Journal of Scientific & Industri al Research Vol. 60, April 200 1, pp 291 -297
Strategic Technology Management and International Competition in Developing Countries - The Need for a Dynamic Approach
v P Kharbanda National institute of Science Technology and Development Studies, Dr K S Kri shnan Marg,
New Delhi I 1001 2, India
The present scenario of free trade, globalization and intense international competition call s for a strateg ic development of technology management part icul arl y in the developing country enterpri ses to enable them to quicken technology capability building and compete in the international market. The present paper explores the need and measures to adopt such a strategy and build up technology innovation systems to leap-frog and meet the above
objectives taking a few examples from Indian scenario. It is argued that the ITC of a country is the sum total ofTM capabiliti es of the firms in that country. Moreover, both TM andlTC are cumulative, incremental and are therefore evolutionary in nature. It is necessary, therefore, to talk about dynamic indicators of lTe. Such dynamic indicators are captured best in the mechani sms of se lecti ons - of choices and preferences on structures of incentives and strategies. We argue that national indicators of lTC are the same as the firm level indicators of dynamic TM; and indicators of dynamic TM are the indicators of choices and preferences on structures of incentives and strategies.
Introduction Rapid industrialization is an imperati ve for the
developing countries. In this context the subject of technology development and its management is crucial. In the present scenario of globalization and international competition, an additional significance for the developing countries is the thrust now needed to be given to the strategic development of technology management (TM). Indigenous technology capability building in these countries can effectively enable them to compete in the international market. Technological deve lopment has not usually flourished in the developing countries in the absence of building up of sufficient Indigenous Technological Capabilities CITC) I. Ishikawa2
, in hi s study on role of import of technology on ITC, stresses that a proper mix of foreign technology(tf) and indigenous technology(td) is necessary for rai sing the total leve l of indigenous technological capability (TD). Once this level ofTD is ra ised, the system is capable of importing more advanced technologies(tf) . Successful absorption and adaptation of a technology in a system raises its level of ITC which, in turn, determines the sophistication of the technology it can further import2. Thus, ITC is the product of continuous amalgamation of indigenous R&D and imported technologies. The present paper is about the indicators of ITC.
The kind of technologies a country can assimilate and disseminate largely depends upon the level of its ex isting ITC. If the gap in the technology imported and ex isting ITC of the recipient country is too large, then there is every possibility that the technology may not get assimilated fully in a short span of time . The result of thi s is that the technology gets outdated, and the recipient country may have to depend on import of the " improved vers ions" of the same technology repeatedly. The differential ofITCs between the donors and recipients, i.e. the " techno logy gap" determines the mode of technology transact ions which, in turn, affects the building of ITC in the recipient country. Further, this ITC of a country is a total multi ple effect of the ITC' s built up at the firm level through the process of technological management and change. Countries with successful experience in TM have come to realize that a minimum leve l of technological competence is required , not only to modify and adapt fore ign technology to local needs, but a lso to provide the bas is to an intelligent se lection from out of the wide range of potential supplies. The proper se lecti on from the a lte rnative technolog ies available fro m abroad requires a considerable amount of technica l knowledge which is difficult to acquire in the absence of any domesti c ex perience. It has been acknowledged that creating Strategic
292 J SCIIND RES VOL 60 APRIL 200 1
Technology Management (TM) as a main factor of technological capability is of vital importance to the deve loping countries.
