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ISSN 0265-0568
Natural Product Reports Current developments in natural products chemist
www.rsc.org/npr Volume 29 | Number 9 | September 2012 | Pages 93710
0265-0568(2012)29:9;1
COVER ARTICLE
Isabelle Andr et al.Sucrose analogs: an attractive (bio)source or glycodiversifcation
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Sucrose analogs: an attractive (bio)source for glycodiversification
David Daude,abc Magali Remaud-Simeonabc and Isabelle Andre*abc
Received 27th April 2012
DOI: 10.1039/c2np20054f
Covering: up to April 2012
Sucrose is a widespread carbohydrate in nature and is involved in many biological processes. Its natural
abundance makes it a very appealing renewable raw material for the synthetic production of
high-valued molecules. To further diversify the structure and the inherent properties of these molecules,
the access to sucrose analogs is of utmost interest and has historically been widely explored through
chemical means. Nature also offers a large panel of sucrose-scaffold derivatives, includingphosphorylated or highly substituted phenylpropanoid esters amenable to transformation.
Additionally, the use of microorganisms or enzymes could provide an alternative ecologically-
compatible manner to diversify sucrose-scaffold derivatives to enable the synthesis of oligo- or
polysaccharides, glycoconjugates or polymers that could exhibit original properties for
biotechnological applications. This review covers the main biological routes to sucrose derivatives or
analogs that are prevalent in nature, that can be obtained via enzymatic processes and the potential
applications of such sucrose derivatives in sugar bioconversion, in particular through the engineering of
substrates, enzymes or microorganisms.
1 Introduction
2 Natural occurrence of sucrose derivatives
2.1 Phosphate derivatives2.2 Phenylpropanoid derivatives
2.3 Glycosyl derivatives
2.3.1 Glucosyl derivatives
2.3.2 Fructosyl derivatives
2.3.3 Galactosyl derivatives
3 In vitro synthesis of sucrose derivatives
3.1 Keto derivatives
3.2 Ester derivatives
3.3 Glycosylation of sucrose
3.4 Phosphate derivatives
3.5 Sucrose analogs
4 Sucrose isomers as alternative sucrose skeletons
4.1 Leucrose4.2 Turanose
4.3 Trehalulose
4.4 Maltulose
4.5 Isomaltulose
5 Potential applications of sucrose derivatives in sugar
bioconversion
6 Conclusions7 Acknowledgements
8 References
1 Introduction
Sucrose (a-D-glucopyranosyl-1,2-b-D-fructofuranoside) is a
widespread carbohydrate among plants. This non-reducing
disaccharide is formed by an a-D-glucopyranosyl unit and a b-D-
fructofuranosyl moiety covalently linked by their respective
anomeric carbons through a highly energetic bond (Scheme 1).
Sucrose is known to be the most available low molecular weight
carbohydrate.1 The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
estimated its annual production at around 167.5 million tons for
20102011, mainly ensured by extraction from sugar cane and
Scheme 1 Chemical structure of sucrose (a-D-glucopyranosyl-1,2-b-D-
fructofuranoside).
aUniversite de Toulouse, INSA, UPS, INP, LISBP, 135 Avenue deRangueil, F-31077 Toulouse, FrancebCNRS, UMR5504, F-31400 Toulouse, FrancecINRA, UMR792 Ingenierie des Systemes Biologiques et des Procedes,F-31400 Toulouse, France. E-mail: [email protected]; Fax:+33 561 559 400; Tel: +33 561 559 969
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sugar beet, which contain 20% and 15% of sucrose by weight and
ensures 77% and 22% of sugar production, respectively. The
extremely efficient purification process leads to a remarkably
pure product for a moderate final cost. Although sucrose has
been mainly used so far for nutrition purposes, as a food additive
or in the chemical industry, its natural abundance makes it a very
interesting renewable raw material for synthesis reactions. In
particular, with the anticipated oil shortage, sucrose could be
seen as an alternative sustainable feedstock for the chemical
industry.2
In the search for carbohydrates displaying novel properties,
the access to a large structural diversity is of utmost interest.
