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RESEARCH RESEARCH METHODS + THEORY
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
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RESEARCHPART1
RESEARCH PARADIGMS: The Basics
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The ResearchProcess
Introduction
There are many ways to conduct a research. You often have to adjust your
objectives to the field you’re working in and to the environments and
people you are working with. The
field you’re working in could be “website
usability” and the specific environments and persons (informants) you are
working with could be an office environment and its staff.
During this lesson you will work theoretically and
practically with
two maintypes of research processes:
The quantitative research process + the qualitative research process
Literature: This lesson is based on Klaus Bruhn Jensen’s (et al) (2005): A Handboook of Media and Communication Research. Routledge.“The Quantitative Research Process” by Barrie Gunter (chapter 13, p. 209–234). “The Qualitative Research Process” by Klaus Bruhn Jensen (chapter 14, p. 235–253).
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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Desk ResearchSecondary data
Desk research relies on existing data
and
information published on
the
net,
in printed magazines or any other valid source (!)
TIP: Reading economy articles, trend news, articles based on web surveys and
reports from cultural and national organisations gives you a good picture
of your target group based on desk research ...
Secondary
Research
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Basic research is also referred to as field research.Primary
Research
Field ResearchPrimary data
Field research refers to the
collection of
new
data
through primary research.
That means direct contact with people through interviews, focus groups and
surveys.
Bigger and complex surveys are often done by bying this expertise from
companies specialized in conducting effective, reliable surveys.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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Researchparadigms
Introductionto the Basic
Concepts
Often there is a mix between the two paradigms:
P R I M A R Y D A T A
Qualitative
Data
S E C O N D A R Y D A T A
• Observations
• Interviews (open questions)
• Movie recording (actively)
• Think aloud test
• Documents
• Notes (from secondary source)
• Letters
• Sound and
movie recordings
(other’s material)
• Artifacts (to be interpreted)
• Articles and pictures, etc.(to be interpreted)
Quantitative
Data
• Closed questions
• Surveys
• Clearly defined objectives
in observations.
• Page traffic
•Statistics
• Registrations
Artifacts like for example letters and movies etc. can be used to support
primary data for some purposes. Statistics can also support qualitative
arguments i user research.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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ResearchParadigms
Introductionto the Basic
Concepts
S C O P E Q U A L I T A T I V E M E T H O DQ U A N T I T A T I V E M E T H O D
Examples of investigations Surveys by mail, online or handout Casestudy with interview
General approach Precision: an exact mapping
of the quantitative variation
Empathy: the best understanding
of the qualitative variation
General perspective Width: seek information about as many
quantifiable units as possible
Depth: seek as much information as possible on a few qualitative units
The purpose of the research Average: seek common, representative features
Specific: find out what can be said
to be unique and special.
Criteria of methodology Representative: Chosen informants must represent the target group.
Relevanse: Informants are relevant in relation to problems and meaning
Design of method Systematic: Survey with closed questions Fleksibilitet: Interview with no clear answers, dialogue, interaction.
Level of structuration High: The possibilities of answers are laid
out for response. Low flexibility.
Low: Open answers and a variety of interpretations. High flexibility.
Key concepts of methodology Explanation: How. How many. Who does what. Causal explanations.
Understanding: Why. Who thinks what
about ... Meanings and attitudes
Example of web research
and possible methods/tools
How many are using the site?
What are the user patterns?: Google analytics combined with a survey
designed for representative users.
What motivates the target group to visit the website and buy products? What are
their preferences for colour, menus etc?: Think aloud tests and focus groups.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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ResearchParadigms
Introductionto the Basic
Concepts
The Basic Concepts in Quantitative Research
The Quantitative approach to research is based on the
scientific tradition
of studying aspects of human reality with empirical proof .
Research in anthropology, economics, geography, linguistics, history, polital
science etc. can often be done by initially measuring hard facts.
Quantitative research often aims at closed questions—questions your
respondents can answer yes or no to; questions that are very narrow defined.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
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QuantitativeResearch
Introductionto the Basic
Concepts
Examples
Numbers: You can measure how many women there are in a room
and you can measure how many men there are.
Specific actions: You can measure people’s actions (but not why they do it!)
Opinions: You can measure people’s opinions by asking closed questions:
“Do you think our prime minister will win the next election?”
This question would be followed up by additional (anonymous) information
from the informant: gender, age, city etc.
You can use these data as valuable information in your research objective.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
Assignment
See usibilia.com … What is this?
See surveymonkey.com
…
What is
this?
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
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ResearchParadigms
Introductionto the Basic
Concepts
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
The Basic Concepts in Qualitative Research
The qualitative approach to conducting research
has
for
many years been
the ‘soft’ area of science.
The qualitative aspects deals also with observable facts, but not always the
same ‘hard’, measurable emperical facts that is the focus for quantitative
research.
Qualitative reseach investigates the concept of meaning, its embedding
in and orientation of social actions. It is the connection between meaning and
action—for example as performed inside media contexts—that tells us how we
are, how we think and
act in
a realistic context.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
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QualitativeResearch
Introductionto the Basic
Concepts
Examples: Designing Qualitative Research: Interviews
To design
an
emperical study is
to
identify and
delimit a
portion
of
reality
(Jensen 2005: 237). Ask into why instead of what.