The technology management problems of the developing countries can be broadly summarized in a few ques·tions. How can the technology and technol og ical capability of a developing country be developed? How to use the technol ogy it possesses? Which products should it manufacture now and which later? What capabilities does it need for production, both now and later? Which agents should supply those capabi li ties at the various stages of its technological development process? What technol og ical changes are needed to bring in competitive advantage? These problems of cho ices and preferences set thei r own parameters, and we argue th at such parameters const itute the indicators of tec hn olog ica l capabi lity - both cu rrent and potential , and the indicators of technology management at the macro leve l. It is argued that the lTC of a country is the sum total of TM capabi lities of the firms in that country. Moreover, both TM and ITC are cumulat ive, incrementa l and are therefore evo lutionary in natu re. It is necessary, thererore, to talk about dynamic indicators of ITC. Such dynamic indicators are captured best in the mechan isms of se lections - of choices and preferences on st ructures of incen ti ves and strateg ies. We argue that nati ona l indicators of ITC are the same as the finn leve l indicators of dynamic TM ; and indicators of dynamic TM are the indicators of choices and preferences on structures of incentives and strategies. The paper di scusses in the subsequent section , the importance of strategic TM, followed by issues on strategic technological innovation. The section following addresses issues of competitive ad vantage, followed by a discussion on approaches to technology strategy including dynamic aspects. Case studies are taken up thereafter, followed by a di scuss ion on the issues raised by the cases. A brief conclusion follows.
Need for Strategic Technology Management Support of Technolog ical Change (TC) process by the
top management is primary to the success' of TM . Recent studies on Indian firms also reveal that the top leadersh ip has been main ly responsible in raising the indigenous co nt e nt of TC 4
• This is in harm ony with Schumpeterian\ thinking wh ich regards entrepreneur as an important fi gure. Detail ed micro studies carried by Mascarenhas fi
, pointed out that in improving qua lity of production of the Hindustan Machine Too l (HMT) its
top leadership had been a positi ve facto r of import ance. Kin g7
, regard s that onl y having technical env ironmen t is no t a sufficient stimulant to independent techn olog ica l activity. Entrepreneurial activity of the top management, as a vital non-cognitive aspect ofITC, helps technica l environment bringings effec tive TC in a given enterpri se.
A technology developed in one c un try can onl y be part ia lly transferred to another country. A rec ipient coun try needs to learn both the tran ferab le parts, as we ll as the parts which cann ot be transferred. In order to overcome the untransferrable, it is necessary to have learning at the shop floor level to fully absorb and adopt the tech nology and then to build upon it through incremental innovat ions and technolog ical change. Lack of sulTicient will at the level of top management and ' learning by doing' coupl ed with in-house R&D, have been the main factors that, in spite of the massi ve flow of foreign technologies, stopped most the developi ng countries rrolll deve loping a strong ITC. One of the major issues raised by several workers has been the lack of TM and TC to absorb imported technologyX. Through TM, the enterprise and its assoc iates can prop r1 y integrate and manage the interdependence between techno log ical innovati ons and other types of innovati on (related to organizationa l structure, systems, strategy, fin ance and management aspects). Thus , TM is now at the core of the stra tegies of successful industrial firms f any size in any coun try.
Strategic Technological Innovation fOl-Leap-frogging Illcremental innovations are so widely adopted that
they have been mistaken as the rec ipe for enterpri se competitiveness by the entrepreneurs of most deve loping countries. Therefore, what most orga nizations ca ll innovat ion is actually confined entirely to incremental innovatio n. Without demeaning their relative importance fo r short- term gains in productivity, quality and profitab ility, and for provid ing both rap i credibility for change processes and building change managemen t capability, incremental innovations by themselves do not contribute significantly to the enterprises' susta inable competitiveness. When managed effec ti ve ly. these incremen tal innovations result in quality and productivity gains which increase profitability and customer sa tisfaction. Furthermore, they set the stage for the enterp rise's adopti on or a culture for change. These innovations, in the main. rely on im itation of what the best compani s are doing but technological imitation alone can nei ther provide the
KH ARBA DA: STRATEGIC TECH OL MA AGEMENT & INTERNATIONAL COM PETITI O :m
market differentiation required for competiti veness nor
the know ledge-breakthroughs required by the New In
dustrial Revo lution . As a consequence, technology trans
fer by itse lf has lost significance. Any potenti ally sig
nificant source of differenti ati on - cost structures, in
te rna l logisti cs, di stributi on channe ls, fl ex ibility o f deli very and others - should be targeted for strateg ic tech
nolog ical innovations and change . Strategic Inn ovations are ongo ing processes in whi ch
a company synthes izes industry and techno logy r ores ight with the marke t place. As a result , it can strateg ica ll y
posture itself to produce the breakthrough new techno lo
g ies, products and businesses, required by the New In
dustria l Revoluti on. In order to harness the power of stra
tegic innovation, a company must ac t on fo res ight (into the future) and on insight into current and future cus
tomers needs . T he leverag ing o f foresight and ins ig ht
all ow it to conceptua li ze a des ired future and to c reate new products and businesses required to materi a li ze such
a future in a prod ucti ve way. Therefore, breakthrough
strategic innovations require prospecti ve analys is of tech
nologies pri oriti zed by the ir impac t on ex isting and fu
ture co mpetiti ve factors, the detection of opportuniti es
and threats to ex isting and new bus inesses c reated by
market and technology di scontinuities it invo lves, the
precise identificati on and leverag ing of the ente rpri ses core competencies, diagnos is of the respecti ve ri sks of
technolog ica l strategies, balanced project portfo li os and innovation partner 's roles. Technolog ical Leap-Frogging
is beset with the lack o f capability of the developing
country ente rpri ses to effecti vely perform strateg ic tech
nological innovations. The enterpri ses a re necessaril y
the main actors involved . According ly, the starting point
is inevitably to create a capac ity for strategic TM in the
enterpri se.
Competitive Advantage Smith 's~ , dictum on new di vision s of labour and new
improvements, Schumpete r 'slo, e mphases on competi
tion from the new commodity, the new techno logy, the
new source of supply, and the new type o f organizati on have prov ided us the view tha t competition is the dri v
ing force behind technological and institutional change. The same has been recentl y re ite rated by Porter ll , as the
. four broad attributes that are dete rminants of competi
ti ve ad vantage: ( i) fac tor conditions (skill s, infrastruc-ture, etc.); (ii ) demand conditions; ( iii ) re lated and sup
porting industries; and ( iv) firm strategy, struc ture, and
ri valry. These attributes form a mutua ll y re inforc in g sys-
tem in which the effect of one depends on the state of
the others. Techno log ical competiti veness, thus, can be
achi eved in three diffe rent ways:
( I ) Performing better than competitors on an a lready
ex isting dimens ion o f com petition, (2) Establi shing a new dimension on whi ch to com
pe te, and (3) Creating a new product/market combinati on.
The c reation of a competiti ve ad vantage is act ua ll y
re lated to a process o f continuous innovati on and tec h
no logica l change . T he c reat ion of a com petiti ve advantage, thu s, is the resul t of continu ous inn ovati on acti vity
of ente rpri se. The susta in abili ty of a competiti ve advan
tage is s tro ng ly re la te d to th e app ro pri abi lity and exp lo itabili ty of the underl y ing innova ti ons . These. in
turn , are linked w ith two main factors - know-h ow and timing. In fact, innovation and techn ologica l change c re
ate a comparati ve advantage w hen a gap is c rea ted be
tween the innovating enterpri se and its competi to rs. This
is essenti a ll y a kn ow ledge and kn ow- how gap. The
appropri ability of an innovati on can be measured by the
effort that competitors make to narrow the kn ow ledge
ga p. When the kn owledge gap is w ide, co mpeti tors
should make great effort s to fill it , and thi s takes ti me and resource in vestments . The longer the time required ,
the larger the in vestments required , the mo re sustainable is the comparati ve advantage. If the knowledge gap
can be narrowed down in short durati on, the inn ovator
can make profits from the innovati ons on short term ba
s is. This shows that other way to ex plo it innova ti on is timing, which re lies on the ability for continuous in no
vati on.
Traditional Approaches to the Formulation of a Technology Strategy Strategic management of techno logical innovation fo r
linking technology and bus iness strateg ies has been pa id inc reas ing attention o ver the last severa l yea rs. Hax and M ajlufl2 , proposed , the Strategic Technical Unit (STU)
as a unit, defined as the technologies embodied in a product and in its process of producti on. Later, as the tech
nolog ies become sophi sticnted , thi s STU al so incorporates the skill s and di sc iplines that a re applied to a pa rti cul ar product or process, in order to ga in techn olog ical
advantage. The process of eva luati on of techno logy st rategy starts with the techno logy environment scan and the inte rna l technology scrutin y. Techno logy environment
294 J SCI IND RES VOL 60 APRI L 200 1
scan identifies techno logical opportunities and threats and assesses the attractiveness of each ST U. The internal technol ogy scru tiny recogni zes strength s and weaknesses assoc iated with each STU and determi nes the spec ific technological competenc ies which can be acquired to gain competiti veness . This is effecting cho ices and preferences. STU can be cons idered as the dynamic carrier of ITC indicators. Definin g and evaluating spec ific R&D projects and budgeting therefore fo ll ows this
effecting of cho ices, the latter carried out in the stage of
strategic programming. Conceptuall y, thi s approach to technology stra tegy
assumes that technology has to relate to a conventi ona l
generic strategic fra mework and support a se lec ted market pos itioning. At the center of a technology strategy, there is competiti ve advantage which an enterpri se is try ing to achieve. It begins with the specif ic industry where a firm is competing or will compete; and the unit of analys is is the technology embodied in the product. Thi s model foc uses on how a strategic decisi on affec ts or is affected by the change in technology, on how to embody technology in the strategy fo rmulation process, on how a techno logy programme can support a g iven strategy and fina lly, on how to ga in competiti veness through change in the technolog ical solution fo r a certain product. However, thi s approach can be criti c ized, if applied to dynamic competiti on which impl ies continuous innovation and technological change in high tech
nological areas with high knowledge content. The ma in criticism concerns the unit of analys is that remain s static and limited to the product and its constituent technolo
gIes.
Towards a Framework of Dynamic Technology Strategy Enterpri ses faced with the dynamics, need continuity
and coherence in terms of the skill s and kn ow ledge used for product applicati on. The nature of technologica l deve lopment is, therefore, cumul ati ve, and an enterprise innovation capability is strongly re lated to the resources and competenc ies developed over time through accu mulating tac it knowledge and experience 1.1 . Further, the ro le of learning-by-doing process in improv ing tech nolog ical competenc ies and continuous up-gradat ion of the knowledge domain is also cruc i a l l~ . A techno logy management strategy formul ates th is ' trajectory ' by whic h technological resources are accumul ated, and used. An enterpri se needs to find a continuity which is not related to the stabi lity of the product parad igm but is rela ted to
the stability of the resource (knowledge) accumul ation process l",.
Three Indian Firms: Combining Business with Technology
Some e ffo rts in thi s direction to combi ne technolog ical approach with bus iness approach have been pursued by many Indian firms. Foll owing three examples drawn
from Indian scenario conform to the above approach.
The example of TELCO , a large Indian firn1 in the automobil e sec tor is a case in po int . T he strategy of TELCO has been to develop design competence and blend it with the requ ired engineering and manufactu ring competence. From 1954-64, TELCO had only one co ll aboration with Daimler-Benz AG, West Germany. By the ti me co ll aboration ended in 1969, at the end of 15 y period , TELCO had complete ly indigeni zed the product and process technologies mainly through in house R&D . T he main reason for the success of the strategy of TELCO has been the integrati on of technology into the business growth . As a result of Government ofIndia 's broad banding policy for automobiles in 1985, TELCO moved into the L ight Commercial Vehicle (LCV) segment without much ti me lag and produced completely indigenized LCV in 1986. The seventies and eighties thus, saw the intensive deve lopment of in-house R&D at TELCO. Because of the competition fro m Japanese des igned L ight Commercial Vehicles (LCVs) (From 1985 onwards), the company entered into several manufacturing processes agreements to moderni ze its operations and to introduce new products through its own design efforts. During 1990s, TELCO increased the des ign and manufacturing integrati on. T he progress ive integration of des ign and manufacturing has been possible because of the co-locati on of R&D and production.