Aside from the variety offered (and often hidden) by nature,
artificial glycodiversification can be generated via chemical and
biochemical transformations. However, carbohydrates are
chemically difficult to handle due to the presence of numerous
reactive hydroxyl groups. Regio- and stereo-selective modifica-tions thus require appropriate protection and deprotection steps
of functional groups. Independent of these problems, the use of
microorganisms or enzymes may be an alternative to diversify
the sucrose-scaffold and synthesize, in an eco-compatible
manner, sucrose derivatives that could display original properties
for biotechnological applications. In particular, sucrose is used
for the production of biodegradable polymers,3 synthetic inter-
mediates or novel carbohydrate derivatives as sweeteners and
prebiotic oligosaccharides for the food industry.4 Indeed, sucrose
proves to be an interesting and accessible starting material for a
variety of biochemical reactions. Among enzymes utilizing
sucrose as donor substrate, glucansucrases (EC 2.4.1.4, EC
2.4.1.5, and EC 2.4.1.140) from the Glycoside-Hydrolase (GH)families 70 and 13, fructansucrases (EC 2.4.1.9, EC 2.4.1.10 and
3.2.1.26) from the GH68 family and some fructosyltransferases
(e.g. EC 2.4.1.10, EC 2.4.1.99 or EC 2.4.1.100) from the GH32
family have emerged as attractive synthetic tools.58 Given their
broad acceptor substrate promiscuity, these enzymes have been
widely used for the stereo- and regioselective synthesis of original
gluco-conjugates, oligo- and polysaccharides.9
Magali Remaud-Simeon
Magali Remaud-Simeon
received her PhD from theUniversity of Toulouse in 1988.
Then, she was a Post-Doctoral
Fellow in the Chemical Engi-
neering department of the
University of Pennsylvania and
became an associate professor at
The University of Toulouse in
1990. Since 2001, she has been a
Full Professor at the National
Institute of Applied Science of
Toulouse. As the head of the
Catalysis and Enzyme Molec-
ular Engineering group since2002, she is involved in enzyme
optimization by protein engineering to provide useful tools for
white biotechnology and synthetic biology. With her collaborators,
she has elucidated the mechanism of action of several glucansu-
crases synthesizing dextran, alternan or amylose from sucrose
substrate. Her work is currently focused on the search for enzymes
acting on unnatural substrates.
Isabelle Andre
Isabelle Andre received a PhD in
Molecular Chemistry (1995)from the University Joseph
Fourier of Grenoble (France).
She held a post-doctoral position
(19961997) in the crystallog-
raphy department at the Insti-
tuto Rocasolano-CSIC in
Madrid, Spain. From 1997 to
2003, she occupied several posi-
tions in the Computational
Chemistry group of GLYCO-
Design Inc. (Toronto, Canada).
Upon her return to France, she
joined the CNRS in 2005 as aResearch Scientist and she was
promoted to Research Director in 2011. She is working at the
Laboratoire dIngenierie des Systemes Biologiques et des Procedes
in Toulouse (France) where she manages the computational
biology research activities of the Catalysis and Molecular Enzyme
Engineering group. Her research interests include understanding
and exploiting enzyme mechanisms and structuredynamics
activity relationships, developing molecular modelling methodolo-
gies to investigate molecular motions and assist protein design, and
rational engineering of novel enzymes for chemo-enzymatic
synthetic pathways and synthetic biology.
David Daude
David Daude received an engi-
neers degree in biochemistry
from the National Institute of
Applied Science of Toulouse
(France). He received his
diploma in 2009. He is currently
finishing his PhD under the
supervision of Prof. Magali
Remaud-Simeon and Dr Isabelle
Andre at the Laboratoire
dIngenierie des Systemes Biol-
ogiques et des Procedes in Tou-
louse. His work is focused on the
generation of protein libraries
using original semi-rational
strategies and their screening in
the quest of enzymes with novel specificities. His research interests
include the structurefunction aspects and the molecular evolution
of glycoside-hydrolases.
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Nevertheless, the sole use of natural sucrose limits the variety of
accessible products to glucosyl and fructosyl derivatives; therefore
limiting the production of original molecules. Efficient modifica-
tions of sucrose are thus important in order to envision their use as
alternative substrates of sucrose-utilizing transglycosidases and
enable the production of a larger panel of glycoderivatives, such as
prebiotics, tailor-made glycoconjugates and oligosaccharides.
Combined with the use of enzyme engineering techniques, one can
expect major advances in the development of novel biosyntheticways to access carbohydrates.10
Althoughextensive work has been done over theyears to utilize
sucrose as a raw material for chemical and/or biochemical
conversion into high-value molecules (e.g. 5-(hydroxymethyl)
furfural, polyhydric alcohols) not structurally related to sucrose,
we have chosen not to discuss these aspects here as they have
already been reviewed in detail elsewhere.1 The intention of this
reviewwas ratherto describe themain biological routes to sucrose
derivatives or analogs (up to trisaccharides) reported in the liter-
ature and that can either be found in nature or obtained via
enzymatic processes. As they were out of the scope,total chemical
derivatizations of sucrose have been voluntarily discarded from
this survey or only mentioned to discuss advantages of biologicalroutes. For further details, refer to articles by Khan11 and Que-
neau.3 An outlook on the potential applications of sucrose
derivatives in carbohydrate bioconversion is also given.