Respondent interviews: The informant is percieved as a representative of
a social and cultural category. This can be a key to the decoding of the user‐
pattern in relation to user behaviour (think aloud test for example).
Group interviews: In order to explore what goes on in a more or less
naturalistic social setting, a group can form the basis for discussions, that
explore aspects of a product credibity,
of
lifestyles,
advertisements etc.
Focus groups: Gathering a specific type of users, this kind of interviewing is
often based on the strategy of getting to know attitudes toward a product or
political and ethical issues. Again, it’s why instead of what.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
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QualitativeResearch
Introductionto the Basic
Concepts
Designing for Research
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
Assignment
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_focus_group … What is this?
What are the pros and cons in online and offline qualitative surveys?
Is a think aloud test a qualitative or a quantitative survey method?
Or can it be both? Why?
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RESEARCHPART2
RESEARCH PARADIGMS: Variables and Concepts
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ResearchVariables
and Concepts
Variables
The basic part
of
the
research
process is
the
notion of the variable.
Variables are in this context the emperical representation of a concept.
Man, woman, number of …, high/low, happy, not happy etc.
Variables provide operational measures that can be
quantified and manipulated by researchers.
The concepts of gender, age, economics, and personal behaviour are
variables that you can measure.
These variables
must
be described in
further detail as concepts and/or constructs (see the next slides)
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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ResearchVariables
and Concepts
Variables and Concepts
A concept represents an
abstract
idea that embodies the
nature
of
observable phenomenon, or an interpretation of why such phenomea occur.
For example, individuals may be differentiated in terms of their use of
media: What you define as a “active user” could be distinguished from what
you define as a “passive user” (in questions based on how often a specific
media or an application is used).
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
Media usage can be linked to explain different behavioual patterns:
Media usage becomes an explanatory concept (Jensen 2005: 210).
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ResearchVariables
and Concepts
Single‐Concept Example (Media Usage as Behavioural Patterns)
The observable phenomenon:
More and more people over the age of 65 use FaceBook (FB).source/desk research: http://www.insidefacebook.com/2009/12/11/facebook‐a‐top‐destination‐for‐users‐over‐65/
The concept I want to use:
What is it to be “user”—it’s a bit too vague a concept! Just because you have a
FB account you’re not always active. I find it interesting to investigate the
single concept of the “active user” in the age group 65+.
First, I define the concept of a “user” by describing precisely what this implies
in relation
to
skills in
the
use of
FB.
Second,
I suggest the
number of
visits
on
FB per day in order for one to be a “active user” of FB.
Objective: How many “active users” in the age group 65+ are there on FB in
Denmark alone. I base this on my concept, my problem statement and on a
sampling of
informants
(say,
1000
FB
‐users in
the
age
group 65+)
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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ResearchVariables
and Concepts(Constructs)
Constructs (Combined Concept Example)
A construct comprises a
combination of
concepts.
This term can be used as a way of defining characteristics or actions
of individuals that are associated with their personality type.
For example, one personality type is defined as a range of sensation‐
seeking individuals: High‐sensation seekers generally need higher levels of
environmental stimulation than low‐sensation seekers.
High‐sensation
seekers may be described by
a series
of
other concepts as:
sociability, tolerance for strong stimulation, risk‐taking etc.
Constructs have a dimensional quality , so that individuals may be
classified (in this example) as high or low on the personality dimension of
sensation
‐seeking (Jensen
2005:
210).
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ResearchVariables
and Concepts(Constructs)
Variables, Concepts and Constructs: Example
In other words:
The
variables
get more
substantial when they are applied
to a) a concept and b) a construct.
Example: Gender is interesting because of the construct of the differences
between certain actions of men and women, say, buying actions. It’s not just a
single concept you can establish without any goals for your research.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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ResearchVariables
and Concepts
Independent and dependent variables
Variables can be further defined in
terms
of
their relationship with each other.
Before the research: The independent variable (concept/construct) can be
manipulated by the researcher—it is meant to produce some measurable
response or outcome.
You design your variables (concept/construct/attributes) to fit your objective, for
example light user, active user etc.
After the research: The dependent variable is the measure of the response or
outcome. It
is
the
obtained data
which is
treated as
information.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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ResearchVariables
and Concepts
Reliability and validity
Another important aim of a research
is
to
determine its reliability.
To meet the demands for reliability and validity, you can …
repeate evidence/tests to show similar results over time
or in another context.
differentiate between the respondent (age, gender, education, etc.)
explain accurately how and why you conduct your research.
use good internal validity: the design of the research process must be free
from theoretical and methodological errors. Use validated theory.
The reliability concerns the dependability and consistency of the relationship
in one or between more variables. The validity indicates whether a measure
properly captures the meaning of the concept or construct it represents.
(Jensen 2005:
212).