T he use of a common des ign data base across the manufac turing, eng ineerin g and des ign functi ons along with standardizati on has been one of the maj or technology management strateg ies adopted by TELCO for introduc ing many products at short intervals. By 199 1, TELCO int roduced several indi genously des igned vehic les including multi utility vehi cles like Tata S ierra and Tata Es ta te. T ill 1994-95 , TELCO has prod uced approx imate ly 1.4 m vehic les and of thi 1.2 m vehi c les have been produced after 1969 under 'Tata' brand-name.
W ith the result, TELCO at present is the largest commerc ial vehicle manu fac turer in Ind ia wi th 70 per cent
KHARBAND A : STRATEGIC TECHNOL MANAGEMENT & INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION 295
market and it has been able to compete based on its own combined commercial and technical strength 1(, .
Another example is that of Samtel Group in electronics industry for the manufacture of black and white picture tubes. The Teletube Electronics was the first company in India to manufacture picture tubes in the private sector without any collaboration. Its Managing Director, before returning to India in 1972, had worked in the US for six months with a TV picture tube manufacturer. He learnt the basic technology for its batch production . It started with an initial insta lled capac ity of 40,000 units in 1975 at Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh(UP), India . Up to 1983 the tubes were totally impOlted. In 1984, it estab li shed a Sister Company 'Samtel India' to assemble the three glass components of the bulb, viz. the panel , the funnel and the neck locall y. FUl1her, in 1983-84 the firm was importing complete electron guns. In 1985 the group set up another Company at Ghaziabad, to assemble electron guns indigenously and by 1986, seven assembled components were being imported in the form of Semi Knock Down (S KD) kits. These were then fitted together locall y to form the electron gun . In 1988-89, it started importing Completely Knocked Down (CKD) kits, under which electron gun was imported in the form of twentythree components to be assembled locally.
The indigenization process was facilitated when the Government of India introduced fa vorable fisca l measures in the form of reduced customs duty on import of components. For example, when the whole electron gun was imported , the import duty was 60 per cent ; for SKD components imported the duty was 40 per cent. Of the 23 components the three most important were cathodes, heaters, and stems. All these were indigeni zed later. By 1991 the electron gun was being completely manufactured for B& Wand color televisions and monitors for personal computers. In the complete TV picture tube, there are 40 components, of which only 20 components continued to be imported in 1990, whereas in 1982 all these components were imported. Cost-wise, the extent of indigenization is 85 per cent. In 1988, about 60 per cent of the raw materials were imported. In 1990, the cost of these imports was reduced to 16 per cent only. Presently, high grade phosphor, lacquer, and barium oxide getter are the only raw materi als which are still being imported l7 . It is observed that , in the manufacture of picture tubes at Samtel Group , indigeni za ti on and technological change have been brought about mainly through the strategy of "Iearning-by-doi ng" process and
des ign engineering and is characterized by the subst itution of imported technologies. Technologies have been picked up from various sources, put together and adapted. Expansion of the production capacity along with diversification of the products show that entrepreneuri al capabilities played a vital role in building of technologica l capabil ities at the firm level.
Third example is that of Defence Research Laboratory (DRL), Hyderabad , which is one of the top three pharmaceutical companies in India . It was founded by Dr Anji Reddy in 1984 and since then it has grown into a fully integrated pharmaceuti cal company. Along wi th other group firms , it has an annual turnover of over S $ 100 m. It consists of three organizat ions namely. Dr Reddy's Research Foundation ; Cheminor Drugs; and Dr Reddy's Laboratories Ltd . These three units have become multinational players. By the end of 1997, Dr Reddy 's Group has fil ed for 18 international patents. DRL uses strateg ic alliances for competence building, and for creating competitive advantage. For example. it entered into alliance with the wel l known world leader Novo Nordi sk; Debiopharm of Switzerland; Center fo r Cellular and Molecular Biology(CCMB), Hyderabad; Biomed of Ru ss ia; and Orgenics of Israel for co llaborative drug development and manufacturing. The main strategy has been systematic planning and tight coupli ng between R&D and business. This appears to be responsible for the high R&D producti vity at DRL. Their R&D portfolio approach has reduced the drug development cycle time and ensured that a regul ar stream of drugs are introduced every year lX . Thi s rapid growth rate has mainly come through dovetailing R&D strategy with business strategy and its major research strategy has been to continuously launch new products into the market. Since 1990, it has been launching a new product every year. Its R&D expenditure has ri sen from 1.53 per cent of sales turn over in 1989 to 9.54 per cent in 1995-96. This has been made possible through balanced mixing of:
• Innovation. • Entrepreneurial capabilities.