2 Natural occurrence of sucrose derivatives
Sucrose is synthesized by photosynthetic organisms, such as
plants and cyanobacteria. Precursors and derivatives of the
molecule are naturally found in these organisms as well as in
sucrose-utilizing ones.
2.1 Phosphate derivatives
Two types of sucrose phosphate derivatives are naturally
produced i.e. sucrose-60-phosphate (S60P) and sucrose-6-phos-
phate (S6P). The biosynthesis of sucrose in plants, reviewed by
Lunn and MacRae,12 involves two distinct enzymes and a
phosphorylated precursor. A sucrose phosphate synthase (EC
2.4.1.14) catalyzes first the conversion of UDP-glucose and
fructose-6-phosphate into S60P, which is then hydrolyzed by a
sucrose phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.24) to form sucrose (Scheme 2).
S60P is a key intermediate of the sucrose biosynthetic pathway
and is found, for example, in plant leaves such as spinach,13 tea or
strawberry.14 The levels of S60P in strawberry leaves (Fragaria
vesca var. Royal Sovereign) and in tea leaves (Camellia sinensis
var. assemica) have been estimated at 0.36 and 0.05 mmol per100 g, respectively. A concentration of S60P of about 0.03 mM
has also been measured in the cytosol of spinach leaves. Chemical
synthesis of S60P has been described by Buchanan with an overall
yield of 6%,15 and further optimized by Kim up to 15%.16
Another phosphate derivative of sucrose, S6P, is commonly
found in sucrose-utilizing bacteria and results from phospho-
enolpyruvate-dependent phosphotransferase (PTS) sucrose
uptake.17 For instance, S6P is an intermediate of sucrose catab-
olism found in many Gram positive bacteria including B. subtilis,
cariogenic Streptococcus mutans or saccharolytic clostridia.18,19
As shown in Scheme 3, sucrose catabolism involves two steps.
The first one, involving the PTS system, allows sucrose trans-
portation into cells. The S6P formed is then hydrolyzed by the
specific sucrose-6-phosphate hydrolase into fructose and glucose-
6-phosphate (Scheme 3).20,21
2.2 Phenylpropanoid derivatives
The majority of naturally occurring sucrose phenylpropanoid
derivatives have not yet been experimentally synthesized in vitro
and only a few chemical syntheses have been reported.2224
Accessto most of these original molecules has been mainly achieved
from crude material to proceed to further use and characteriza-
tion. Phytochemical investigations have led to the isolation of
unusual phenolic glycosides. Among them, a variety of sucrose
derivatives have been characterized. These compounds listed in
Table 1 and captioned in Scheme 4 reveal a huge structural
diversity in terms of the nature and position of the substitutions.
Indeed, more than 70 phenolic sucrose esters have been identified
over the past 30 years. They have been extracted from various
plants, such as tobacco,25 bulbs of Lilium species,26,27 fruits of
Scheme 2 Sucrose-60-phosphate is a key precursor for sucrosebiosynthesis.
Scheme 3 Conversion of sucrose to sucrose-6-phosphate for internali-
zation into the cell.
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Table 1 Naturally occurring phenylpropanoid esters of sucrose
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 References
(E)-Sin H H H H (E)-Sin H H 102H H H H p-(E)-cou p-(E)-cou H p-(E)-cou 103H H H H (E)-Sin (E)-Fer H H 30H H H H (E)-Sin (E)-Sin H HH H H H Ac (E)-Fer H HAc 3-methylvaleryl 3-methylvaleryl 3-methylvaleryl H H H H 104
H H H H H (E)-Fer H (E)-Fer 105Ac H H H H (E)-Fer H (E)-Fer(E)-Fer H H H H (E)-Fer H H 106(E)-Fer H H H H (E)-Fer Ac H(E)-Fer H H H H (E)-Fer H Ac(E)-Fer Ac H H H (E)-Fer H H(E)-Fer H H H H (E)-Fer Ac Ac(E)-Fer H Ac H H (E)-Fer H Ac(E)-Fer H Ac H H (E)-Fer Ac AcAc (S)-3-Methpenta (S)-3-Methpenta (S)-3-Methpenta H H H H 25(E)-Fer H H H H (E)-Fer H H 107(E)-Fer H H H H (E)-Fer Ac Hp-hydrobenz H H H H (E)-trimethocinna H H 31p-hydrobenz H H H H (E)-Sin H H(E)-Sin H H H H (E)-trimethocinna H HH H H H H (E)-Fer H H 26(E)-Fer Ac H H H (E)-Fer Ac H 27H p-(E)-cou H H H p-(E)-cou H HH p-(E)-cou H Ac H p-(E)-cou H HH p-(E)-cou Ac H H p-(E)-cou H Hp-(E)-cou H H H H p-(E)-cou H HAc Ac H Ac Ac p-(E)-cou H Ac 28Ac H Ac Ac Ac p-(E)-cou H AcAc H H Ac Ac p-(E)-cou H AcAc Ac H Ac H p-(E)-cou H AcAc H H Ac Ac p-(E)-cou H HH H H Ac Ac p-(E)-cou H AcAc H H Ac H p-(E)-cou H AcH Ac Ac H Ac p-(Z)-cou H AcH Ac H H Ac p-(Z)-cou H Ac(E)-Sin Ac H H H (E)-Sin H H 32(E)-Sin H Ac H H (E)-Sin H HAc Ac Ac Ac H (E)-Fer H (E)-Fer 108