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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RESEARCHPART3
RESEARCH PARADIGMS: More on Methods
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ResearchSurvey
Methods
The Survey: Field Research
A descriptive survey simply attempts to
document current conditions.
Public opinion polls, for example, can rovide information about people’s
present attitudes on a specified topic. The concept of “fear of terrorism” can
be constructed through a variety of constructs from “no fear” to “very afraid,”
and the survey can gain answers from different age groups. The outcome is
descriptive and can of course be used as an initial research narrowing down a
target group.
Analytical surveys also collect descriptive data, but attempt to go on to
examine relationships among variables
in
order to
test
research
hypotheses.
A survey may assess the impact of an advertising campaign on public
awareness of a brand and changes in the market’s share of a product. Such
explantory surveys can also research social effects in‐ and because of media.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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ResearchSurvey
Methods
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
The Survey: Field Research, Observing and Coding
Thick description: The thick description means that when you observe a
situation, you use means of gathering data that accounts for everyhing.
You could use movie‐recording devices and then later describe artefacts as
well as actions. This can lead to a very detailed description of an
environment and the interpretation of the actions.
Coding: The coding means fixating and capturing certain qualities of the
units, i.e. person/persons, texts, events (or other unit), you are observing.
For
example can the
thematic coding (concept variable)
function as
an
important objective to make way for interpretations and for applying
abstract theory of culture and perception.
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ResearchSurvey
Methods
The Survey: Field Research
Telephone interviews:
You can accomplish the data very quickly and directly.
It is cheap to conduct
The respondents can be reached globally.
Face‐to‐ face interviews:
Short interviews as well as longer interviews can be conducted,
i.e. in a shopping mall or in a home.
Video‐ and audio techniques can be used.
Better personal credibility can be achieved by
personal interview.
Web‐/mail ‐/online‐ or paper questionnaire:
Simple forms can be filled out by respondents. By using web or mail the
statistical answers will be easy to monitor quickly afterwards.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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QuantitativeResearch
The Survey
Describing Data
Links: See
more
on percentage calculation here …
http://www.math.com/everyone/calculators/calc_source/percent.htm
http://www.easycalculation.com/statistics/statistics.php
http://www.euromonitor.com/
Don’t panic! If you use an online survey tool all the calculations are done for you.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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ResearchAn Overview
1. The hypothesis Propose that if an independent variable is assumed to have a certain strength, it may beexpected to exert a measurable impact on a designated dependent variable. Then it can betested, if this hypothesis can be proved or disproved. (Jensen 2005: 212).
2. The Variable … is gender, age, nationality etc.
… is the empirical representation of a phenomenon (like trends) …
Concept and a… Construct (combination of concepts)
A
concept representsan abstract idea thatembodies the nature of observable phenomena, or an interpretation of
why such phenomeaoccur. (Jensen, 2005)
Example:
Individualsare defined in terms of their use of a media.
You define the notionsof a “light user” and a
“heavy user” based on
media types, levels of defined usage etc.
(Jensen, 2005)
A
combination of
concepts used to
define the
characteristics of the individual users as grouped in concepts (in the example).Heavy users may be described by suchconcepts as sociability, tolerance for strongstimulation, risk‐taking etc. (Jensen, 2005).
3. Independent Variables
…
can be manipulated by
the
researcher. … means the way the research
process is constructed to measure
a response. (Jensen, 2005)
4. Dependent Variables
… is the measure of the
outcome of the
research
based on its construct and itsdependent variables, i.e. it is
the information created by the
variables and the hypothesis.(Jensen, 2005)
B e f o r e t h e
r e s e a r c h
A f t e r t h e r e s
e a r c h
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
Qualitative and/or quantitative research design
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ResearchThe Survey
Example
Let’s visithttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFbmHDs7TmI …
… and have a talk about this type of survey and its components.
Variables? Concepts? Independent variables/dependent variables?
Qualitative, quantitative, mix, goal, interpretation?
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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Assignment USABILITY TESTS—design a survey of a user experience
T E S T I N G1. Make a test of a website or a mobile application: Heuristics.
2. What is your hypothesis as a media designer, based on your initial test, on usability in relation to the concepts: navigation, readability and design?
3. Work with these valid concepts in relation to:
the attitudes toward the visual design (qualitative method) the ability to read the text (quantitative method).
Interview two, three or more people (Who? / why?)
4. Record, write down, observe etc. (how? / why?)
Present according to the template on the next slide →
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
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Assignment USABILITY TESTS—design a survey of a user experience
R E P O R T I N G (validating your results)1. Summary of the main results with conclusion.
2. Introduction:
hypothesis, problems and research questions, concepts in use.
3. Describtion of method/methods:
A mix of quantative and qualitative approaches? How? Focus?Independent and dependent variables? Your unique research design?
4. Observations and results, focus points. Pie chart templates may be used.
5. Conclusion (short, recap on 1)
6. Recommendations for improvements of media.
S o u r c e :
M u n k & M ø r k ( 2 0 0 2 ) : B r u
g e r v e n l i g h e d
p å
i n t e r n e t t e t . .
S a m f u n d s l i t t e r a t u r .
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY