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STRUCTURAL GEOLOGYPRIMARY & NON-TECTONIC STRUCTURES1) PRINCIPLE OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY (NICOLAS STENO 1638-1686) – LAYERS OF SEDIMENTS ARE ORIGINALLY DEPOSITED HORIZONTALLY. • THIS PRINCIPLE IS IMPORTANT TO ANALYSIS OF FOLDED & TILTED STRATA. • FIELD OBSERVATIONS REVEAL THAT EARTH IS DYNAMIC THAT LEADS TO SCIENCE OF PLATE TECTONICS; THAT PLATE MOVEMENT CAUSES ROCK DEFORMATION
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• SEDIMENTS FORMED IN OCEAN & DEPOSITED IN HORIZONTAL LAYERS
• NOT ALL SEDIMENTARY LAYERS ARE DEPOSITED HORIZONTALLY• COARSE SANDS MAY BE DEPOSITED AT 150 ANGLE CALLED ANGLE
OF REPOSE, EXAMPLE IS SAND DUNES• SEDIMENTS MAY COVER OVER PRE-EXISTING INCLINED SURFACE & DEPOSITED UNCOMFORMABLY TO OLDER
SEDIMENTARIES• ALTHOUGH NOT UNIVERSALLY APPLICABLE, POH IS USEFUL IN
STUDY OF SEDIMENTOLOGY, STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY & STRATIGRAPHY
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2. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION (NICOLAS STENO) - SEDIMENTARY LAYERS ARE DEPOSITED IN A TIME SEQUENCE WITH THE OLDEST AT THE BOTTOM AND THE YOUNGEST AT THE TOP
• POS APPLIES TO VOLCANIC ROCKS WHICH FLOW ON OLDER ROCKS BY FLOW BANDING
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3. THE PRINCIPLE OF LATERAL CONTINUITY – SEDIMENTARY LAYERS EXTEND LATERALLY IN ALL DIRECTIONS
• COULD BE SEPARATED BY A VALLEY OR BY EROSIONAL FEATURE
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3. PRINCIPLE OF CROSS-CUTTING RELATIONSHIP – THE GEOLOGIC FEATURE WHICH CUTS ANOTHER IS YOUNGER OF THE TWO FEATURES.
DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE AGES OF STRATA & OTHER GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES
A – FOLDED ROCK STRATA CUT BY THRUST FAULTB - LARGE INTRUSION CUTTING THROUGH A
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C - EROSIONAL ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY CUTTING OFF A & B ON WHICH ROCK STRATA WERE DEPOSITED
D – VOLCANIC DIKE CUTTING THROUGH A, B & CE – EVEN YOUNGER ROCK STRATA OVERLYING C & DF – NORMAL FAULT CUTTING THROUGH A, B,C & E
4. PRINCIPLE OF FAUNAL SUCCESSION – SEDIMENTARY ROCK STRATA CONTAIN FOSSILIZED FLORA & FAUNA AND THAT THESE FOSSILS SUCCEED EACH OTHER VERTICALLY IN A SPECIFIC, RELIABLE ORDER THAT CAN BE IDENTIFIED OVER WIDE HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
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ROCK DEFORMATIONDEFORMATION REFERS TO CHANGES IN VOLUME,
SHAPE, POSITION OR IN COMBINATION OR ROCK UNDER STRESS
STRESS – APPLIED FORCE ACTING ON THE ROCKSTRAIN – RESPONSE OF A ROCK UNDER STRESS
WHICH INVOLVES CHANGE OF VOLUME OR SHAPE OF THE ROCK – RESULTING DEFORMATION
TYPE OF STRESS:1.LITHOSTATIC (CONFINING) – STRESS IN ALL DIRECTION
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5. DIFFERENTIAL (DEVIATORIC) – UNEQUAL STRESS DUE TO TECTONIC FORCES. THERE ARE THREE(3) BASIC KINDS:
5.1 TENSIONAL(EXTENSIONAL) – FORCES ACT IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION; ROCK STRETCHES
5.2 COMPRESSIONAL - FORCES ACT TOWARDS EACH OTHER; SQUEEZES ROCK
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5.3 SHEAR – SIDE TO SIDE SHEARING RESULTS TO SLIPPAGE & TRANSLATION
THREE KINDS OF DIFFERENTIAL STRESS
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STRAIN – ROCK DEFORMATION IN RESPONSE TO STRESS
CONTROL FACTORS TO ROCK DEFORMATION DEPENDS ON : 1) PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE(DEPTH IN EARTH) , 2) ROCK MATERIAL - MINERAL COMPOSITION OF ROCK
3) VOLATILE CONTENTS, 4) TIME TYPES OF STRAIN/STAGES OF DEFORMATION 1) ELASTIC DEFORMATION – CHANGES IN SHAPE OF
ROCK IS REVERSIBLE. 2) PLASTIC DEFORMATION – CHANGES IN SHAPE OF
ROCK ARE PERMANENT & NOT REVERSIBLE
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3. FRACTURE – ROCK BREAKSROCK BEHAVIOR 1) BRITTLE – ROCK BREAKS, 2) DUCTILE – ROCK FLOWS OR BENDSONCE ELASTIC LIMIT IS SUPASSED, ROCK WILL
DEFORM PLASTICALLY IF ROCK IS DUCTILE OR ROCK WILL FRACTURE(RUPTURE) IF ROCK IS BRITTLE
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STRESS - STRAIN
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MECHANISM DUCTILE DEFORMATION OCCURS DEPENDING PRINCIPALLY ON TEMPERATURE
1.PLASTIC FLOW OCCURS AT RELATIVELY LOW TEMPERATURE IN THE LOWER CRUST & UPPERMOST MANTLE. ROCK DEFORMS BY GRADUAL CREEP ALONG CRYSTAL GRAIN BOUNDARIES & PLANES WITHIN CRYSTAL LATTICES
2.POWER FLOW CREEP OCCURS WHERE TEMPERATURE IS GREATER THAN 55% OF THE MELTING TEMPERATURE FOR THAT DEPTH(PRESSURE). MOVEMENT OCCURS ALONG CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANES & GRAIN BOUNDARY
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3. DIFFUSION CREEP OCCURS WHERE TEMPERATURE IS GREATER THAN 85% OF THE MELTING TEMPERATURE FOR THAT DEPTH(PRESSURE). DEFORMATION/FLOW IS LARGELY BY IONIC/ATOMIC DIFFUSION & CONTINUOUS RECRYSTALLIZATION