor
th D
akot
a, a
mon
g m
any
othe
rs; a
nd h
undr
eds
of p
hoto
grap
hs
of c
lass
room
s w
hich
he
uses
inve
ntiv
ely
to in
fer
how
teac
hing
was
con
duct
eddu
ring
thos
e pe
riod
s. N
ever
is a
ny o
ne s
ourc
eof
dat
apho
togr
aphs
, per
sona
l
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE8
vu
viii
IFo
rew
ord
diar
ies,
cla
ssro
om o
bser
vatio
ns,
dist
rict r
epor
ts a
nd e
valu
atio
ns,
publ
ishe
d ar
ticle
s,
or e
ven
his
own
obse
rvat
ions
take
n as
evi
denc
e by
itsel
f. C
uban
is a
car
eful
hist
oria
n w
ho in
sist
s on
car
eful
lyju
xtap
osin
g da
ta s
ourc
es, s
earc
hing
for
both
corr
obor
ativ
e co
nsis
tenc
y as
wel
l as
prov
ocat
ive
cont
radi
ctio
n be
twee
nda
ta
sour
ces,
am
ong
diffe
rent
scho
ol s
ites
durin
g th
e sa
me
era,
and
amon
g si
mila
r
scho
ol s
ettin
gs d
urin
g di
ffere
ntde
cade
s.
Muc
h of
the
richn
ess
com
mun
icat
edth
roug
h th
is b
ook
is a
con
sequ
ence
of
the
uniq
ue b
ackg
roun
d br
ough
t to
the
ente
rpris
e by
its
auth
or. L
arry
Cub
anbe
gan
as a
cla
ssro
om te
ache
r,sp
endi
ng fo
urte
en y
ears
teac
hing
seco
ndar
y so
cial
stu
dies
in th
e sc
hool
dis
tric
ts o
fC
leve
land
, Ohi
o, a
nd W
ashi
ngto
n,D
.C. H
e tr
aine
d
retu
rned
Pea
ce C
orps
vol
unte
ers
tote
ach
in in
ner-
city
sch
ools
and
subs
eque
ntly
dire
cted
sta
ff de
velo
pmen
t for
am
ajor
pro
gram
in th
e D
istr
ict o
fC
olum
bia
publ
ic
scho
ols.
His
inte
iest
in h
isto
ry a
s a
subj
ect a
rea
final
ly le
d hi
m to
Sta
nfor
d U
ni-
vers
ity, w
here
he
stud
ied
educ
atio
nal
hist
ory
unde
r D
avid
Tya
ck a
nd w
rote
a
mas
terf
ul d
isse
rtat
ion
on th
e ca
reer
sof
thre
e bi
g-ci
ty s
uper
inte
nden
ts.
His
Sch
ool
Chi
efs
unde
r F
ire w
as b
ased
on
that
diss
erta
tion.
But
Cub
an w
as n
ot c
onte
nt to
stu
dyhi
stor
ical
ly th
e ad
min
istr
atio
n of
larg
e
scho
ol d
istr
icts
; he
was
com
mitt
ed to
mak
ing
that
his
tory
as
wel
l. U
pon
com
plet
ing
his
doct
orat
e in
edu
catio
nal h
isto
ryhe
was
app
oint
ed S
uper
inte
nden
tof
the
Ar-
lingt
on C
ount
y, V
irgin
ia, P
ublic
Sch
ools
, a p
ositi
on h
e he
ld fo
r se
ven
year
sun
til
he r
etur
ned
to S
tanf
ord
in 1
981
as a
mem
ber
the
Sch
ool o
f Edu
catio
nfa
culty
,
The
re a
re th
ose
who
will
rea
d th
isvo
lum
e as
a p
essi
mis
tic a
sses
smen
tof
the
failu
res
of s
choo
l ref
orm
. Des
pite
the
ener
gy a
nd r
heto
ric th
at h
assu
ppor
ted
the
refo
rm o
f edu
catio
nal i
nstit
utio
nsin
the
dire
ctio
n of
"pr
ogre
ssiv
e"id
eals
,
espe
cial
ly s
tude
nt-c
ente
red
inst
ruct
ion.
in a
ctiv
ity-b
ased
cla
ssro
oms
in w
hich
subj
ect a
rea
inst
ruct
ion
is c
orre
late
d an
din
tegr
ated
, me
gene
ral p
ictu
re C
uban
draw
s is
of a
rat
her
stab
le, t
each
er-c
ente
red
peda
gogy
sus
tain
ing
itsel
f fro
m N
cw
Yor
k to
Den
ver,
from
Nor
th D
akot
a to
Mic
higa
n, fr
om 1
900
to 1
980.
But
the
pict
ure
draw
n by
Cub
an is
far
mor
esu
btle
than
that
. He
finds
that
the
port
rait
is n
ot m
onol
ithic
. Som
e re
form
sta
ke b
ette
r th
an o
ther
s. S
ome
setti
ngs
(e.g
.,
the
elem
enta
ry s
choo
l) ar
e m
ore
fert
ile g
roun
d fo
r pl
anne
d ch
ange
.E
ven
in th
e
failu
res
of r
efor
m h
e de
rives
less
ons
for
futu
re p
lann
ing
and
inno
vatio
n.H
e as
ks
not o
nly
why
the
refo
rms
wer
e no
tsu
stai
ned,
but
wha
t was
rig
ht a
ndad
aptiv
e
abou
t the
trad
ition
al m
etho
ds w
hose
resi
lienc
e he
doc
umen
ts s
o vi
vidl
y.F
rom
the
very
sta
bilit
y of
cer
tain
inst
ruct
iona
l for
ms,
he
asse
rts,
we
may
lear
n im
por-
tant
prin
cipl
es r
egar
ding
the
fund
amen
tal c
hara
cter
of
scho
ol-b
ased
edu
catio
n
prin
cipl
es th
at c
an g
uide
our
futu
re a
ttem
pts
to im
prov
e th
e qu
ality
of
publ
ic
educ
atio
n.W
e th
us c
onfr
ont t
he d
ual p
ersp
ectiv
esof
his
toria
n an
d sc
hool
man
. the
dis
-
pass
iona
te "
long
vie
w"
of th
e di
scip
lined
scho
lar
and
the
impa
ssio
ned
and
prac
-
tical
con
cern
of t
he fr
ont-
line
deci
sion
mak
er. I
t is
a ra
re b
lend
, whi
ch m
ay
occa
sion
ally
offe
nd th
e se
nsib
ilitie
s of
the
hist
orio
grap
her
who
pre
fers
his
sch
ol-
arsh
ip b
land
and
dis
tant
. Yet
this
issc
hola
rshi
p of
the
high
est,
mos
t met
icul
ous
orde
r. E
vide
nce
for
each
ass
ertio
n is
care
fully
mar
shal
led
and
cont
radi
ctor
yfin
d-
ings
met
icul
ousl
y ex
amin
ed. R
eplic
atio
ns a
reso
ught
in a
djac
ent d
ecad
es a
nd/o
r
Fore
wor
d/
Ix
conc
urre
nt e
vent
s in
sim
ilar
dist
ricts
. Qua
ntita
tive
and
qual
itativ
ein
dica
tors
are
used
with
out f
ear
of c
ombi
ning
the
inco
mpa
tible
. Whi
le u
ndou
bted
ly a
wor
k of
hist
ory,
Cub
an h
as w
ritte
n a
Mas
terf
ul e
xam
ple
of fl
exib
le in
quiry
that
can
be
read
with
pro
fit b
y al
l ir
embe
rs o
f the
res
earc
h on
teac
hing
com
mun
ity. T
hehi
ghes
t pra
ise
I can
giv
e a
piec
e of
edu
catio
nal r
esea
rch
is th
at it
con
trib
uted
subs
tant
ially
to m
y ow
n ed
ucat
ion,
How
Tea
cher
s T
augh
t did
so
for
me,
and
Itr
ust i
t lik
ewis
e fo
r m
any
othe
rs in
the
wor
lds
of s
chol
arsh
ip, p
olic
y, a
nd p
ract
ice.
10
LEE
S. S
FIU
LMA
NS
tanf
ord.
Cal
iforn
ia
Ack
now
ledg
men
ts
I be
gan
this
stu
dy a
s a
scho
ol s
uper
inte
nden
t and
com
plet
ed it
as a
pro
fess
or.
The
ble
nd o
f pr
actic
e w
ith te
achi
ng a
nd r
esea
rch
at th
e un
iver
sity
rea
ffir
ms
my
deep
ly h
eld
belie
f th
at w
orth
whi
le k
now
ledg
e dr
aws
from
bot
h w
orld
s. I
ndee
d,th
e se
para
tion
of p
ract
ice
from
theo
ry, o
f pr
actit
ione
rs f
rom
res
earc
hers
, is
mor
eof
ten
than
not
a d
ivor
ce th
at is
mor
e sy
mbo
lic th
an r
eal.
My
quar
ter-
cent
ury
ofex
peri
ence
in p
ublic
sch
ools
, shu
ttlin
g ba
ck a
nd f
orth
bet
wee
n te
achi
ng a
nd a
d-m
inis
teri
ng, p
ersu
aded
me
that
the
daily
rea
litie
s of
cla
ssro
oms
and
scho
ols
pro-
duce
d kn
owle
dge
of m
uch
wor
th b
ut th
at r
equi
red
conc
eptu
al f
ram
ewor
ksto
impr
ove
my
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
wha
t tho
se th
ings
I f
aced
dai
lym
eant
. The
inte
rpla
ybe
twee
n kn
owle
dge
deri
ved
from
exp
erie
nce
in s
choo
ls a
nd th
at w
hich
res
earc
hers
stud
ied
help
ed m
e gr
eatly
in g
rasp
ing
the
mea
ning
of
both
org
aniz
atio
nal
and
indi
vidu
al b
ehav
ior
in p
ublic
sch
ools
.T
his
stud
y of
cla
ssro
om te
achi
ng o
ver
the
last
cen
tury
is p
art o
fm
y jo
urne
yin
tryi
ng to
und
erst
and
the
com
plex
ity o
f th
e pr
oces
s of
cha
nge
in s
choo
ls.
Bec
ause
I ta
ught
for
man
y ye
ars
and
serv
ed a
s a
scho
ol s
uper
inte
nden
t for
seve
n ye
ars,
I ne
eded
to d
isco
ver
answ
ers
to s
ome
long
stan
ding
que
stio
ns I
had
abou
t the
proc
ess
of te
achi
ng b
oth
in s
choo
ls w
here
I ta
ught
and
thos
e w
here
I s
erve
das
an a
dmin
istr
ator
. The
que
stio
ns I
ask
and
the
answ
ers
I fo
und
cons
truc
t the
boun
dari
es o
f th
is s
tudy
.A
ny in
vest
igat
ion
that
take
s ei
ghte
en m
onth
s to
com
plet
e re
quir
es th
e he
lpof
man
y ki
nd in
divi
dual
s w
illin
g to
sha
re th
eir
time
and
advi
ce. H
isto
rica
lre
sear
chof
ten
mea
ns ti
me
spen
t in
libra
ries
. In
New
Yor
k C
ity, P
aulin
ePi
ncus
who
serv
ed in
the
scho
ol s
yste
m's
Pro
fess
iona
l Lib
rary
was
esp
ecia
lly h
elpf
ul in
trac
king
dow
n so
urce
s I
coul
d no
t fin
d el
sew
here
. Rob
ert M
orri
s of
Tea
cher
sC
olle
ge to
ok ti
me
to in
trod
uce
me
to th
eir
new
ly a
cqui
red
arch
ives
from
the
New
Yor
k C
ity P
ublic
Sch
ools
. Lill
ian
Web
er g
ave
me
a m
orni
ng to
tell
of h
eref
fort
s in
New
Yor
k, h
er v
iew
s of
the
info
rmal
edu
catio
nm
ovem
ent i
n th
e la
te19
60s
and
earl
y 19
70s,
and
som
e pe
rsis
tent
issu
es in
sch
oolin
g.H
er in
sigh
tshe
lped
me
to r
evis
e a
num
ber
of a
ssum
ptio
ns.
Gor
don
Yor
k, A
ssis
tant
Sup
erin
tend
ent o
f th
e G
rand
For
ks, N
orth
Dak
ota
Publ
ic S
choo
ls a
nd G
lenn
Mel
vey,
Far
go A
ssis
tant
Sup
erin
tend
ent
of I
nstr
uctio
n,ar
rang
ed v
isits
for
me
to e
ach
of th
e sc
hool
s I
had
requ
este
d. I
app
reci
ated
the
1112
xii
IA
ckno
wle
dgm
ents
patie
nce
of th
e pr
inci
pals
and
teac
hers
who
put
up
with
my
note
-tak
ing
and
ques
tions
.In
Den
ver,
Elle
ngai
l Bue
htel
who
dir
ects
!he
dis
tric
t'spr
ofes
sion
al li
brar
y
help
ed m
e lo
cate
a n
umbe
r of
sou
rces
that
I h
ad g
iven
up
on e
ver
find
ing.