Ac H H Ac Ac (E)-Fer H (E)-Fer 33Ac Ac H Ac Ac H H (E)-Ferdh-Fer H H H H H H H 34H H H H H (E)-trimethocinna H H 109Benzoyl H H H H (E)-trimethocinna H Hp-(E)-cou H H H H (E)-Sin H Hp-(E)-cou H H H H (E)-trimethocinna H H(E)-Sin H H H H (E)-Sin H H(E)-Sin H H H H (E)-trimethocinna H H(E)-trimethocinna H H H H (E)-trimethocinna H H(E)-Sin H H H H H H H 110(E)-trimethocinna H H H H H H Hp-hydrobenz H H H H H H HH (E)-Sin H H H (E)-Sin H H(E)-Fer H H H H H H H(E)-Sin H H H H H H HAc Ac H Ac (E)-Fer (E)-Fer H (E)-Fer 111
Ac H H Ac (E)-Fer (E)-Fer H (E)-FerAc Ac H Ac H (E)-Fer H (E)-FerAc Ac H Ac p-(E)-cou (E)-Fer H (E)-FerAc H H Ac p-(E)-cou (E)-Fer H (E)-Fer(E)-Fer H H H p-(E)-cou p-(E)-cou H p-(E)-cou 35(E)-Fer H H H (E)-Fer p-(E)-cou H p-(E)-couH H H H H H H p-(E)-cou 112p-(E)-cou H H H H H H p-(E)-coup-(E)-cou H H H H (E)-Fer H H 113(E)-Caf H H H H (E)-Fer H HH H H H H p-(E)-cou H (E)-Fer 114H H H H p-(E)-cou p-(E)-cou H (E)-Fer 115H H H Ac p-(E)-cou p-(E)-cou H (E)-FerAc H H H p-(E)-cou p-(E)-cou H (E)-Fer
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Prunus sp.28 or plenty of medicinal plants, including Bistorta
manshuriensis,29 Polygala species,3032 Sparganium stoloniferum,33
or Vaccaria segetalis.34 These molecules are usually bioactive,
acting as plant growth inhibitors, insecticides, bactericides or
flavour precursors in the plant. Some of them have also shown
therapeutic properties. Two phenylpropanoid esters of sucrose,
namely vanicoside B and lapathoside A from Polygonum lapa-
thifolium, which exhibit anti-tumor-promoting effects and inhibit
Epstein-Barr virus early antigen induction, have been identified
as cancer chemo-preventive agents.35 Some phenylpropanoyl
sucrose compounds from Polygala tenuifolia also revealed their
efficiency in the prevention of memory disorders.36,37 Consid-
ering the potential applications of these glycoside derivatives and
their low natural abundance (less than 5% in plants),38 the
identification of genes39 involved in their biosynthesis could
enable the development of efficient microbial production
processes via metabolic engineering.40
2.3 Glycosyl derivatives
A variety of monoglycosylated derivatives of sucrose can be
found in nature. These trisaccharides differ in the nature of the
glycosyl unit linked to sucrose as well as in the specificity of the
glycosidic linkage between this unit and the sucrose moiety
(Fig. 1).
2.3.1 Glucosyl derivatives. Erlose (a-D-glucopyranosyl-(14)-
a-D-glucopyranosyl-(12)-b-D-fructofuranoside) is a trisaccha-
ride occurring in honeys and royal jelly.4145 The erlose content of
469 samples of honey was analyzed by Devillers and coworkers,
revealing an average proportion of 0.33% with values going up to
1.55% (e.g. for acacia honey). It crystallizes in two hydratedforms whose structures have been determined.46,47 Erlose is a
sucrose-like tasty carbohydrate but it is non-cariogenic.48,49
Along with erlose, melezitose (a-D-glucopyranosyl-(13)-b-D-
fructofuranosyl-(21)-a-D-glucopyranoside) is commonly found
in honey as well as in honeydews and saps of many trees and
plants (e.g. meleze). Melezitose is the main component of aphid
honeydew (59%).50 A correlation between the amount of
honeydew produced by aphids and the intensity of ant-atten-
dance has been underlined. Thus, ants are attracted by melezi-
tose-rich honeydew secreted by aphids and protect them against
natural predators creating a cooperative mutualism.5153
Scheme 4 Naturally occurring phenylpropanoid esters of sucrose.
