Download - Research Methods Lecture 1
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Research MethodsLecture 1
What is Science & Defining Research Questions
Chapters 1 & 4
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What is Psychology? Study of human behaviour.
Why are some people afraid to go on a bus?
What intervention(s) are effective in helping people overcome their fears about going on a bus?
What are the characteristics of a persuasive salesperson?
What work-related factors are associated with higher work-related absenteeism?
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Scientific Research in Psychology
Helps us fill the gaps in our knowledge about human behaviour.
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Scientific Method is Devoid Of: Personal beliefs Perceptions Biases Values Attitudes Emotions
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Scientific Method – 5 StepsAsking the QuestionProblem Identification &Forming Hypothesis(es)
Experimental Design & Methods
CollectingRelevantInformation (data)
Testing theHypothesis -Data analysis
Interpretation &Communication
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Asking the Question Problem identification or knowledge gap
Why are some people afraid to go on buses?
Identifying the important related concepts or factors Demographics Number of other passengers on the bus. Afraid in other public places Afraid in other transportation vehicles Other fears
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Asking the Question Frame the question as a testable
hypothesis. Scientific hypothesis (expressed as the
expected or predicted relationships between variables).
“People who are afraid to travel on a bus are also afraid in other public places.”
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Experimental Design & Methods
Takes considerable thought and research. Consider what needs to be controlled in
order to get an unbiased answer to the question.
Consider what variables will be manipulated (i.e., controlled by the experimenter).
Consider what variables will be measured as responses to the experimental variables.
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Experimental Design & Methods
“People who are afraid to travel on a bus are also afraid in other public places.”
Consider what needs to be controlled in order to get an unbiased answer to the question. Travel on other vehicles in private. Being in a private place that is not a vehicle. Familiar but public place Unfamiliar but public place
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Experimental Design & Methods
“People who are afraid to travel on a bus are also afraid in other public places.”
Consider what variables will be manipulated (i.e., controlled by the experimenter). Observe subjects in specific situations (e.g., on
bus in public, on bus in private, in car with other people in public, in car by self in public, in public walking, at home by self, at home with others).
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Experimental Design & Methods
“People who are afraid to travel on a bus are also afraid in other public places.”
Consider what variables will be measured as responses to the experimental variables. Self-reported anxiety symptoms using a
validated scale. Physiological arousal (e.g., heart rate) Behaviour (e.g., avoidance, escape)
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Experimental Design & Methods
“People who are afraid to travel on a bus are also afraid in other public places.”
Decide on which self-report measure of anxiety to employ.
Decide how to measure heart rate (apparatus and who to do the assessment).
Decide who your subjects will be. Decide how to select your subjects. Decide how many subjects to assess.
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Collecting Relevant Information
“People who are afraid to travel on a bus are also afraid in other public places.”
Important to approach the experiment with an attitude of “testing” the hypothesis, not “proving” the hypothesis.
Pilot testing and refinement of methods. Implementing the methods.
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Testing the Hypothesis and Data Analyses
“People who are afraid to travel on a bus are also afraid in other public places.”
Using appropriate statistical analyses techniques. How might we test this hypothesis with
the data we collected?
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Interpretation & Communication of the Results
“People who are afraid to travel on a bus are also afraid in other public places.”
Provide an interpretation of the results. Consider problems in the design that might weaken
your confidence in the results. Consider how the results inform understanding about
the theory for this question (if there is a theory). Consider next steps in furthering knowledge about
this. Publish
Responsibility to inform others of your findings.
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Characteristics of the Scientific Approach
Control – eliminating the influence of extraneous variables that could affect the observations (confounds).
Operational definition – defining the steps or operations used to measure the phenomenon (e.g., anxiety).
Replication – Reproducibility of the results.
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Basic Assumptions Underlying Science
Determinism – belief that there are causes or determinants of behaviour.
Reality – belief that there is an underlying reality or truth in nature.
Rationality – events can be understood through the use of logical thinking.
Regularity – events in nature follow same laws.
Discoverability – it is possible to discover the uniformity or laws in nature.
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Objectives of Science Description
Discover that the phenomenon exists Demonstrate that the phenomenon
exists Describe its elements
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Objectives of Science Explanation
Why does the phenomenon exist What causes the phenomenon Causes are the antecedent conditions
that result in the occurrence or manifestation of the phenomenon.
