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Skeletal System
&Articulations
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What Is Osteoporosis?
• Loss of bone density.– Due to low hormone levels.
– Occurs prematurely due to extreme weight loss.
– Results in low estrogen levels.
TortoraPages: 113
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What Is Osteology?
• Study of bone structure & treatment of bone disorders.
TortoraPages: 114
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Dancing Skeleton
Functions of the Skeletal
System• Support• Protection• Assisting in movement
• Mineral homeostasis
• Production of blood
• Triglyceride storage
TortoraPages: 114
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Types of Bones
• Long bones– Longer than wide
– Slightly curved
– Compact and spongy bone
– Ex - Radius, ulna, femur.
TortoraPages: 114
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Types of Bones
• Flat bones– Thin– Composed of two plates compact bone.
– Spongy bone in between.
• Ex: cranium, ribs, scapula.
TortoraPages: 114
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Types of Bones
• Short bones– Cubed shaped– Mostly spongy bone.
– Surface of compact bone
• Ex: wrist (carpals) & ankles (tarsals)
TortoraPages: 114
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Types of Bones
• Irregular bones– No consistant shape.
– Varies in compact and spongy bone.
• Ex: Vertebrae
TortoraPages: 114
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Types of Bones
• Others• Sutural bones
– Small bones found in joints between bones of skull.
• Sesamoid bones– Bones located in tendons.
– Vary in number.• Ex: Patellas
TortoraPages: 114
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Macroscopic Structure of
Bone
• Diaphysis• Epiphysis• Metaphysis• Epiphyseal plate• Articular cartilage• Periosteum• Medullary cavity• Endosteum
TortoraPages: 115
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Histology
• Consists of 4 types of connective tissue.– Cartilage– Bone– Bone marrow– periosteum
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Histology
• Bone consists of:–loosely spaced cells.
–Matrix• 25% water• 50% mineral salts
• 25% collagenous fibers.
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Histology• Bone contains 4 types of cells:– Osteoprogenitor
• Give rise to other cells.
– Osteoblasts• Bone forming cells.
– Osteocytes• Mature bone maintaining cells
– Osteoclasts• Bone breakdown
Pages: 98 - 100
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Macroscopic Structure of
Bone
Monday 10/28Pages: 98 - 100
Articular cartilage
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Microscopic Structure of
Bone
• Compact bone– Gives strength– Covers spongy bone.– Composed of osteons (Haversian systems)
Monday 10/28Pages: 98 - 100
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Exhibit 6.1 Quiz
1. What two of the following minerals make the bone matrix hard?
A) Calcium B) Iron C) Zinc D) ATP E) Phosphorus
2. Which vitamin controls the activity, distribution, and coordination of osteoblasts and osteoclasts?
A) Vitamin E B) Vitamin A C) Vitamin C D) Vitamin D
3. General purpose growth hormone that causes growth in all tissues including bone.
A) HGH B) Estrogens C) Parathyroid hormone
D) Calcitonin E) Thyroxine
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Exhibit 6.1 Quiz
4. Which vitamin helps maintain the bone matrix and whose deficiency leads to decrease in collagen?
A) Vitamin E B) Vitamin A C) Vitamin C D) Vitamin D
5. Which hormone promotes bone formation by inhibiting osteoclasts?
B) HGH B) Estrogens C) Parathyroid hormone
D) Calcitonin E) Thyroxine
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Exhibit 6.1 Quiz
1) A,E2) B3) A4) C5) D
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Macroscopic Structure of
Bone• Spongy bone
– Contains trabeculae
– Formed from collagenous fibers
– Reduces weight
– Maintains strength
TortoraPages: 98 - 100
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Ossification
• Process by which bone forms.
• Starts during the 6th or 7th week of life.
TortoraPages: 102-104
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Ossification
• Intramembraneous ossification:
• Starts as a membrane shaped like a bone.– Ex: skull, mandible, clavicle
TortoraPages: 102-104
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Ossification
• Endochondral ossification:
• Starts with hyaline cartilage.
• Forms most bones.
• Ex: femur, tibia, humerus, etc.
TortoraPages: 102-104
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Ossification• Step #1
– Cartilage model of bone develops.
– Surrounded by a perichondrium.
TortoraPages: 102-104
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Ossification
• Step #2– Cartilage model
grows.– Cartilage begins
to calcify.– Cartilage cells
start to die.– Nutrient artery
grows into cartilage model.
– Osteoblasts in perichondrium start ossification
TortoraPages: 102-104
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Ossification
• Step #3– Primary
ossification occurs.
– Forms collar around shaft of bone.
– Osteoblasts create new bone.
– Medullary canal created by action of osteoclasts.
TortoraPages: 102-104
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Ossification
• Step #4– Secondary
ossification starts in the ends of the bone.
– Occurs about the time of birth
– Growth is outward from the center of the epiphysis towards the outside of the bone
TortoraPages: 102-104
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Ossification
• Cartilage remains at ends of the bone (articular cartilage)
• Epiphyseal plate is last to ossify.
• Ends growth.• Remodeling is
only change possible afterwards.