Fig. 1 Naturally occurring mono-glycosylated sucrose compounds.
Table 1 (Contd. )
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 References
H H H H (E)-Fer p-(E)-cou H (E)-FerH H H Ac p-(E)-cou (E)-Fer H (E)-FerH H H H (E)-Fer (E)-Fer H (E)-FerH Ac H p-(E)-cou Ac p-(E)-cou H p-(E)-cou 116H H H H H (Z)-Fer H (Z)-Fer 29Ac H H H H (Z)-Fer H (Z)-Fer
p-(E)-cou H H H H p-(E)-cou p-(E)-cou H 117(E)-Caf H H H H p-(E)-cou p-(E)-cou H
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Melezitose has been crystallized in two monohydrated forms.5456
Gentianose (b-D-glucopyranosyl-(16)-a-D-glucopyranosyl-
(12)-b-D-fructofuranoside) is another glucosyl derivative of
sucrose trisaccharide that was first extracted from Gentiana
lutea57 and is commonly found in gentian roots, hence its name.
2.3.2 Fructosyl derivatives. Three fructosyl derivatives are
commonly found in nature, namely 1-kestose, 6-kestose and
neokestose. 1-kestose was first observed and isolated during theaction of yeast invertase on concentrated sucrose solutions.58 It
has been identified in honey, as well as in many plants. 5962 In
higher plants the synthesis of 1-kestose results from the enzy-
matic transfer of the fructosyl moiety of sucrose onto another
molecule of sucrose and is catalyzed by a sucrose:sucrose fruc-
tosyltransferase (1-SST EC 2.4.1.99).6265 In fructooligo-
saccharide-producing plants, the fructan synthesis starts with the
synthesis of 1-kestose. NMR studies have shown that both
neokestose and 1-kestose were present in plant extracts, such as
Asparagus, Festuca or Dactylis.66,67 Anion-exchange chroma-
tography with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC-PAD)
also allowed the detection of neokestose and 1-kestose in table
grapes.68 Neokestose and 1-kestose were also found in Agave veracruz.69 The less abundant 6-kestose has been isolated from the
seeds of the horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum L.).70
2.3.3 Galactosyl derivatives. Raffinose (a-D-galactopyr-
anosyl-(16)-a-D-glucopyranosyl-(12)-b-D-fructofuranoside) is
another sucrose-scaffold based molecule that is encountered in
many plants though in small amounts. This water-soluble
trisaccharide can be found in cottonseed meal,71 jute plant,72
sugar beets,73,74 sunflower, Gramineae species,75 lupins,76
soybean,77 and many edible leguminous crops.78 Although
abundant in human nutrition, this oligosaccharide is non-
digestible but is fermented by intestinal bifidobacteria, thus
acting as a prebiotic molecule by stimulating the beneficial gutmicrobiota.79,80 Notably, raffinose is used as a functional food
ingredient in Japan.81 Raffinose also shows cryo-preserving
effects,82 and ameliorates atopic dermatitis in human subjects.83
Two enzymes are involved in the biosynthesis of raffinose in
plants, namely galactinol synthase, which catalyzes the biocon-
version of UDP-galactose into galactinol and raffinose synthase,
which catalyzes the synthesis of raffinose from galactinol and
sucrose.84 For Arabidopsis and the common bugle Ajuga reptans
L., these enzymes are located in the cytosol where raffinose
appears to be first synthesized before being translocated across
the envelope of the chloroplast by a specific transporter.85 The
presence of raffinose has also been detected in algal cells of
Chlorella vulgaris where a chilling shock stops the cell growth andleads to raffinose accumulation.86 On the industrial scale, raffi-
nose is extracted from molasses,87 in particular sugar beet
molasses. Raffinose usually represents 0.52% of beet molasses.
Upon desugaration, the blackstrap molasses contain up to 15%
raffinose,88 from which the molecule can be efficiently extracted
and crystallized.89,90
The a-galactosyl derivative loliose (a-D-galactopyranosyl-(1
3)-a-D-glucopyranosyl-(12)-b-D-fructofuranoside) has been
detected in Lolium sp. as well as in Festuca species.9193 Its
biosynthesis is ensured by a UDP-Gal:sucrose 3-galactosyl-
transferase.94
Another trisaccharide, namely planteose, was first extracted
from the seeds of Plantago sp.95 where it acts as a reserve
carbohydrate.96 It was first prepared from Plantaginaceae,97
tobacco or mint seeds,98 and has been identified as the major
carbohydrate in seeds of Fraxinus excelsior.99 Its structure
was determined ten years later as being the a-D-galactopyr-
anosyl-(16)-b-D-fructofuranosyl-(21)-a-D-glucopyranoside. It
has recently been reported in honey samples.60,100 Chemical
synthesis of planteose involving a low yield multistep mechanismhas been proposed.101
3 In vitro synthesis of sucrose derivatives
Due to a limited variety of sucrose derivatives available in nature
and their low level of natural abundance, the extraction of
natural compounds remains a tedious task. In vitro synthesis
using either microorganisms or enzymes appears thus to be a
solution of choice to access sucrose-like carbohydrates in mild
conditions with selective introduction of a variety of functional
groups at distinct reactive positions of sucrose-scaffold. An
overview of these modifications is proposed in Scheme 5.