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Objectives of Science Prediction
Ability to anticipate the event. Knowing the antecedent to the
phenomenon allows one to predict the phenomenon.
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Objectives of Science Control
You can manipulate the antecedent conditions and thus control the occurrence of the phenomenon.
Psychologist indirectly influence an organism’s behaviour through manipulating the antecedent events of that behaviour.
You can’t control the behaviour directly but you can usually exert some degree of control over the antecedent events that cause the behaviour.
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Objectives of Science In science the term ‘control’ has three
meanings:1. Check or verification in terms of a
comparison (e.g., control group comparison).
2. Eliminating the influence of extraneous conditions that might cause the results of the experiment.
3. Being able to produce a change in a phenomenon by manipulating the antecedent events.
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Scientific Theory Theory is the explanation for the
phenomenon. Theories not only describe why or
how the phenomenon occurred but also guides the way for further research.
Theories are often referred to as models for a specific phenomenon.
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Transtheoretical Model(Prochaska & DiClemente, 1992)
Precontemplation
Preparation
Contemplation
Maintenance
Action
Relapse
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RISK-ADAPTATION MODEL
optimism
pessimism
DispositionalTendencies High
Low
Modifiability
High
Low
Consequentiality
Risk-Adaptation Appraisal
Good
Poor
Attention
High
Low
Salience
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Developing the Research Question
Idea
Research Question
Research Hypothesis
Literature Review
Research Design
Idea
Research Question
Research Hypothesis
Literature Review
Research Design
Model 1 Model 2
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Where do the ideas come from? Everyday life Practical issues or needs Past research Theory
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Sources of Research Questions Everyday life
What are the most effective ways to teach research methods?
What personal characteristics make a favorable impression in a job interview?
What other questions come to mind?
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Sources of Research Questions Practical Issues
Why do some employees have very high absenteeism rates.
Why do more car accidents happen on specific stretches of the road?
Why are most heart attacks on a Monday morning?
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Sources of Research Questions Past research
Knowledge develops in small steps. Rarely does one study answer all the questions to the research topic.
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General Health Enhancement Smoking Cessation Program is Associated with Better Smoking Cessation Rates than a Targeted Cessation program
J. Irvine, P. Ritvo, A. Matthew, S. Hotz, C. Strickland, R.
Gilbert, F. Ashbury, L. Lockyer, & E. Wilson
York University & University of Toronto
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Rationale Self-efficacy about smoking cessation
is associated with a greater likelihood of successfully quitting smoking.
We hypothesized that assisting smokers to build efficacy about health behaviour changes generally would help build their confidence about quitting smoking and thereby result in higher cessation rates than a program solely targeted to smoking cessation.
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Smoking Cessation:Research Question
Does providing smokers with a program that assists them build confidence about health behaviour change generally, lead to higher smoking cessation rates than a program solely targeted to quitting smoking?
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Smoking Cessation Study Design
R an d om ized C om p ara tive S tu d y
6 - M on thF o llow -u p
Targ e ted P rog ramN = 3 3 4
6 - M on thF o llow -u p
C on fid en ce-B u ild in g P rog ramN = 3 3 9
R an d om ized
6 7 3 S m okers
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Smoking Cessation Programs
Intervention ElementsTargeted
Intervention Physician advice NRT Self-help guide Telephone
counseling
Confidence-Building Intervention
Physician advice NRT Self-help guide Telephone counseling Assessment &
additional health interventions tailored to individual preferences
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Targeted Program Smoking cessation program based
on the transtheoretical model (TTM) developed by the Canadian Council on Smoking and Health (CCSH). Stage-based intervention guide NRT Physician advice Telephone counseling
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Confidence-Building Intervention
CCSH – Stage-based intervention Confidence-building intervention
Raising self-confidence re: resisting smoking
Building realistic-optimistic expectancies Energy management Exercise Finding social support Stress management Controlling alcohol consumption Better sleep, rest, and relaxation
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Self-reported 4-week Sustained Quit Rates at 6-Months Follow-up
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
Not Smoking
ConfidenceTargeted
Intention-to-treat analysis with subjects lost to follow-up(n=158) classified as smokers: P < .05
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Conclusions The addition of interventions
assisting subjects to build their confidence about making other health behaviour changes in addition to smoking cessation resulted in higher smoking cessation rates at 6-months follow-up.
