Reproduction - Review
Sexual Reproduction
•Reproduction using 2 parents
•Half of the genetic information (genes)
come from each parent___
•The offspring has a different genetic
makeup than parents – creating variety
•This type of reproduction is best for
evolution
Reproduction - Review
Asexual Reproduction
•Reproduction using only one parent
•Offspring gets all of its DNA from parent
•Offspring looks identical to the parent
(will have all its strengths and flaws)
• Creates little variation within a
population
•What kills one will kill them all
Reproduction - Review
Male Parts and Functions
•Designed to put sperm into a females virgina
•Sperm transports male genes (1/2) to the female
•Testes make sperm, and the hormone
Testosterone
•Sperm ducts transports sperm to the penis; if
these tubes are blocked or cut- No sperm will
reach the penis.
Reproduction - Review
Female Parts and Functions
•Design to hold the embryo until developed.
•Ovaries produce the egg and the hormones
Estrogen and Progesterone
•The fallopian Tubes is where fertilization takes
place – If one fallopian tube is block, it will be
harder to get pregnant
•The uterus holds and protects the embryo till birth
•The reproductive system is regulated by hormones
Reproduction - Review
Fertilization to Birth
•Fertilization occurs when an egg (23) and sperm
(23) combine forming a zygote (46 chromosomes)
•The zygote will implant into the wall of the
uterus
•The zygote divides by mitosis forming and
embryo then a fetus.
•The dividing cells first start identical, then begins
to differentiate into specialized cells
Genetics - Review
DNA•DNA is found in the nucleus
•DNA is a huge double-helix molecule
•It contains all the genes to make an entire
organism.
•It is made up of 4 nucleic bases – A, T, G, C
•A binds with T, G binds with C
•DNA cannot leave the nucleus, so it makes RNA to
carry its code to the ribosome.
Genetics - Review
RNA
•RNA is a single strand molecule
•It is made by the DNA
•RNA is made with 4 nucleic bases – A, U, C,
G: A goes with U and C goes with G
•Rna is small enough to leave the nucleus
•The ribosome reads the RNA code 3 letters at a
time: each 3 letter codes for an amino acid
Genetics - Review
Mutations
•Mutations are any change in the DNA code
•Mutations include: Adding a nucleic base to
the DNA; Deleting a nucleic base to the DNA; or
substituting a nucleic base to the DNA;
•Change the DNA code can change the
protein being made
•Mutation rates increase with increase
radiation
Genetics - Review
Gel Electrophoresis
•GE is a technique use to see comparisons
between different DNA
•It is in fraternal testing, solving crimes,
tracing ancestry and determining evolution.
•DNA is cut into small pieces (bands) using
enzymes
•Small pieces move fast through the gel
while large pieces move slow
Genetics - Review
Selective Breeding
•It is an old technique used by farmers and
scientists
•Mating two parents with desired traits to
get an offspring with both traits.
•Not always guaranteed.
•Done with dogs, horses and crops.
Genetics - Review
Cloning•It is new technique used by scientists
•Clones occur natural in nature (twins and asexual
reproduction)
•Cloning involves taking a body cell from one
parent and creating an offspring that is identical
to the parent.
•Cloning creates little or no variation.
•Clones cannot reproduce with each other
because they are the same sex.
Genetics - Review
Genetic Engineering
•It is a very new technique used by scientists
•Used to create new organisms.
•G. E. involves taking a gene from one organism
and inserting it in the DNA of another individual.
•Usually 2 different species are involved.
•Clones cannot reproduce with each other
because they are the same sex.
Evolution- Review
Evolution•Evolution is a change in a population over time
•Evolution explains how different species appeared
on the planet.
•Species that are able to adapt to their environment
will reproduce and pass on their genes.
•Species that are not able to adapt to their
environment will become extinct.
•Survival of the fittest – (best adapted to its
environment.
Evolution- Review
Survival of the fittest
•Variation within a population gives some individuals
advantages in survival over others
• Mutations causes variations.
•If the mutation helps the individual survive, it will be
passed on to it offspring.
•If the mutation hurts the individual’s chances to
survive, the mutation will die with the individual and
not be passed on to it offspring.
•Natural selection – Nature selects who lives or dies
Evolution- Review
Variation•Variations are small differences between
individuals of a population.