• Long-term vision . • Competence in drug regulatory processes. • New products R&D planning.
Discussion
We can thus conclude that these firms have been quite success ful in combining technology strategy with busi-
296 J SCI IND RES VOL 60 APRI L 200 1
ness strategy to capture the market. Thi s is ev ident fro m the fact that these fi rms have been able to capture a large share of the Indian and the export market. However, thi s is not the case with a large number of other Indian f irms. At present, technologica l changes in the developing countries are restric ted to products, manu facturing processes, and re lated equipme nt. G iven the imperati ves o f market
d ifferentiati on and the broad scope fo r appl ying the new generic techno logies, technol ogica l changes should , in principle, be ta rgeted at a ll ac ti vities va lued by c lients, including ex tem allogisti cs, commerciali zati on channels and services. In many businesses, techn o logical innova~ tions conferring fl ex ibili ty or re li ability of de li very, for instance, often prove more effecti ve for d iffe renti ati on and competiti veness than attempting furt her ga ins onl y th rough bring ing changes in product qu al ity and pri ce.
Technological innovations dramatica ll y affec t, both price and non-price factors. Effecti ve techn o logica l dec isions and actions are actually at the core of effect ive business res tructuring, e nterpri se reeng ineering, and the applicati on of tota l quality management processes. T hey are the bedrock for se izing the ne w business opportun iti es that stem from technolog ical and market di scont inuities and fo r estab lishing the required g lobal partnerships to brin g
about the ir materi ali zation.
Most of the Small and Medium E nterprises (SMEs) in the deve loping countries lack the technolog ica l requirements fo r sustainabl e competiti veness . Usua ll y, their technol ogical needs re late only to grad ual improvements in product quality and producti vity or machinery up-grading. Thi s inhibits s trategic breakthroug h innovati ons and renders these companies blind to new business opportunities presented by market and techno logical di scontinuities. The re lated capab ility required to diagnose the technologica l competiti ve pos ition o f the company, to de fine techno log ical strateg ies and to effec ti ve ly implement re lated techno log ica l innovati on projects do not exi st in the great maj ority of enterprises. In the scenario of g loba lized markets and inc reased international competition, these enterpri ses require more and more TM skills and ex tern al support for both R&D and techno logy transfer projects. In thi s direc ti on, a recent mo ve by the PHD Chamber of Co mmerce and Industry (PHDCCI) is worth mentioning, which has mooted a proposal fo r formulat ing a "country-Tech no logy-Matrix" for strateg ic management of ind igenous tec hno logies with a view to helping Indian industry bu ild a g lobal and long te rm techno logical competitiveness I') .
Conclusions
We have argued that the ITC of a 'ou ntry is the sum tota l of T M capabilities of the fir ms in th at coun try. Moreover, both TM and ITC are cumu lati ve, incre mental, and are therefore evolutionary in nature. It is necessary, therefore, to ta lk about dynamic ind icators of ITC. S uch dynamic indicators are captured best in the mechani sms of se lections - of cho ices and preferences on struc tures of incenti ves and strateg ies . We argue that natio nal indi cators of LTC are the same as the firm level ind icators of dy namic TM ; and ind icators o f dynam ic TM are the indicators of cho ices and preferences on structures of incentives and strategies . T he current widespread need to compete through market diffe re nti ation, brought about by globalization and trade liberalizati on, has placed technological innovati on and its effective m anagement at the core of successful enterpri ses strategies. In order
to achieve this, the developing countries enterpri ses have to be capabl e of effectively managing the strateg ic technolog ical innovations, through adopti on of a dy nam ic techno logy st rategy, to genera te constant ly the new technol og ies, new products, and services that c haracte rize the highly know ledge intens ive New Indust ri al Revo luti on.
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