John
Ran
kin
in th
e Pu
blic
Inf
orm
atio
nD
epar
tmen
t was
esp
ecia
lly g
raci
ous
in a
rran
ging
for
me
to u
se s
tude
nt y
earb
ooks
,cl
ippi
ng f
iles,
and
pho
togr
aphs
stor
ed in
the
base
men
t of
the
adm
inis
trat
ion
build
ing.
Res
earc
hing
the
Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.sc
hool
s in
two
time
peri
ods
was
mad
e
easi
er b
y th
e so
urce
s lo
cate
d in
the
Dis
tric
t of
Col
umbi
a Pu
blic
Lib
rary
's W
ash-
ingt
onia
Roo
m. I
n th
e sc
hool
sys
tem
,E
rika
Rob
inso
n an
d M
aggi
e H
owar
dof
the
Div
isio
n of
Res
earc
h w
ere
espe
cial
ly h
elpf
ul in
loca
ting
sour
ces
and
patie
nt
with
my
use
of th
eir
spac
e. B
illW
ebb
in th
e M
edia
Cen
ter
let m
e se
eph
otog
raph
s
of c
lass
room
s ta
ken
sinc
e th
em
id-1
960s
.G
ordo
n. Y
ork,
Ass
ista
nt S
uper
inte
nden
tof
the
Gra
nd F
orks
, Nor
th D
akot
a
Publ
ic S
choo
ls a
nd G
lenn
Mel
vey,
Farg
o A
ssis
tant
Sup
erin
tend
ent o
fIns
truc
tion,
arra
nged
vis
its f
or m
e to
eac
h of
the
scho
ols
I ha
d re
ques
ted.
I a
ppre
ciat
epa
tienc
e
of th
e pr
inci
pals
and
teac
hers
who
put
up
with
my
note
-tak
ing
and
ques
tions
.
Rev
iew
ers
of th
e m
anus
crip
t fol
low
ed m
yin
stru
ctio
ns to
giv
e it
a to
ugh,
clos
e re
adin
g. I
app
reci
ated
the
prom
ptan
d fu
ll re
spon
ses
from
Elis
abet
hH
anso
t,
Car
l Kae
stle
, Jos
eph
Ket
t, M
arvi
nL
azer
son,
Kim
Mar
shal
l, an
dD
avid
Tya
ck.
The
y ar
e ab
solv
ed o
fre
spon
sibi
lity
for
any
erro
rs in
fac
t orj
udgm
ent t
hat p
ersi
st
in th
e fi
nal s
tudy
.O
ne r
evie
wer
des
erve
s sp
ecia
lm
entio
n. T
he e
dito
rial
boa
rd f
orth
is s
erie
s
aske
d L
ee S
hulm
an, a
col
leag
uew
ho jo
ined
the
Stan
ford
Uni
vers
ityfa
culty
in
1982
, to
revi
ew th
e m
anus
crip
t.H
is g
entle
and
wis
e to
uch
help
ed m
eel
ithin
ate
som
e co
nfus
ions
Iha
d cr
eate
d, a
nd h
e ur
ged
me
to p
ursu
e m
yar
gum
ents
abo
ut
teac
her
prac
tices
to th
eir
logi
cal
conc
lusi
on. H
is in
sigh
ts w
ere
help
ful.
I al
so w
ant t
o ac
know
ledg
eth
e he
lp o
f C
harl
es M
issa
r, L
ibra
rian
for
the
Nat
iona
l Ins
titut
e of
Edu
catio
n. H
e w
ases
peci
ally
gra
ciou
s an
d pa
tient
with
an
ex-s
uper
inte
nden
t unl
imbe
ring
rus
ty r
esea
rch
mus
cles
. I a
ppre
ciat
ed h
is h
elp
a
grea
t dea
l. A
nd N
IE it
self
dese
rves
a b
rief
ack
now
ledg
men
t for
the
orig
inal
stu
dy
whi
ch th
ey f
unde
d an
d fr
om w
hich
this
boo
k de
rive
d. I
fee
l aw
kwar
dth
anki
ng
an o
rgan
izat
ion
for
betti
ng th
at a
sch
ool s
uper
inte
nden
tcou
ld c
arry
off
a c
ompl
ex
hist
oric
al in
vest
igat
ion.
Usu
ally
, I th
ank
indi
vidu
als
but a
larg
e nu
mbe
r of
peo
ple
wer
e in
volv
ed in
mak
ing
the
deci
sion
to f
und
this
res
earc
h.I
than
k th
em f
or
havi
ng c
onfi
denc
e in
this
prac
titio
ner-
rese
arch
er.
Fina
lly, a
s in
eve
ry s
ingl
e w
ritin
g ve
ntur
eI
have
und
erta
ken,
my
wif
e B
arba
ra
has
help
ed a
t som
e st
age
with
eith
er th
e m
echa
nics
, pro
ofre
adin
g, o
rpr
ovid
ing
supp
ort.
Tha
nks.
I ha
ve w
ritte
n a
grea
t dea
l ove
rth
e la
st tw
enty
yea
rs a
bout
educ
atio
n. I
cann
ot s
ay w
hat i
t has
am
ount
ed to
but,a
s fo
r th
is s
tudy
, I c
an s
ayit
was
the
mos
t sat
isfy
ing.
It s
crat
ched
an
itch
that
had
bee
n bo
ther
ing
me
for
anu
mbe
r
of y
ears
.
13LA
RR
Y C
UB
AN
Intr
oduc
tion
I ha
ve w
orke
d as
a p
ublic
sch
ool
teac
her,
adm
inis
trat
or, a
nd r
esea
rche
rin
four
sch
ool s
yste
ms
for
a qu
arte
r-ce
ntur
y.O
ver
the
year
s ba
sic
ques
tions
on s
choo
ling
aros
e th
atse
emed
una
nsw
erab
le o
r ha
d, f
or m
e, n
ope
rsua
sive
ans
wer
eith
er in
my
expe
rien
ce o
rin
the
rese
arch
lite
ratu
re. L
et
me
shar
e a
few
of
thes
equ
estio
ns th
at h
ave
trou
bled
me.