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Unanswered Questions What questions about smoking
cessation programming remain unanswered by this study?
What questions about smoking cessation programming are raised by this study?
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Change in Confidence about Resisting Smoking
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Confidence Building Targeted
BaselineFollow-up
Self-efficacy increased significantly in both groups (p< .0001).There were no treatment group differences.
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Sources of Research Questions Theories
Summarize & integrate existing knowledge
Suggests new relationships between factors
Helps one make new predictions about a phenomenon based on the theory.
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Defining the Research Question
Caveat – Not all ideas are subject to scientific enquire.
Research question must be capable of being confirmed or refuted.
The study must be feasible. Variables in the problem should
express a relationship: E.g., What relationship exists between
two or more variables?
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Defining the Research Question - continued
Problem should be capable of being stated in a question form. Examples are: What is the effect of….? Under what conditions do….? Does the effect of….?
A research question defines the area of interest but is not a declarative statement like a hypothesis.
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Formulating Hypotheses Stated in declarative form. Posits a relationship between
variables. Ideally reflects a theory or body of
literature. Is brief and to the point. Is testable.
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Examples of Hypotheses
Research Idea
Question Hypothesis
Drug abuse and child abuse
Is drug abuse related to child abuse?
There is a positive relationship between drug abuse among adults and their physical and psychological abuse as children.
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Examples of HypothesesResearch Idea
Question Hypothesis
Effects on your health of caring for a partner who is demented
Does caring for a partner who has a dementia affect the caregivers’ health?
There is a positive relationship between degree of caregiver burden and risk of dying prematurely.
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Hypotheses Scientific hypothesis states the
‘predicted’ relationship amongst the variables.
Null hypothesis is a statement of no relationship amongst the variables.
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Assignment Decide on a research idea. Write your research question. Perform a limited literature search
related to your question. Write a brief paragraph as foreground
justification for your research question. Based on the lit search, refine your
question.
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Reading and Reviewing a Research Article
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Overview Understanding the article
Developing ideas from the article.
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Reading for Understanding Choosing an article Reading the abstract Reading the introduction Reading the method’s section Reading the result’s section Reading the discussion
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Choosing an Article Selecting the right articles may be the most
important step. Approaches to finding an interesting article.
Track down study that you heard or read about. Look through contents of current journals
looking for articles with relevant titles. Search the literature using printed tools like
Psychological Abstracts or electronic indexes.
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Reading the Abstract The abstract is a summary of the
article. If you don’t like the abstract of the
paper, consider finding another paper.
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Abstract Author & title Publication information General statement of purpose of
study Methods (how it was carried out,
including measures) Main results Conclusion
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Reading the Introduction May be difficult and time-consuming,
but it tells you what hypotheses they are testing and why. It sets the stage for the rest of the
article. Don’t leave the introduction without
knowing: What the hypothesis is Why they are testing the hypothesis
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Reading the Methods Section Who the participants were
This is usually in the Participants subsection
What happened to the participants This is usually in the Procedures
subsection
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Reading the Results Section Know what the scores (data) mean
Know whether the hypotheses were supported.
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Reading the Discussion Summarizes the results relating to the
hypothesis Integrates/reconciles results with
introduction Discusses study’s limitations May suggest future research
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Literature Search Decide on information sources
Journals, book, dissertation abstracts Decide which databases
PsychINFO, Index Medicus, review articles, other related articles, etc.
How far back to search? What terms to include in your
search?
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Literature Search Thesaurus of Psychological Index
Terms American Psychological Association
publication of terms to use in doing a literature search on psychological topics.
Index Medicus Science Citation Index Expanded Social Science Citation Index Index of Scientific Reviews
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Searching the Research Question
State your research topic as a single question.
Identify the separate concepts that make up the question.
Use the Psychological Thesaurus to find descriptors for the concepts or try your own descriptors.
Limit your literatures searches by language, year, etc.
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Literature Searches In addition to electronic data bases,
you can get great leads on literature by consulting the reference list of related review articles or even primary sources of research studies.
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Let me know… If there are any topics from today’s
lecture that need fuller explanations. Anything you particularly liked about
the lecture (today’s or others as we go along).
Anything you particularly disliked about the lecture (today’s or others as we go along).