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Respiration + Pulmonic Airflow
October 7, 2014
These notes are largely adapted from Thomas J. Hixon (1973), “Respiratory Function in Speech”, in Normal Aspects of Speech, Hearing and Language.
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Taking Care of Business• Production exercises are due next Monday now;
• Let’s take a second to review the first one.
• Today:
• Respiration first
• then maybe Phonation
• Okay. Everybody take a deep breath!
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From the Bottom Up• All speech sounds require airflow.
• The vast majority of sounds in the world’s languages use a pulmonic egressive airflow.
• = out of the lungs
• Questions to answer/consider:
1. How do we make air flow out of the lungs?
2. How does pulmonic airflow differ in breathing and in speech?
3. How does pulmonic airflow relate to language?
• primarily: suprasegmentals (stress, F0)
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The Machinery• The human torso (from
the neck to the legs) has two major divisions:
1. The thorax
• consisting of the heart and lungs
• the “chest”
2. The abdomen
• includes the digestive system and other interesting glands
• the “belly”
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The Thorax• The heart and the pulmonary system are enclosed by the thoracic cage.
• the “rib cage”
• Ribs are connected by cartilage to the sternum.
• The intercostal muscles fill in the gaps between ribs...
• and also cover the surfaces of the thoracic cage.
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Connections• The thorax is split from the
abdomen by a dome-shaped structure known as the diaphragm.
• The lungs sit on top of the diaphragm.
• Two membranes link the lungs to the ribs:
1. The visceral pleura covers the lungs.
2. The parietal pleura lines the inside of the thoracic cage.
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Equilibrium
volume
• The linkage between the lungs and the rib cage makes:
• The lungs are bigger than they would be on their own.
• The rib cage is smaller than it would be on its own.
• The linkage tends towards a natural equilibrium point.
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Taking A Step Back• Air flows naturally from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
• Q: How do we make air pressure differences?
• A: We take advantage of Boyle’s Law.
• Boyle’s Law states that:
• the pressure of the gas in a chamber is inversely proportional to the volume of gas in the chamber
• The pressure of the gas can be increased or decreased by changing the volume of the chamber.
• decreasing volume increases pressure
• increasing volume decreases pressure
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Inspiration• A normal breathing cycle begins with inspiration
• “breathing in”
• Air will flow into the lungs if...
• the air pressure inside the lungs is lower than it is outside the lungs
• Air pressure can be decreased inside the lungs by...
• expanding the volume of the lungs.
• Lung volume can be expanded:
• In all three dimensions
• With two primary muscle mechanisms
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Expansion #1• The vertical expansion of the thorax is primarily driven by the contraction of the muscles in the diaphragm.
• This bows out the front wall of the abdomen.
• Also: diaphragm contraction elevates the lower ribs.
• expands the circumference of the thorax.
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Expansion #2• The thorax can also be expanded through the contraction of the external intercostal muscles.
• Contraction of each intercostal muscle lifts up the rib beneath it.
• Also pulls each rib forward with the sternum.
• = expansion in the front-back dimension.
sternum
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Expansion #3• The thorax can also be expanded through the contraction of the external intercostal muscles.
• Contraction of the intercostals elevates the lower ribs more than the upper ribs
• Lower ribs lift like a “bucket handle”
• Expansion in the side-to-side dimension.
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Expiration• Air flows out of the lungs whenever air pressure in the lungs is greater than external air pressure.
• Note: technical term
• alveolar pressure = air pressure inside the lungs
• Alveolar pressure may be increased by decreasing lung volume.
• Lung volume is decreased through both passive and active forces.
• Normally, lungs contract after inspiration due to passive forces alone.
• No muscular effort is necessary!
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Passive Expiration• Thorax + lungs combo contracts back to its equilibrium point without any external impetus.
• Relaxation pressure is inherent pressure on the lungs to revert back to the equilibrium point.
• Note: relaxation pressure works both ways.
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Active Expiration• Lung volume can be actively decreased by contracting
a variety of muscles which:
1. Lower the ribs and/or sternum
• thereby compressing the thorax in the front-to-back and side-to-side dimensions
2. Increase abdominal pressure
• thereby driving the diaphragm upwards
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Expiration #1• The thoracic cage can be compressed by contracting the internal intercostals and the transversus thoracis.
• These pull the ribs downward...
• effectively the opposite action of contracting the external intercostals.
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Expiration #2• The most important muscles for active expiration increase pressure in the abdomen.
• These include the rectus abdominis, the external and internal obliques, and the transversus abdominis.
• Contracting these muscles drives in the abdomen...
• and pulls down the sternum and lower ribs.
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Expiration Dynamics• Technical term: the equilibrium point of thorax + lung volume is called the resting expiratory level.
• At volumes above the resting expiratory level, the lungs will contract due to relaxation pressure alone.
• ...although active expiration forces may contribute.
• Below the resting expiratory level, the lungs will tend to expand due to relaxation pressure.
• To continue expiration at this level, active expiration is necessary.
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More Verbiage1. Total lung capacity: volume of air in the lungs after a
maximum inspiration.