I ha
ve b
een
in m
any
clas
sroo
ms
inth
e la
st d
ecad
e. W
hen
I w
atch
edte
ache
rs in
sec
onda
ry s
choo
ls a
fla
sh o
fre
cogn
ition
jum
ped
out o
f m
ym
emor
y an
d sw
ept o
ver
me.
Wha
t I s
aw w
as a
lmos
t exa
ctly
wha
t Ire
mem
bere
d of
the
juni
or a
nd s
enio
r hi
gh s
choo
lcla
ssro
oms
that
I s
at in
as
a st
uden
t and
as
a te
ache
rin
the
mid
195
0s. T
his
acut
e se
nse
ofre
call
abou
t
how
teac
hers
wer
e te
achi
ng o
ccur
red
in m
any
diff
eren
t sch
ools
. How
, I
aske
d m
ysel
f, c
ould
teac
hing
ove
ra'
fort
y-ye
ar p
erio
d se
em, a
nd I
mea
n to
unde
rlin
e th
e w
ord,
alm
ost u
ncha
nged
?L
ongt
ime
unio
n le
ader
Alb
ert S
hank
erm
ade
a si
mila
r ob
serv
atio
nth
at o
nly
gave
fur
ther
wei
ght t
o m
y qu
estio
n.
Ten
thou
sand
new
teac
hers
eac
h ye
ar e
nter
the
New
Yor
k C
ity s
choo
l
syst
em a
s a
resu
lt of
ret
irem
ent,
deat
h,jo
b tu
rnov
er, a
nd a
ttriti
on. T
hese
new
teac
hers
com
e fr
om a
ll ov
er th
e co
untr
y. T
hey
repr
esen
tal
l rel
igio
ns, r
aces
,
polit
ical
per
suas
ions
, and
edu
catio
nal i
nstit
utio
ns.
But
the
amaz
ing
thin
g is
that
, aft
er th
ree
wee
ks in
the
clas
sroo
m y
ou c
an't
tell
them
fro
m th
e te
ache
rs
they
rep
lace
d.'
His
obs
erva
tion
unde
rsco
red
the
puzz
ling
ques
tion
of a
ppar
ent u
nifo
rmity
in in
stru
ctio
n ov
er ti
me.
Dur
ing
the
last
dec
ade,
ser
ving
as
a de
cisi
on-m
aker
in tw
o lo
cal s
choo
l
dist
rict
s, I
hav
e ha
d to
dea
l with
ano
ther
ques
tion
that
puz
zled
me:
inin
stitu
tions
so
appa
rent
ly v
ulne
rabl
e to
cha
nge
assc
hool
s w
hy d
o so
few
inst
ruct
iona
l ref
orm
s ge
t pas
t the
cla
ssro
omdo
or?
The
se q
uest
ions
, Ibe
lieve
, are
link
ed. T
he a
ppar
ent u
nifo
rmity
in in
stru
ctio
n ir
resp
ectiv
e of
14
2 / I
ntro
duct
ion
Intr
oduc
tion
I3
time
and
plac
e is
rel
ated
to th
e ap
pare
ntin
vuln
erab
ility
of
clas
sroo
ms
to
chan
ge.
In a
pap
er c
omm
issi
oned
by
the
Nat
iona
l Ins
titut
e of
Edu
catio
n(N
1E),
I s
ough
t ans
wer
s to
thes
equ
estio
ns th
roug
h a
stud
y of
curr
icul
um
chan
ge a
nd s
tabi
lity
sinc
e18
70.2
In
exam
inin
g ho
w v
ario
us f
orce
ssh
aped
the
curr
icul
um a
nd th
eir
cons
eque
nces
for
clas
sroo
ms
over
the
last
cen
tury
,
I us
ed th
e m
etap
hor
of a
hurr
ican
e to
dis
tingu
ish
betw
een
curr
icul
um
theo
ry, c
ours
es o
f st
udy,
mat
eria
ls,
and
clas
sroo
m in
stru
ctio
n. H
urri
cane
win
ds s
wee
p ac
ross
the
sea
toss
ing
up tw
enty
foot
wav
es; a
fat
hom
bel
ow
the
surf
ace
turb
ulen
t wat
ers
swir
lw
hile
on
the
ocea
n fl
oor
ther
eis
unru
ffle
d ca
lm.
As
tric
ky a
s m
etap
hors
can
be,
Ico
mpa
red
that
hur
rica
ne to
any
new
ly
trum
pete
d cu
rric
ulum
theo
ry. P
rofe
ssio
nalj
ourn
als,
for
exa
mpl
e, e
cho
pro
and
con
argu
men
ts o
n a
new
theo
ry.
Let
ters
to e
dito
rs a
nd s
harp
reb
utta
ls
add
to th
e fl
urry
. Boo
ks a
re w
ritte
nan
d re
puta
tions
are
mad
e. C
onfe
r-
ence
s ho
st b
oth
skep
tics
and
advo
cate
s. P
rofe
ssor
s of
edu
catio
nte
ach
the
new
wis
dom
to th
eir
stud
ents
. Yet
mos
t pub
lishe
rs c
ontin
uepr
oduc
ing
text
s un
touc
hed
by th
at th
eory
,and
mos
t tea
cher
s us
e m
etho
dsun
mar
ked
by c
ontr
over
sy, s
loga
ns, j
ourn
alar
ticle
s, o
r co
nven
tion
prog
ram
s. I
used
this
met
apho
r fo
r its
util
ity in
illus
trat
ing
dist
inct
ions
bet
wee
n th
eory
,co
nten
t, m
ater
ials
, and
, mos
tim
port
ant,
impa
ct u
pon
teac
hing
beha
vior
.
In th
is N
IE p
aper
I f
ound
that
curr
icul
um th
eori
es d
id in
flue
nce
prof
essi
onal
ideo
logi
es a
nd v
ocab
ular
ies,
cou
rses
of s
tudy
, and
som
ete
xtbo
ok c
onte
nt. B
ut I
did
not
fin
dm
uch
evid
ence
of
sign
ific
ant c
hang
e in
teac
hing
pra
ctic
es. H
owev
er, I
did
not
syst
emat
ical
ly o
r co
mpr
ehen
sive
ly
exam
ine
prim
ary
sour
ces
or r
esea
rch
any
scho
ol d
istr
icts
. I u
sed,
for
the
mos
t par
t, se
cond
ary
sour
ces
and
a fe
w p
rim
ary
docu
men
ts th
at w
ere
avai
labl
e. B
ased
upo
n th
is in
itial
rev
iew
I fo
und
evid
ence
of
a se
emin
gly
stub
born
con
tinui
ty in
the
char
acte
r of
inst
ruct
ion
desp
ite in
tens
e re
form
effo
rts
to m
ove
clas
sroo
m p
ract
ices
tow
ard
inst
ruct
ion
that
was
mor
e
stud
ent-
cent
ered
.D
eepe
ning
the
para
dox
furt
her,
the
limite
d ev
iden
ce s
ugge
sted
that
teac
hing
pra
ctic
es s
eem
ed u
ncom
mon
lyst
able
at a
ll le
vels
of
scho
olin
gto
uchi
ng s
tude
nts
of d
iver
se a
bilit
ies
in d
iffe
rent
set
tings
ove
r m
any
deca
des
desp
ite e
xten
sive
teac
her
educ
atio
n. I
n de
alin
g w
ith th
is p
arad
oxre
sear
cher
s ha
ve ti
ed m
ore
knot
s th
anth
ey lo
osen
ed. S
ome
wri
ters
ass
ert
that
stu
dent
-cen
tere
d te
achi
ngpr
actic
es w
ere
embr
aced
by
teac
hers
,w
hile
othe
rs a
rgue
that
suc
h cl
assr
oom
chan
ges
are
seld
om in
stitu
tiona
lized
.C
omm
on to
all
wri
ters
is s
ever
ely
limite
d ev
iden
ce a
bout
wha
t tea
cher
s
have
don
e in
cla
ssro
oms.
;Sc
anty
evi
denc
e ab
out t
he s
tabl
e or
chan
ging
cha
ract
er o
f in
stru
ctio
n
drov
e m
e to
war
d as
king
a f
unda
men
tal
ques
tion:
how
did
teac
hers
teac
h?
The
fra
gmen
ts o
f kn
owle
dge
abou
tw
hat t
each
ers
did
in th
eir
clas
sroo
ms
need
ed to
be
brou
ght t
oget
her
togi
ve a
cum
ulat
ive
clar
ity. T
his
stud
y
begi
ns th
at ta
sk.4
In tr
ying
to a
nsw
er th
e qu
estio
n of
how
teac
hers
taug
ht, I
will
use
the
fram
ewor
k of
t;-i
e pr
evio
us r
efor
m e
ffor
ts d
irec
ted
at a
lteri
ng c
lass
room
peda
gogy
. By
inve
stig
atin
g te
achi
ng p
ract
ices
bef
ore,
dur
ing,
and
afte
rre
form
impu
lses
in th
e tw
entie
th c
entu
ry a
imed
at c
hang
ing
wha
t tea
cher
sro
utin
ely
do, a
cle
arer
sen
se o
f w
hat h
as p
ersi
sted
and
wha
t has
cha
nged
incl
assr
oom
s sh
ould
em
erge
. But
wha
t to
look
for
in c
lass
room
s m
arke
d by
abe
wild
erin
g va
riet
y of
stu
dent
and
teac
her
beha
vior
s? W
hile
ther
e is
a r
ich
vari
ety
of in
stru
ctio
nal p
ract
ice
and
no s
ingl
e st
udy
can
do ju
stic
e to
the
intr
icat
e co
mpl
exity
of
clas
sroo
m te
achi
ng, a
use
ful t
ool f
or r
evea
ling
apo
rtio
n of
that
com
plic
ated
topo
grap
hy is
ava
ilabl
e. T
he c
once
ptof
desc
ribi
ng in
stru
ctio
n as
a c
ontin
uum
str
etch
ing
from
teac
her-
cent
ered
tost
uden
t-ce
nter
ed c
onta
ins
a lim
ited
but u
sefu
l set
of
indi
cato
rs d
escr
ibin
gim
port
ant d
imen
sion
s of
wha
t tea
cher
s di
d in
thei
r cl
assr
oom
s. N
ot a
imed
at c
aptu
ring
the
rich
ness
of
the
clas
sroo
m, t
his
cont
inuu
mno
neth
eles
spr
ovid
es a
han
dy w
edge
in p
ryin
g op
en th
e cl
osed
doo
rs o
f cl
assr
oom
s th
atex
iste
d de
cade
s ag
o an
d m
appi
ng, i
n a
prel
imin
ary
fash
ion,
thei
r pe
dago
-gi
cal t
erra
in.
Bef
ore
proc
eedi
ng f
urth
er, l
et m
e st
ate
plai
nly
wha
t I m
ean
byte
ache
r- a
nd s
tude
nt-c
ente
red
inst
ruct
ion.
Tea
cher
-cen
tere
d in
stru
ctio
nm
eans
that
a te
ache
r co
ntro
ls w
hat i
s ta
ught
, whe
n,an
d un
der
wha
tco
nditi
ons
with
in h
is o
r he
r cl
assr
oom
. Obs
erva
ble
mea
sure
s of
teac
her-
cent
ered
inst
ruct
ion
are:
Tea
cher
talk
exc
eeds
stu
dent
talk
dur
ing
inst
ruct
ion.
Inst
ruct
ion
occu
rs f
requ
ently
with
the
who
le c
lass
; sm
all g
roup
or
indi
vidu
alin
stru
ctio
n oc
curs
less
fre
quen
tly.
Use
of
clas
s tim
e is
det
erm
ined
by
the
teac
her.
The
cla
ssro
om is
usu
ally
arr
ange
d in
to r
ows
of d
esks
or
chai
rs f
acin
g a
blac
kboa
rd w
ith a
teac
her's
des
k ne
arby
.
Stud
ent-
cent
ered
inst
ruct
ion
mea
ns th
at s
tude
nts
exer
cise
a s
ubst
antia
lde
gree
of
dire
ctio
n an
d re
spon
sibi
lity
for
wha
t is
taug
ht, h
ow it
is le
arne
d,an
d fo
r an
y m
ovem
ent w
ithin
the
clas
sroo
m. O
bser
vabl
e m
easu
res
ofst
uden
t-ce
nter
ed in
stru
ctio
n ar
e:
Stud
ent t
alk
on le
arni
ng ta
sks
is a
t lea
st e
qual
to, i
f no
t gre
ater
than
, tea
cher
talk
.M
ost i
nstr
uctio
n oc
curs
eith
er in
divi
dual
ly, i
n sm
all (
2 to
6 s
tude
nts)
or
mod
erat
ely
size
d (7
to 1
2) g
roup
s ra
ther
than
the
who
le c
lass
.St
uden
ts h
elp
choo
se a
nd o
rgan
ize
the
cont
ent t
o be
lear
ned.
Tea
cher
per
mits
stu
dent
s to
det
erm
ine,
par
tially
or
who
lly, r
ules
of
beha
vior
and
pen
altie
s in
cla
ssro
om a
nd h
ow th
ey a
re e
nfor
ced.
Var
ied
inst
ruct
iona
l mat
eria
ls a
re a
vaila
ble
in th
e cl
assr
oom
so
that
stu
dent
sca
n us
e th
em in
depe
nden
tly o
r in
sm
all g
roup
s, e
.g.,
inte
rest
cen
ters
,te
achi
ng s
tatio
ns, a
nd a
ctiv
ity c
ente
rs.
4/ In
trod
uctio
nIn
trod
uctio
n I5
Use
of t
hese
mat
eria
ls is
eith
er s
ched
uled
by
the
teac
her
orde
term
ined
by
stud
ents
for
at le
ast h
alf o
f the
acad
emic
tim
e av
aila
ble.
Cla
ssro
om is
usu
ally
arr
ange
din
a m
anne
r th
at p
erm
itsst
uden
ts to
wor
k
toge
ther
or
sepa
rate
lyin
sm
all g
roup
s or
inin
divi
dual
wor
k sp
ace;
no
dom
inan
t pat
tern
exi
sts
and
muc
h m
ovem
ent o
f des
ks, t
able
s,an
d ch
airs
occu
rs in
rea
ligni
ngfu
rnitu
re a
nd s
pace
.
The
se c
once
pts
of te
ache
r-an
d st
uden
t-ce
nter
edin
stru
ctio
n sh
ould
be
view
ed a
s to
ols
to h
elp
in d
eter
min
ing
wha
t hap
pene
d in
cla
ssro
oms.
As
conc
eptu
al to
ols
they
are
limite
d be
caus
e th
ey a
re a
rbitr
ary;
they
ofte
n
lack
pre
cisi
on. A
t diff
eren
ttim
es, f
or e
xam
ple,
stud
ent-
cent
ered
inst
ruc-
tion
is u
sed
as a
syn
onym
for
prog
ress
ive
prac
tices
or
the
open
cla
ssro
om.
Fur
ther
, the
y si
mpl
ify c
ompl
excl
assr
oom
eve
nts.
Nev
erth
eles
s, e
ven
with
thes
e sh
ortc
omin
gs, t
hese
con
cept
sca
n he
lp s
ort o
ut,
how
ever
cru
dely
,
vario
us te
achi
ng p
atte
rns,
esp
ecia
llyw
hen
thes
e pa
ttern
s ar
e ar
raye
d on
a
cont
inuu
m. O
f eve
n gr
eate
r im
port
ance
is to
wei
gh th
ese
shor
tcom
ings
agai
nst t
he s
impl
efa
ct th
at th
ere
are
so fe
wst
udie
s th
at h
ave
capt
ured
wha
t
teac
hers
hav
e do
ne in
cla
ssro
oms
over
tim
e.
In u
sing
thes
e co
nstr
ucts
,I d
o no
t ass
ume
that
actu
al c
hang
es in
prac
tice
mov
ed s
olel
yfr
om te
ache
r- to
stu
dent
-cen
tere
d;tr
affic
flow
ed
both
way
s re
gard
less
ofr
efor
mer
s' in
tent
ions
. Ind
ivid
ualt
each
ers
stop
ped
at v
ario
us p
lace
s al
ong
the
way
. Nor
do
I ass
ume
that
cha
nges
in te
achi
ng
beha
vior
wer
e an
all-
or-n
othi
ngem
brac
e of
an
entir
e ap
proa
ch.
Qui
te
ofte
n, a
s th
is s
tudy
will
sho
w,
teac
hers
inco
rpor
ated
into
thei
r re
pert
oire
s
part
icul
ar p
ract
ices
they
foun
d us
eful
. An
elem
enta
rysc
hool
teac
her
in
1929
, for
exa
mpl
e, w
hose
onl
ycl
assr
oom
cha
nge
in y
ears
was
todi
vide
her
clas
s in
to tw
o gr
oups
for
read
ing,
teac
hing
one
in th
e fr
ont
of th
e ro
om
whi
le th
e re
st w
orke
d at
thei
rde
sks
on a
n as
sign
men
t, ha
dad
ded
a ne
w
prac
tice
to h
er a
rsen
alof
teac
hing
met
hods
. Or
take
a h
igh
scho
ol h
isto
ry
teac
her
in 1
933
who
beg
an u
sing
exam
ples
from
con
tem
pora
rypo
litic
al li
fe
to e
nliv
en h
is s
tude
nts'
stu
dyof
the
Fre
nch
Rev
olut
ion.
Whi
le p
edag
ogic
al p
rogr
essi
ves
of th
e tim
e m
ight
hav
ew
ince
d at
my
wor
ding
and
labe
led
such
cha
nges
as
triv
ial,
thes
ete
ache
rs h
ad a
dopt
ed
prog
ress
ive
prac
tices
,al
beit
sele
ctiv
ely.
On
a co
ntin
uum
ther
e ne
eds
to b
e
spac
e fo
r pr
ogre
ssiv
ete
ache
r-ce
nter
ed in
stru
ctio
n as
ther
ew
ould
be
spac
e
for
the
vario
us ty
pes
of s
tude
nt-c
ente
red
inst
ruct
ion
mor
efa
mili
ar to
prog
ress
ive
refo
rmer
s.T
he v
ario
us a
dapt
atio
ns o
f pro
gres
sive
peda
gogy
that
teac
hers
in-
corp
orat
ed in
to th
eir
prac
tices
are
just
as
puzz
ling,
if no
t int
eres
ting,
as
wha
t was
igno
red.
The
ran
geof
teac
hing
pra
ctic
eco
ntai
ned
in th
is s
tudy
trie
s to
des
crib
e a
varie
tyof
teac
hing
beh
avio
rs.5
Des
pite
indi
vidu
al te
achi
ngdi
ffere
nces
, obs
erve
rs c
an,
I bel
ieve
, stil
l
cate
goriz
e in
stru
ctio
nal p
atte
rns
by c
aref
ul a
ttent
ion
toat
leas
t fiv
e vi
sibl
e
area
s of
cla
ssro
omde
cisi
on m
akin
g ov
er w
hich
teac
hers
hav
e di
rect
influ
ence
. The
se c
lass
room
indi
cato
rs c
an s
ugge
st d
omin
ant f
orm
s of
inst
ruct
ion,
esp
ecia
lly w
hen
they
com
bine
to c
reat
e pa
ttern
s.
1.A
rran
gem
ent o
f cla
ssro
om s
pace
2.R
atio
of t
each
er to
stu
dent
talk
3.W
heth
er m
ost i
nstr
uctio
n oc
curs
indi
vidu
ally
, in
smal
l gro
ups,
or
with
the
entir
e cl
ass
4.T
he p
rese
nce
of le
arni
ng o
r in
tere
st c
ente
rs th
at a
re u
sed
by s
tude
nts
aspa
rt o
f the
nor
mal
sch
ool d
ay5.
The
deg
ree
of m
ovem
ent s
tude
nts
are
perm
itted
with
out a
skin
g th
ete
ache
r
In s
eeki
ng to
des
crib
e cl
assr
oom
pra
ctic
es I
had
to n
arro
w m
y sc
ope.
No
judg
men
ts w
ill b
e m
ade
abou
t the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
teac
her-
or
stud
ent-
cent
ered
inst
ruct
ion,
nor
will
com
paris
ons
be m
ade
amon
g te
achi
ng p
rac-
tices
. Fin
ally
, thi
s st
udy
will
not
dea
l with
the
emot
iona
l clim
ate
of th
ecl
assr
oom
or
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
adul
ts a
nd c
hild
rena
s im
port
ant a
sth
ese
issu
es a
re. T
he c
entr
al r
esea
rch
issu
e fo
r m
e is
to d
etet
min
e ho
wst
able
cer
tain
teac
hing
beh
avio
rs w
ere
deca
de a
fter
deca
de in
the
face
of
mig
hty
effo
rts
to m
ove
tow
ard
stud
ent-
cent
ered
inst
ruct
ionn
ot th
e re
la-
tive
valu
e of
teac
her-
cent
ered
inst
ruct
ion
in a
chie
ving
stu
dent
out
com
es.
How
ever
, the
re is
littl
e po
int i
n de
term
inin
g w
hich
teac
hing
beh
avio
rspr
oduc
e im
prov
ed s
tude
nt p
erfo
rman
ce u
ntil
rese
arch
ers
find
out w
hich
teac
hing
act
s pe
rsis
t ove
r tim
e, w
hich
hav
e ch
ange
d, a
nd w
hy.
Giv
en th
ese
limits
, an
obvi
ous
ques
tion
aris
es: i
f thi
s re
sear
ch w
ill n
otre
veal
wha
t is
"goo
d" o
r "p
oor"
teac
hing
or
how
som
e te
ache
rs a
re b
ette
rth
an o
ther
s at
cre
atin
g po
sitiv
e cl
assr
oom
clim
ates
. the
n w
hat w
ill b
e th
epr
actic
al u
se o
f the
res
earc
h? T
his
is a
fair
ques
tion
beca
use
it ra
ises
the
issu
e of
the
inte
rsec
tion
betw
een
rese
arch
and
pra
ctic
e. W
ithou
t get
ting
into
the
mer
its o
f app
lied
or b
asic
res
earc
h or
the
valu
e of
incr
emen
tal
know
ledg
e, I
antic
ipat
e br
oade
r us
es o
f thi
s st
udy.
Bec
ause
so
little
is k
now
n by
res
earc
hers
, pol
icym
aker
s, s
choo
lad
min
istr
ator
s, te
ache
rs, a
nd c
itize
n-ad
voca
tes
abou
t wha
t has
rem
aine
dst
able
and
wha
t has
alte
red
in te
achi
ng o
ver
the
last
cen
tury
, inv
estig
atin
gth
e se
emin
g pe
rsis
tenc
e of
cer
tain
inst
ruct
iona
l pra
ctic
es c
an il
lum
inat
ebo
th th
e po
tent
ial a
nd th
e lim
its to
cla
ssro
om c
hang
e. E
xplo
ring
the
terr
ain
of th
e cl
assr
oom
sin
ce th
e tu
rn o
f the
cen
tury
sho
uld
reve
al w
hat i
s du
rabl
ean
d w
hat i
s tr
ansi
ent,
wha
t is
open
to im
prov
emen
t and
wha
t is
invu
lner
-ab
le to
ref
orm
. By
sim
ply
know
ing
mor
e ab
out t
he in
stru
ctio
nal q
uark
that
is th
e cl
assr
oom
, citi
zens
and
pro
fess
iona
ls c
an c
ome
to h
ave
reas
onab
leex
pect
atio
ns a
bout
wha
t tea
cher
s ca
n an
d ca
nnot
do,
wha
t sch
ools
can
be
held
acc
ount
able
for
and
wha
t is
beyo
nd th
eir
reac
h. S
uch
mod
est
outc
omes
offe
r pr
actic
al d
irect
ions
for
the
perio
dic
surg
es o
f ref
orm
that
swee
p ov
er p
ublic
sch
ools
.
1718
61 In
trod
uctio
n
Sinc
e th
e la
te 1
950s
, ref
orm
s in
cur
ricu
lum
(e.
g. n
ewm
ath)
, gov
ern-
ance
(e.