TortoraPages: 102-104
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Homeostasis
• Bone replaces itself throughout life.
• Referred to as remodeling.
TortoraPages: 104-106
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Bone Surface Markings
• Depressions and openings– Foramen– Fossa
TortoraPages: 107-108
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Bone Surface Markings
• Processes that form joints– Condyle
• Knuckle-like process
– Head• Rounded
projection, supported by constricted portion of bone.
– Facet• Smooth, flat
surface
TortoraPages: 104-106
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Bone Surface Markings
• Processes that connect to ligaments and other connective tissue.– Tuberosity
• Large rouned area.
– Spinous process• Slender
projection– Trochanter
• Large blunt projection
– Crest• ridge
TortoraPages: 104-106
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Male/female Differences
1. General Structure– Male:
Heavy/thick– Female:
Light/thin
2. Pubic Arch– Male: Less
than 90– Female:
Greater than 90
3. Obturator Foramen– Male: Round– Female: Oval
TortoraPages: 132-133
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Articulations
• Gravity mandates a stiff and rigid skeleton.
• Movement requires flexibility.
• Flexibility created by articulations (joints)
TortoraPage: 156
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Articulations
• Structure determines function.
• Movement is determined by– Structure of bones
forming the joint.– The flexibility of
connective tissue connecting the bones.
– Position of ligaments, tendons, and muscles.
– Hormones
TortoraPage: 157
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Structural Classificati
on• Fibrous: bones
connected with fibrous connective tissue.
• EX: tibia - fibula
• Cartilaginous: Bones connected by cartilage.
• EX: Ribs - sternum• Synovial: Joint
surrounded by synovial membrane.
• EX: knee, elbow, hip.
TortoraPages: 157-160
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Classification of Synovial
Joints• Gliding Joints
– Surfaces are flat
– Side to side motion
– Ex; Between carpals, tarsals.
• Hinge Joint– Convex surface -
concave surface.– Single plane
movement– EX: knee
TortoraPages: 160-163
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Classification of Synovial
Joints• Pivot Joint
– Rounded or pointed with ring-like structure.
– Rotation movement– EX: atlas - axis,
radius ulna.• Condyle Joint
– Oval shaped - depression
– Side to side movement, back and forth movement.
– Radius - carpals
TortoraPages: 160-163
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Classification of Synovial
Joints• Saddle Joint
– Metacarpaland carpal of thumb.
• Ball and Socket Joint– Rounded end - cup
like depression.– Movement in three
planes.– EX: Hip and
shoulder.
• Condyloid– Ex: radius and wrist
bones.
TortoraPages: 160-163
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Structures of a Synovial
Joint
Saddle
• Synovial cavity• Articular
cartilage• Articular capsule
– Fibrous capsule (outer)
– Ligaments– Synovial membrane
(inner)– Synovial fluid
TortoraPages: 164-165
ATC Animati
on
ATC Surgery
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Meniscus Repair Surgery
Structures of a Synovial
Joint
TortoraPages: 164-165
Saddle
• Accessory ligaments– Lie outside the
articular capsule.
• Articular discs (menisci)
• BursaeKnee Structure
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MOVEMENT AT
SYNOVIAL JOINTS
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Classification of Joints
• Structural classification– Fibrous– Cartilaginous– Synovial
• Functional Classification– Synarthrosis– Amphiarthrosis– Diarthrosis
TortoraPages: 157-160
Osteoarthritis
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Basic Anatomical Position
• Standing erect– Toes forward– Head facing forward.
– Hands at side.– Palms facing forward.
TortoraPages 160-163
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Basic Anatomical Position
TortoraPages 160-163
• Structural classification– Fibrous– Cartilaginous– Synovial
• Functional Classification– Synarthrosis– Amphiarthrosis– Diarthrosis
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Categories of Movement
• Gliding– Flat bones form joint• Back and forth• Side to side
• Angular – Increase or decrease in angle of bones.
• Rotation– A bone rotates on long axis
• Special Movewment
TortoraPages 160-163
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Angular Movements
• Flexion–Reducing angle of joint
–Extension • Increasing angle of joint
–Hyperextension• Beyond basic anatomical position
TortoraPages 160-163
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Angular Movements
• Abduction–Movement away from midline of body.
• Adduction–Movement towards midline of body.
TortoraPages 160-163
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Angular Movements
• Circumduction– Moving distal end of arm or leg in a circle.• Ex: shoulder
– hip
TortoraPages 160-163
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Special Movements
• Inversion– Lifting of medial side of foot so that soles face each other.
• Eversion– Lifting of lateral side of foot so that sole faces outward.
TortoraPages 160-163
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Special Movements
• Pronation– Movement of hand such that palm faces backward.
• Supination– Movement of palm such that it faces forward.
TortoraPages 160-163
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Special Movements
• Dorsiflexion– Bending foot in the superior direction
Plantar FlexionBending of foot in the inferior direction
TortoraPages 160-163
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Synovial Joint
Movements
TortoraPages: 160-163
• Flexion Vs Extension• Abduction Vs Adduction• Circumduction• Elevation Vs Depression• Supination Vs Pronation
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