3.1 Keto derivatives
Chemical synthesis of carbonyl-sucrose derivatives was first
demonstrated by Andersson using bromine oxidation of sucrose
in aqueous solution, a mixture of four keto-derivatives was
obtained.118 However, the process presented several drawbacks
as 10% of starting material and acidic compounds remained in
the final mixture. Furthermore, the keto-sugars showed a low
stability that required their subsequent conversion into more
stable O-methyloximes to proceed to their biochemical and
structural characterization. The specific etherification of sucrose
into 2-O-benzyl-sucrose has also been performed to produce a
precursor for the synthesis of 2-ketosucrose,119 albeit thissynthesis involved a low-yield multi-step process. To avoid such
problems, efficient enzymatic syntheses of carbonyl-derivatives
of sucrose have been proposed. Different categories of enzymes
have been used for either C-2 oxidation or C-3 dehydrogenation
of the sucrose glucosyl moiety (Scheme 6). The D-glucoside 3-
dehydrogenase (G3DH EC 1.1.99.13) from Agrobacterium
tumefaciens has been widely studied during the past decades for
its capacity to regioselectively produce the 3-ketosucrose (b-D-
fructofuranosyl a-D-ribo-hexopyranosid-3-ulose).120122 The
activity of this enzyme has been shown to be dependent on the
manganese concentration in the reaction medium, which can be
optimized to increase conversion yield.123 The enzyme activity is
also FAD-dependent, thus using whole cells of Agrobacteriumtumefaciens offers the possibility ofin vivo cofactor regeneration
but raises the problem of separating 3-ketosucrose from other
compounds present in culture medium. During 3-ketosucrose
purification, Hough et al. also obtained a clarified concentrate
containing a significant amount of 2-ketosucrose (b-D-fructo-
furanosyl-a-D-arabino-hexopyranosid-2-ulose) probably result-
ing from enolisation of 3-ketosucrose.124 An alternative synthetic
route to 3-ketosucrose consists of using a pyranose dehydroge-
nase (PDH) from Agaricus sp.125,126 Notably, PDH from Agar-
icus meleagris efficiently catalyzes dehydrogenation of a wide
range of carbohydrates (yields $ 90%), including sucrose.127,128
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Nevertheless, the reaction necessitates an electron acceptor, such
as 1,4-benzoquinone, that has to be removed after reaction.127
The in vitro bioconversion of sucrose in 2-ketosucrose has
recently been described.129 A commercial pyranose-2-oxidase
(POase EC 1.1.3.10) has been used for the reaction catalysis in
water with oxygen aeration. This oxidation and the associated
reduction of O2 into H2O2were coupled to the action of a catalase
(EC 1.11.1.6.) used to degrade the neo-formed hydrogen
peroxide and prevent enzyme inhibition. A full conversion ofsucrose was observed within 24 h. The enzymes were removed by
ultrafiltration and the filtrate was dried into vacuum to obtain a
pure fraction of 2-ketosucrose. Of interest, sucrose keto-deriva-
tives can also be used as a starting material for other chemical
transformations including amination, silylation,130 cyanohydri-
nation,131 or epimerisation.123
3.2 Ester derivatives
Fatty acid monoesters of sucrose (reviewed by Polat and Lin-
hardt, 2001)132 have drawn considerable attention for their
pharmaceutical interest or potential applications as surfactants
or emulsifiers. The regioselective esterification of sucrose can be
achieved through chemical means. Industrial routes using basic
catalysts have been developed. They involve solvent or solvent-
free reactions yielding sucrose ester mixtures containing
predominantly monoesters (up to 70%). Among the eight
potential reactive hydroxyl groups, the primary hydroxyls at
carbons 6 and 60 exhibit the highest reactivity. Nonetheless, the
synthesis of selectively acylated sucrose in its pure form remainsdifficult. The synthesis of acylated sucrose at position 6 0 with a
yield of isolated product up to 43% has been described in DMF
in the presence of 1,4-diazobicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO).
Prerequisite modifications of sucrose using dibutyltin oxide have
also been reported for the synthesis 6-O-acylsucroses and 6,30-di-
O-acylsucroses in DMF with good yields.133,134 The synthesis of
2-O-acylsucroses in anhydrous pyridine has also been achieved in
4564% yield.135,136
Numerous studies have shown that enzymatic catalysts can be
used as powerful tools for the selective acylation of sucrose.
Indeed, a wide variety of enzymes are able to convert sucrose into
Scheme 5 The in vitro synthesis of sucrose derivatives.
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mono or di-esters mainly, depending on the acyl donor, the
reaction conditions and the catalyst used (Table 2). Among them,
lipases are commonly used to produce a large panel of sucrose
esters using a variety of acyl donors of different chain length in
distinct solvents. In particular, lipases from Candida antarc-
tica,137 Thermomyces lanuginosus,138 Mucor miehei,139 Byssochl-
amys fulva,140 Pseudomonas sp.,141 Penicillium chrysogenum,142
Aspergillus oryzae,143 Aspergillus terreus,144 or Rhizopus sp.143
have been shown to be highly efficient to acylate sucrose at
positions 6 and 60. Proteases from Bacillus subtilis and the met-
alloprotease thermolysin from Bacillus thermoproteolyticus also
lead to the production of sucrose esters modified at positions 10
and 2, respectively.145,146 A protease from Bacillus licheniformis
can also be used to generate sucrose acrylate esters,147 sucrose-
containing aromatic polymers,148 and sucrose amino acid
esters.149
Original chemo-enzymatic processes for sucrose acylation
have also been proposed by either coupling the use of lipases and
chemically-produced sucrose acetals,150 or by glucosylating a
glucose-6-acetate with a fructosyltransferase from Bacillus sub-
tilis.151 The preparation of the sweetener sucralose also involvesan ester derivative of sucrose, namely sucrose-6-acetate, which is
chlorinated and deacetylated to give the final product.152
Another way of retrieving a partially acetylated sucrose consists
of de-acetylating the easily chemically synthesized sucrose octa-
acetate using proteases and lipases in organic solvent.153,154 In
any case, one major difficulty in obtaining acylated molecules in
a pure form is related to the low solubility of sucrose in most
organic environments, thus requiring the use of non-environ-
mental friendly solvents in which the disaccharide is more soluble
(e.g. pyridine, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), dimethylformamide
(DMF), hexane).
3.3 Glycosylation of sucrose
Sucrose can be used as a glycosyl donor or acceptor for the
enzymatic synthesis of short oligosaccharides, such as functional
galacto-derivatives or short chain fructooligosaccharides (FOS)
acting and classified as prebiotics.155157 We will limit our review
to both naturally-occurring and tailor-made trisaccharides
synthesized in vitro using transglycosidases. We did not consideroligosaccharide production resulting from additional elongation.
Galactosyl transfer onto disaccharides has been proposed
using both activated and non-activated carbohydrates. Besides
its extraction from plants, raffinose can also be efficiently
obtained by in vitro synthesis using the galactinol-sucrose gal-
actosyltransferase from Vicia faba and sucrose and galactinol (a-
D-galactopyranosyl-(13)-1D-myo-inositol) or p-nitrophenyl- a-
D-galactopyranoside as substrates.84 Reverse hydrolysis activity
of the a-galactosidase from Absidia corymbifera, which acts on
sucrose and galactose was also investigated to produce raffinose
with an overall conversion ratio improved up to 10% (w/v)
(Scheme 7).158 b-galactosidase from Bacillus circulans has been
used for the synthesis of lactosucrose (b-D-galactopyranosyl-(14)-a-D-glucopyranosyl-(12)-b-D-fructofuranoside) as well as its
b(13) isomer.159 Biosynthesis of planteose has also been
proposed with the cell-free extract of sesame seeds (Sesasum
indicum) involving either UDP-galactose or galactinol as donors
and sucrose as the acceptor.160 Synthesis of planteose has also
been described with an a-galactosidase from Plantago ovato
using galactose.161
The biosynthesis of umbelliferose has also been demonstrated
in an enzyme preparation from leaves ofAegopodium podagraria
L. using sucrose as the acceptor and UDP-galactose as the
donor.162 An original trisaccharide derived from sucrose has been
Scheme 6 The biosynthesis of carbonyl-derivatives of sucrose.
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synthesized by transglycosylation using a recombinant b-glyco-
sidase from Sulfolobus shibatae. This reaction involved lactose as
the donor and sucrose as the acceptor to form a new product
whose structure was determined to be the b-D-galactopyranosyl
(16)-a-D-glucopyranosyl-(12)-b-D-fructofuranoside. The yield
was calculated as 20% from the acceptor sucrose.