g. c
omm
unity
con
trol
),in
stru
ctio
n (e
.g. t
eam
teac
hing
) ha
ve tr
ied
to a
lter
teac
her
beha
vior
in th
e cl
assr
oom
.T
here
sho
uld
be a
pag
e in
the
Gui
nnes
s B
ook
of W
orld
Rec
ords
on f
aile
d cl
assr
oom
ref
orm
s, f
or f
ew e
ver
seem
to h
ave
been
inco
rpor
ated
into
teac
hers
' rep
erto
ires
. Per
haps
inst
udyi
ng d
irec
tly h
ow te
ache
rs h
ave
taug
ht, r
elia
ble
clue
sw
ill e
mer
ge th
atsu
gges
t pat
hs th
at b
oth
.teac
hers
and
refo
rmer
s m
ight
pur
sue
mor
ere
alis
tical
ly, i
f no
t use
fully
.M
oreo
ver,
est
ablis
hing
that
whi
ch is
end
urin
g an
dth
at w
hich
isch
ange
able
in th
e cl
assr
oom
aid
s th
e pr
ofes
sion
al e
duca
tors
resp
onsi
ble
for
turn
ing
out t
he n
ext g
ener
atio
n of
teac
hers
. Whi
lefo
rmal
teac
her
educ
a-tio
n is
one
of
seve
ral w
ays
of im
prov
ing
clas
sroo
min
stru
ctio
n, s
tate
legi
slat
ors
acro
ss th
e co
untr
y ha
ve o
pted
for
stif
feni
ngce
rtif
icat
ion
requ
ire-
men
ts a
nd m
anda
ting
entr
y-le
vel t
ests
for
new
teac
hers
. Whi
le th
ese
may
be a
pol
itica
lly s
atis
fyin
g re
spon
se to
pop
ular
une
ase
with
pub
lic s
choo
ls,
anyo
ne k
now
ledg
eabl
e ab
out t
heco
mpl
exity
of
clas
sroo
m in
stru
ctio
nkn
ows
that
suc
h so
lutio
ns a
re m
argi
nal i
n th
eir
impa
ct o
nte
ache
r ef
fect
ive-
ness
. Wha
t is
less
mar
gina
l and
mor
e us
eful
is to
det
erm
ine
wha
tkn
owle
dge
and
skill
s te
ache
rs h
ave
used
in p
erfo
rmin
g cl
assr
oom
task
s
year
in a
nd o
ut, d
ecad
e af
ter
deca
de. T
o un
cove
rw
hat i
s ch
ange
able
and
wha
t is
stab
le in
teac
hing
off
ers
univ
ersi
ty te
ache
r-ed
ucat
ors
ingr
edie
nts
for
a w
ell-
grou
nded
app
roac
h to
wha
t can
dida
tes
for
the
prof
essi
onsh
ould
know
and
he
able
to p
erfo
rm o
nce
they
ent
er th
e cl
assr
oom
.Sim
ilarl
y, to
know
wha
t is
pers
iste
nt a
nd p
redi
ctab
le in
teac
hing
off
ers
scho
ol a
dmin
is-
trat
ors
path
s to
pur
sue
in w
orki
ng w
ithex
peri
ence
d te
ache
rs.
The
re is
a ta
ngib
le u
sefu
lnes
s fo
r te
ache
rs in
this
exam
inat
ion
ofcl
assr
oom
pra
ctic
e. F
or te
ache
rs to
be
relia
bly
info
rmed
that
colle
ague
s a
cent
ury
ago
cope
d w
ith s
imila
r si
tuat
ions
,fo
und
solu
tions
that
wor
ked
inth
eir
clas
sroo
ms,
and
ada
pted
to w
orki
ng c
ondi
tions
that
,w
hile
not
iden
tical
, wer
e un
deni
ably
alik
e, m
ay g
ive
prac
titio
ners
pri
dein
how
thei
rpr
edec
esso
rs c
oped
with
adv
ersi
ty a
nd a
cle
ar s
ense
of
iden
tity
with
apr
ofes
sion
that
is a
fflic
ted
with
sel
f-do
ubts
and
dim
inis
hed
publ
ic e
stee
m.
Furt
herm
ore,
for
teac
hers
to k
now
that
som
e cl
assr
oom
pra
ctic
es h
ave
pers
iste
d fo
r ov
er a
cen
tury
whi
le o
ther
s ar
e of
mor
e re
cent
ori
gin
may
sugg
est t
o th
em a
bas
is f
or a
ccur
atel
y es
timat
ing
wha
tcl
assr
oom
cha
nges
are
feas
ible
, giv
en e
xist
ing
cond
ition
s.Fi
nally
, und
erst
andi
ng th
at w
hat h
aspe
rsis
ted
and
wha
t has
cha
nged
in A
mer
ican
sc0
00ls
was
less
oft
en d
ue to
wha
t ind
ivid
ual t
each
ers
did
in th
eir
clas
sroo
ms
but s
tem
med
fro
mfa
ctor
sbe
yond
thei
r im
med
iate
infl
uenc
e m
ay s
ugge
st to
teac
hers
pro
per
targ
ets
for
chan
ge in
the
clas
sroo
m, s
choo
l, an
d co
mm
unity
. Mos
tin
stru
ctio
nal
refo
rms
in th
e la
st c
entu
ry w
ere
gene
rate
d ou
tsid
e th
e sc
hool
and
wer
esh
oved
dow
nwar
d in
to th
e cl
assr
oom
. Wer
e te
ache
rs to
be
mor
ein
form
edab
out t
he h
isto
ry o
f cl
assr
oom
inst
ruct
ion
perh
aps
they
wou
ldvo
ice
thei
rpr
efer
ence
s ba
sed
upon
a f
irm
kno
wle
dge
of w
hat c
an a
nd c
anno
t be
done
in c
lass
room
s as
they
are
pre
sent
ly o
rgan
ized
.
Intr
oduc
tion
17
The
re is
als
o an
othe
r le
ss d
irec
t, m
ore
subt
le u
se th
at I
see
for
this
stud
y of
cla
ssro
om in
stru
ctio
n. P
ower
ful m
etap
hors
dom
inat
e th
e th
inki
ngof
pra
ctiti
oner
s, p
olic
ymak
ers,
and
sch
olar
s on
sch
oolin
g. J
. M. S
teph
ens
wri
tes
that
the
com
mon
met
apho
r fo
r sc
hool
s is
the
fact
ory.
Thi
s im
age,
like
that
of
a m
achi
ne, r
einf
otce
s ra
tiona
l dec
isio
n m
akin
g, s
ugge
stin
g th
atev
ery
face
t of
scL
oolin
g is
a c
andi
date
for
pla
nned
cha
nge.
Sw
itch
the
met
apho
r to
far
min
g, h
e sa
ys, a
nd s
choo
ling
look
s ve
ry d
iffe
rent
. In
agri
cultu
re y
ou s
tart
with
an
anci
ent,
stab
le p
roce
ss a
nd b
uild
you
r ef
fort
sar
ound
the
sun,
clim
ate,
see
ds, p
lant
s, a
nd w
hat i
nsec
ts a
re li
kely
to d
o