•Variations a caused by: mutations,
different gene combinations for sexual
reproduction
•Some variations are good for an individual,
while other are harmful.
Evolution- Review
Evidence of Evolution
•Many organisms use similar body designs (4 limbs,
2 eyes, mouth in front)
•Although their function is different, bone
structures are similar.
•During Embryo development, embryos of different
species look the same.
•Different species share similar band patterns in
electrophoresis.
Ecology- Review
Ecology•It’s the study of how living things interact with
non-living things
•Population – a group of the same species
•Community – A group of different species
living in an area
•Ecosystem – All the living and non-living things
in an area
•Biosphere – all the ecosystems on the planet
Ecology- Review
Abiotic
•Abiotic are all the non-living things in an ecosystem
•Only works with small sized molecules
•They include: air, water, shelter, minerals,
temperature, the Sun
•Abiotic factors are important because
without them, living things would die.
•Abiotic things can regulate the size of a
population.
Ecology- Review
Biotic
•Biotic refers to all living things in an ecosystem.
•It includes: plants, animals and fungus.
•It also include the living thing’s niche (job): Auto
troph, heterotroph, producer, consumer,
decomposers.
• It also includes living things relationships: Mates,
predator/prey, population, symbiosis
Ecology- Review
Energy Pyramid
•The E.P. shows how energy moves through an ecosystem.
•All energy originates from the Sun.
•The Sun’s energy enter at the bottom of the pyramid
through plants.
•Plants (on the bottom level)convert the Sun’s energy into
glucose.
•Herbivores (2nd level) eat the plants, taking in the
glucose.
•Carnivores (3rd & 4th levels) than eat the herbivores.
Ecology- Review
Energy Pyramid
Proportion
•The largest level are the plants – they have the
most energy and largest population.
•The 2nd largest level are the herbivores – they have
the most energy of the animal and the 2nd largest
population.
•Carnivores have the smallest population and the
lowest amount of energy.
•If the proportion of the pyramid is disturbed then
the ecosystem will collapse.
Ecology- Review
Producers
•Producers are all the green plants in an ecosystem.
•The are found on the bottom of an energy pyramid.
•They are always the first organism in a food chain or web.
•They convert the Sun’s energy into chemical energy (glucose)
•Without producers, no energy could enter an ecosystem. Everything would die.
Ecology- Review
Consumers
•Consumers are all the animals in an ecosystem.
•The are found on levels 2, 3 and 4 of an energy pyramid.
•Consumers need to eat other organisms in order to get energy.
•Herbivores only eat plants
•Omnivores eat both plants and animals.
•Carnivores only eat meat.
•Top predators are always carnivores.
Ecology- Review
Decomposers
•Decomposers are all the fungus, mushrooms, and
bacteria in an ecosystem
•Decomposers are not found on the energy
pyramid because the exist everywhere.
•Decomposers breakdown dead organisms
and recycle the nutrients back into the
ecosystem so plants can use it.
Ecology- Review
Predator / Prey
•Predators are hunters
•Prey are the hunted.
•When there are a lot of prey, that means there is a
lot of food for the predators – Predator populations
rise.
•When there are a small amount of prey, that
means there is little food for the predators –
Predator populations decrease.
Human Impact - Review
Limiting factors
•Limiting factors regulate the size of
populations
•If there are a lot of food, water, mates then
populations will grow.
•If there is a little amount of food, water, mates
then populations will decrease.
•Populations that are too large for their
ecosystem will have a lot of competition
Human Impact - Review
Fossil Fuels
•Fossil fuels are any fuels that originated from
prehistoric organisms.
•These are considered “dirty Fuels” because
they make a lot of population.
•They are infinite fuels meaning that we will
run out of them
•Fossil fuels where first used in large quantity
during the industrial revolution
Human Impact - Review
Air Pollution
•Air pollution is the result of burning fossil fuels and using aerosol cans.•Greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere, creating a gas blanket – causing global warming.
•Global warming is melting the ice caps – raising sea levels
•Aerosol cans release CFC’s into the atmosphere – destroying the ozone.
•The Ozone protects us from radiation.
Human Impact - Review
Water Pollution
•Water pollution from factors make fish harmful to eat. Water plants absorb the toxins, fish eat the plants, we eat the fish we get cancer.•Fertilizers from farms enter streams and lakes causing the algae to glow quickly.
