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Reservoir Scale Deformation and Advances in Fault Seal Analysis
Tim Needham
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Introduction
• The answer to the question, “Does this fault seal?” is “It depends” …
• This is what “It depends” on:
– Juxtaposition
– Fault rocks
– Geohistory
– Relative permeability
– Fluid properties
• How much more do we know now compared with 1997?
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Corona et al. (2010)
Rotliegend fault traps in the main
part of the Lauwerszee Trough
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Juxtaposition types
Færseth et al. (2007)
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Wolfson Multiphase Flow Laboratory, University of Leeds• Run by Professor Quentin Fisher
• State-of-the-art SCAL facilities for low permeability rocks:– Pulse-decay gas and brine permeameters to <10 nD
– Oil-water or gas-water relative permeabilities
– Ultrasonics/rock mechanics
– NMR
– Access to state-of-the-art electron microscopes
– Dedicated Hg laboratory - up to 100,000 psi Pcon
– Ultracentrifuge for drainage and imbibition experiments
– Quantitative XRD
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Fault rock classification
Fisher & Knipe (1998)
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Backscattered electron images
Tueuckmantel et al. (2012)
Quartz
K-feldspar
Porosity
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Disaggregation zone
Host
Host
Disaggregation
Needham et al. (2008)
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Cataclasites:quartz rich -clay poor
Fossen et al. (2007)
Core & outcrop images
by Tim Needham
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CataclasitesTueckmantel et al. (2010)
Backscattered CL
Lower images by Tim Needham
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CataclasitesHost rock
Fault
Fisher & Knipe (1998) Fisher & Knipe (2001)
Sperrevik et al. (2002)Slip surfaceDeformation bandHost
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Phyllosilicate Framework Fault Rock
Images by Tim Needham
Abbreviated to PFFR!
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Phyllosilicate Framework Fault Rock
Knipe et al. (1997) Image by Tim Needham
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Clay smear fault rocks
Knipe et al. (1997)
Fisher & Knipe (2001)
Image by Tim Needham
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Fisher & Knipe (2001)
Permeability & threshold pressure
Sperrevik et al. (2002)
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Relative permeability: Location, location
Fisher et al. (2001)
Al-Hinai et al. (2008)
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Fault rock permeability vs. clay content
Sperrevik et al. (2002)
Also relationships developed
by Manzocchi et al. (1999) &
Jolley et al. (2007)
Frischbutter et al. (2017)
Sperrevik et al. (2002)
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Fault seal algorithmsShale Gouge Ratio (SGR)• Mixing algorithm is a measure of
the proportion of shale in the
interval that has slipped past
any point on the fault surface
• More shale gives greater seal
potential
Shale Smear Factor (SSF)• Algorithm estimates ratio of throw
to thickness of a shale source
layer
• Continuous smears required to
seal occur at SSF<4 on seismic
scale faults
SGR see: http://youtu.be/HMod1bhH-fo
SSF see: http://youtu.be/bhWwdPJbDTQ?list=PL70E44B94AC18E73A
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Allan diagrams: Footwall Vshale
Generated by TrapTester
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Allan diagrams: SGR
Generated by TrapTester
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Yielding (2012)
SSFc = Critical SSF
Shale smear
Færseth et al. (2007)
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Cross-fault seal calibration
Bretan et al. (2005)Clay Content %
Across-fault pressure
difference plotted
against clay-content
(SGR) with seal
‘envelopes’
corresponding to
different depths of burial
AFPD = 10[(SGR/d)-c]
AFPD = Across fault
pressure difference
d = 27
c = 0.5 at <3km
0.25 at 3-3.5km
0 at >3.5km
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Comparing calibrations
Yielding et al. (2010)
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Seal/leak: Brent Province
Yielding (2002)
Yielding (2010)
29 faults in 15 Brent fields
Yellow bars are faults supporting
<15m OWC difference
Range of SGR for sealing and leaking faults
Published fault seal data for the Brent Province shows that most
faults are sealing where the minimum SGR is >20% (0.2)
Ratios rather than
percentages used
in this plot
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SSF & CSP calibration
Yielding et al. (2010)
No horizontal scale on original
figure of Fulljames et al. (1997)
SSF CSP
Outcrop: Childs et al. (2007)
Experimental: Takahashi (2003)
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Manzocchi et al. (2002)
Fault seal in
exploration
& production
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Transmissibility multipliers
• Fault-zone properties are conventionally incorporated in production flow simulators using Transmissibility Multipliers
• Depends on fault-rock thickness and fault-rock permeability at each cell-cell connection on the fault plane
• In general, the thickness of the fault zone increases with its local displacement
Islam & Manzocchi (2017)
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Fault zone thickness
Çiftçi et al. (2013)
Fault zones & fault rock data
from Childs et al. (2009)
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Using fault properties
Jolley et al. (2007)
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Zijlstra et al. (2007)
Using realistic TM values
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Carbonates
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For the future …
Some continuing questions summarised by Dewhurst &
Yielding (2017)*:
• Can we predict how faults and fractures work in shaly seals?
• How do we bridge the gap between the fault-zone detail we see at outcrop and the large-scale structures mapped on seismic data?
• Are we any closer to a predictive method of fault seal in carbonate reservoirs?
• How well do we understand uncertainty in our seal predictions?
* Thematic issue of Petroleum Geoscience, February 2017