2. Residual volume: amount of air that remains in the lungs after a maximum expiration.
3. Vital capacity: greatest amount of air that can be expelled from the lungs after a maximum inspiration.
• = total lung capacity - residual volume
4. Functional residual capacity: volume of air contained in the lungs at the resting expiratory level.
5. Inspiratory capacity: maximum volume of air that can be inspired from the resting expiratory level.
• = total lung capacity - functional residual capacity
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Verbiage Diagram #1
residual volume
total lung
capacity vital capacity
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Verbiage Diagram #2
functional residual capacity
inspiratory capacity
total lung
capacity
Note: FRC - RV only 35% of vital capacity
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Keeping it Steady• The production of speech generally requires a continuous flow of air from the lungs.
• A continuous flow of air requires constant alveolar pressure in the lungs.
• Accomplishing this is tricky...
• Because there is more relaxation pressure at the extremes (both high and low) of lung capacity.
• Active inspiratory and expiratory forces have to dynamically compensate.
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external air pressure
constant pressure needed for utterance
• Relaxation pressure changes from expiratory to inspiratory...
• in going from maximum to minimum vital capacity
expiratory pressure
inspiratory pressure
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Effort required to maintain constant alveolar pressure:
effort initially requires inspiratory forces!
effort eventually requires expiratory forces
active inspiratory pressure
active expiratory pressure
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Electromyography (EMG)• The activity of inspiratory and expiratory muscles during continuous exhalation has been documented with electromyography (EMG) studies.
• In EMG, an electrode is inserted into a particular muscle.
• When that muscle contracts, it discharges an electrical signal (an action potential).
• The voltage and timing of this discharge may be recorded through the electrode.
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EMG Recordings
Diaphragm
External Intercostals
Internal Intercostals
Rectus Abdominis
External Oblique
Latissimus Dorsi
inspiratory
expiratory
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• The intensity of an utterance is primarily determined by alveolar pressure.
• Doubling alveolar pressure increases intensity by 9 -12 dB.
Loudness
• Louder utterances require a greater difference between alveolar and external air pressures
• Louder utterances require more active expiratory force.
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Differences• Conversational speech makes different demands on the respiratory system than either normal breathing or the production of a continuous vowel.
• For instance, a normal breath cycle lasts about five seconds:
• 40% of the cycle is devoted to inspiration
• 60% of the cycle is devoted to expiration
• In speech:
• 10% of the cycle is devoted to inspiration
• 90% of the cycle is devoted to expiration (i.e., talking)
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Volume Differences• Normal breathing encompasses 35% - 45% of vital capacity.
• Note: normally ends above the resting expiratory level.
• Normal conversational speech encompasses 35% - 60% of vital capacity.
• Loud speech usually starts at 60% - 80% of vital capacity.
• and may end considerably above resting expiratory level.
• Note: extremes of the vital capacity are not normally used, in either breathing or speech.
• (requires too much muscular effort)
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Modulating Airflow• During conversational speech, there are frequent demands for rapid changes in muscular pressure.
• These changes are primarily required for differentiating between stressed and unstressed syllables.
• Rapid modulations to airflow are primarily made by the internal intercostal muscles.
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Lastly• Higher airflow from lungs = increase in F0
• The have-your-friend-punch-you-in-the-stomach experiment.
• Increased F0 also contributes to stress.
• However, F0 level is primarily determined by laryngeal activity...
• which we’ll talk about next...
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Phonation + Vocal Fold Physiology
October 7, 2014
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Where Were We?• Air squeezed out of the lungs travels up the bronchi...
• Through the trachea (windpipe)
• To a complicated structure called the larynx.
• ...where phonation happens.
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The Larynx• The larynx is a complex structure consisting of muscles, ligaments and three primary cartilages.
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1. The Cricoid Cartilage• The cricoid cartilage sits on top of the trachea
• from Greek krikos “ring”
• It has “facets” which connect it to the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages.
cricoid cartilage
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2. The Thyroid Cartilage• The thyroid cartilage sits on top of the cricoid cartilage.
• from the Greek thyreos “shield”
• The thyroid cartilage has horns!
• Both lower (inferior) and upper (superior) horns
• The lower horns connect with the cricoid cartilage at the cricoid’s lower facet.
• The upper horns connect to the hyoid bone.
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Thyroid Graphic
thyroid cartilage
cricoid cartilage
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Thyroid Angles• The two broad, flat front plates of the thyroid--the laminae--meet at the thyroid angle.
• The actual angle of the thyroid angle is more obtuse in women.
• ...so the “Adam’s Apple” juts out more in men.
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3. The Arytenoid Cartilages• There are two arytenoid cartilages.
• from Greek arytaina, “ladle”
• They are small and pointy, and sit on top of the back side, or lamina, of the cricoid cartilage.
arytenoid cartilages
cricoid cartilage
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The Vocal Folds• These three cartilages are connected by a variety of muscles and ligaments.
• The most important of these are the vocal folds.
• They live at the very top of the trachea, connecting the arytenoid and thyroid cartilages.
• The vocal folds are a combination of:
• The vocalis muscle
• The vocal ligament
• The vocal folds are enclosed in a membrane called the conus elasticus.
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• Just above the true vocal folds are the “false” (!) vocal folds, or ventricular folds.
• The space between the vocal folds is the glottis.
Vocal Fold View #1