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SOME BATTLES RAGED LONG AFTER THE ARMISTICE
1918-1920: Russian Civil War (Reds vs. Whites)
January-June 1919: Versailles Conference makes peace with Germany and Austria
September 1919: Italian Nationalists seize Fiume1919-22: Greco-Turkish War1920-21: Russo-Polish WarOctober 1922: Italian Fascist March on Rome
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The “Big Four” at Versailles (January-June
1919): David Lloyd George,
Orlando, Clemenceau, and Woodrow Wilson.
Wilson called for a new “democratic
diplomacy,” based on “open covenants, openly arrived at.”
The Congress of Vienna:
Wellington, Hardenberg, Metternich,
Castlereagh, and Talleyrand
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Woodrow Wilson despised his predecessor, William Howard Taft, as a champion of “dollar
diplomacy.”But Taft DID support international courts of
arbitration. In 1916, 70% of U.S. voters supported a “League of Nations,” and Teddy Roosevelt was
almost the only leader to champion unrestricted national sovereignty.
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The impact of the Treaty of Versailles on Germany (France occupied the Rhineland until 1930, the
Saarland until 1935)
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Sir William Orpen, “The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors,
Versailles, 28 June 1919”
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Delegation of French wounded at the signing ceremony for the Treaty of Versailles, 28 June 1919
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KEY DECISIONS AT VERSAILLES IN 1919
National self-determination for Poles, “Czechoslovaks”, “Yugoslavs”, Romanians, Latvians, Lithuanians, & Estonians
Formation of a “League of Nations” dedicated to “collective security” (but votes must be unanimous)
Italy gains the south Tirol but must renounce Dalmatia; the status of Fiume remains disputed
Great Britain gains control of Germany’s African colonies, Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq as “League of Nations Mandates”; France gains Syria, Lebanon, and Cameroon
Germany must pay war reparations equal to the entire cost of the war and reduce its army to 100,000 men
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THE POSTWAR BORDERS OF EUROPE
Regions whose status was NOT resolved at Versailles:• Fiume• Upper Silesia• Eastern Poland• Russia• Turkey
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European language
groups, 1910
Postwar borders, 1921
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The Russian Civil War, 1918/19:
In January 1919, Field Marshall
Ferdinand Foch advocated massive
intervention from Odessa,
Murmansk, Archangel,
Vladivostok, Poland and Romania
(Brose, 369-73)
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Japanese troops in Vladivostok, 1919(they remained until 1922)
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“Long live the three-million-man Red Army!” (USSR, 1919):The Reds won many victories in summer 1919….
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“Capitalists of the World,
Unite!”A Soviet poster from 1920 to denounce the Imperialists
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Soviet leaders all hoped at first for world revolution:
“Long Live the Third Communist International!” (1920)
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Polish peasants with their scythes volunteer tofight in the Russo-Polish War, 1920
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The front line in the Russo-Polish War in June 1920,at the height of Polish success (final border in black)
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Field Marshal Jozef Pilsudski, Polish chief of state, 1918-
1922; dictator, 1926-1935
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Italy gained the Trentino (with 230,000 German-speakers) and Trieste, but NOT Istria and Dalmatia,
with 1.3 million South Slavs. Orlando dug in his heels over Fiume….
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Gabriele d’Annunzio, the Italian poet and war hero who led volunteers into Fiume in September 1919, the first
“duce”
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Benito Mussolini(1883-1945,
photographed in 1911):
school teacher,revolutionary
Marxist, editor of the main
Italian Socialist newspaper, 1912-15.
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Mussolini as a volunteer in the
Italian army, 1917.He founded an interventionist
newspaper in 1915 and served at the
front for nine months.
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A modern reenactment of a procession of lictors,who carried before the ancient consuls of Rome the
fasces that symbolized their authority.
In Italian fascio can refer to a bundle of sticks or a band of men. In 1915 Mussolini helped to found the Fasci d’azione rivolutionaria to agitate for intervention in the war.
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Mussolini founded his Fascist National Party in 1919 to appeal to workers and combat veterans disillusioned with Marxism; to his surprise the party attracted mainly rightists who sought to
“crush the Reds”
FASCIST PROGRAM OF 1919
FASCIST PROGRAM OF 1921
Italy must be a republic! Cherish the monarchy!
Separate Church & State!Revere the Catholic
Church!
Nationalize heavy industry!
Promote free enterprise!
Ally with the Socialists! Crush the Reds!
Imperial expansion! Imperial expansion!
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Fascist Black Shirts March on Rome, October 1922
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King Victor Emmanuel III (1869-1947;
reigned 1900-46)
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Mussolini was very proud of his physique.At bottom he helps to
fight the “battle of wheat”
in Littoria in 1932.
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As Italian prime minister, Mussolini
advocated rule by the
“aristocracy of the trenches.”
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Greek Prime Minister Venizelos and “Megali Hellas” (1920)
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Turkish cavalry moves toward the front in theGreco-Turkish War of 1919-1922--- 1.5 million Greeks
fled Asia Minor, & 500,000 Muslims fled Greece
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Already by 1922, it was clear that only the green countries supported the Versailles settlement
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“Workers, burghers, farmers, soldiers of every German tribe: Unite in the National Assembly!” (Jan 1919)
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The first women elected to a German parliament (Weimar, 1919)
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“The Stab in the Back”
(Nazi magazine cover, 1924)
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“On the 9th of November
1919”(German
Nationalist placard):
The anniversary
of the Kaiser’s
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President Paul von Hindenburg reviews the troops, 1925:The man who led Germany to defeat remained strangely
popular