•This algae blocks out the Sun from reaching the plants from the bottom of the lake – killing them and the fish who eat those plants
Human Impact - Review
Land Pollution
•Toxins are place in or on the ground.
•These toxins seep into the ground entering the
ground water that we drink.
•When it rain, some of the toxins move as
runoff into lakes and streams affecting the fish
and aquatic plants.
Human Impact - Review
Deforestation
•Deforestation is the removal of large amount of
trees in a area.
•Trees provide homes for many organisms, gives
us oxygen and helps clean air pollution.
•Cutting down forest also reduce the about of
biodiversity in the area. Less tree means less
animals or extinction.
•Destroying forest can destroy are chances of
finding new drugs.
Human Impact - Review
Overhunting / over fishing
•O.H. and O.F. is when large amounts of
organisms are harvested for food.
•Technology allows humans to kill more than
we need- whole species could be wiped out.
•This creates a shortage of food for other
organisms – causing a stain on their population
Human Impact - Review
Invasive Species
•I.S. are organisms that are accidentally placed
into an ecosystem
•Because they have no predators (limiting
factor) to keep their population down, their
population explodes.
•The eat everything in the ecosystem and out
compete the native species – killing them off.
Human Impact - Review
Human Population
Growth
•Because of medicine and technology humans
are living longer that before.
•Because less people are dying than are being
born, the human population is increasing.
•More people means more homes, food and
water they need.
•Humans change their environment to suit their
needs – also destroying habits of all the other
organisms.
Human Impact - Review
Alternative Fuels
•A.F. are fuels created by technology
•They are considered “clean fuels”
•Since they use natural resource it is said that
they will never run out.
•Solar, water and wind can create electricity.
•They are expensive to start up, but cheep in
the long haul.
Human Impact - Review
Good Government
Environmental Programs
•To combat all the bad things humans have
done to the environment, governments have
put program in to affect to help.
•Rebates is money given to people to convert
their homes or businesses for fossil fuels to
alternative fuels.
•Hunting permits, national parks, Heavy fines
for pollution, endangered species list.
Human Impact - Review
Refostation
•Reforestation is when trees are replanted
where a tree has bee cut down.
•Rebuilds and strengthen old forest.
•Provides ne homes for organism.
•Increases biodiversity in an area.
Human Impact - Review
Zoos and Parks
•Zoos and Parks protect organisms from being
hunted or killed
•Zoos help increase the population of certain
organisms that may be on the endangered
species list or near extinction.
Labs- Review
NYS Lab-Diffusion Through
a Membrane
•Shows how some molecules can move through a membrane while others cannot
•Starch is too big to move through
•Glucose and iodine are small enough to move through.
•Benedicts is used to test for glucose – it is blue but turn orangey red when heated.
•Iodine test for starch – it is amber but turns blue-black
Labs- Review
NYS Lab-Making Connections
•Shows how body systems work together
•As you do exercise, your muscle need more energy-
you start to breath faster and your heart pumps
faster.
•This is because more CO2 enters your blood from
the cells as the perform respiration. Your body
needs to get rid of the CO2.
•When you stop exercising you breathing and heart
rate returns to normal.
Labs- Review
NYS Lab-Finch Lab
•Shows how competition can lead to extinction
or finding new niches to occupy
•Variations in beak size gave some individual
advantage over others, making them successful
•Those that where not successful would need
to find another food source or face extinction.
Labs- Review
NYS Lab-Biodiversity
•Shows students how to do tests that allows
you to make accurate comparisons between
different organism.
The Body Systems - Review
Diabetes
•Diabetes is a disease where the pancreas does
not make enough insulin.
•Insulin regulates blood sugar (lowers).
•A person who has diabetes are at risk of strokes
and poor blood flow.
•Diabetics need to take insulin shots and be on
a restricted diet to regulate their blood sugar.
The Body Systems - Review
Important Hormones
•Insulin –regulates blood sugar
•Testosterone – regulates sperm production
and male characteristics
•Estrogen – regulates egg production and female
characteristics
•Progesterone – used during pregnancy
Chemistry- Review
Important Proteins
•Enzymes – Speed up chemical reactions
•Hormones – communication between body
parts
Neurotransmitters – Communication between
nerves
Receptor molecules – receivers of messages
Antigens – tells the body if something belongs
Antibodies – made by WBC to fight pathogens.