The biosyntheses of melezitose and erlose have also been
performed by incubating, in an artificial phloem sap, isolated
Table 2 Esters derivatives of sucrose and their synthesis conditions
Enzymes Species Acylating agents Solvents Main ProductsYield(%) References
Lipase Candida antarctica Ethyl butanoate tert-butanol 6 and 60-O-butanoylsucrose
1 137
Ethyl laurate tert-butanol 6,60-di-O-lauroylsucrose 35Vinyl laurate tert-butanol:DMSO
(80 : 20)6,60-di-O-lauroylsucrose 170
Thermomyceslanuginosus
Vinyl laurate tert-butanol:DMSO(80 : 20)
6-O-lauroylsucrose 98 170
Vinyl laurate tert-butanol:DMSO(80 : 20)
6-O-lauroylsucrose 70 138
Vinyl palmitate tert-butanol:DMSO(80 : 20)
6-O-palmitoylsucrose 80 138
Mucor miehei Capric acid solvent free 6-O-capryloylsucrose
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guts of Metropeurum fuscoviride and Macrosiphoniella tanace-
taria, respectively.163
The in vitro fructosylation of various disaccharides involving a
fructosyltransferase or a fructofuranosidase has been
described.164 The enzymatic synthesis of lactosucrose has been
performed using levansucrases as catalysts, and sucrose and
lactose as the fructofuranosyl donor and acceptor, respectively.
With the levansucrase from Aerobacter levanicum, a yield of
32.9% (w/w) was obtained.165 The fructofuranosyl moiety ofsucrose is cleaved and transferred onto the glucopyranosyl
moiety of lactose via the reformation of the sucrose characteristic
a(12)b linkage. Lactosucrose bioconversion from lactose and
sucrose using whole cells ofPaenibacillus polymyxa has also been
reported.166 More recently, the efficiency of lactosucrose
conversion has been raised to 43.2% using a mixed-enzyme
system containing a levansucrase from Zymomonas mobilis and a
glucose oxidase for increasing conversion by removing
glucose.167 The levansucrase ofPseudomonas aurantiaca has also
been used for this purpose.168 The use of b-fructofuranosidase
from Arthrobacter sp. K-1 also enabled the synthesis of lacto-
sucrose from sucrose and lactose with an overall yield close to
27% (Scheme 8).169 The conversion has been improved up to 50%in a batch process with an equimolar ratio of substrates. Kang
and coworkers have reported the synthesis of erlose from sucrose
as a donor and maltose as an acceptor using levansucrase from
Leuconostoc mesenteroides B-512 FMC (25% reaction
product).174 A similar synthesis involving the levansucrase from
Bacillus subtilis has also been described with an optimized yield
of 45% (calculated from the donor sucrose).175
The production of 1-kestose using the intact mycelium of
Aspergillus phoenicis containing a sucrose fructosyltransferase
has been described from a 750 g L1 sucrose solution with a yield
of 300 g L1 of 1-kestose in 8 h.176 A continuous production
involving an immobilized b-fructofuranosidase from Aureobasi-
dium has also been proposed with a 1-kestose concentration of 90g L1 for up to 168 h, allowing a synthesis of 287 g during this
time.177 1-kestose production has also been performed using a
fructosyltransferase from Aspergillus foetidus expressed in an
invertase-deficient mutant of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.178
Levansucrase from Lactobacillus sanfranciscencis also mainly
synthesizes 1-kestose.179 Recently, a combination of both genetic
and substrate engineering has been used for the preparative
synthesis of fructooligosaccharides, notably 1-kestose.180
The conversion of sucrose into FOS using whole Penicillium
citrinum led to the conversion of sucrose into both 1-kestose and
neokestose. Kritzinger and coworkers have optimized the
production parameters of the trisaccharide neokestose by Xan-
thophyllomyces dendrorhous (Phaffia rhodozyma) to reach a
production yield of 0.85 g of neokestose per g of sucrose and aproportion of 95% neokestose of the total oligosaccharides.181,182
The production of the other fructooligosaccharide 6-kestose
has also been demonstrated using, for example, the b-fructo-
furanosidase from Thermoascus aurantiacus or Schwanniomyces
occidentalis.183,184 The b-fructofuranosidases from Saccharo-
myces cerevisae and Rhodotorula dairenensis are also known for
producing mainly 6-kestose.185,186
3.4 Phosphate derivatives
Sucrose-6-phosphate (S6P) was obtained using permeabilized
cells of different strains. Martin et al. have first identified a
phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phosphotransferase system inStreptococcus mutans.187 Two enzymes are involved in the
catabolism of sucrose by S. mutans, a sucrose phosphotransfer-
ase (PTS) and a sucrose-6-phosphate hydrolase. Permeabilized
cells of a mutant strain constitutive for the PTS system and
missing hydrolytic activity have been isolated and used for the
biosynthesis of sucrose-6-phosphate.188 More recently, Thomp-
son et al. showed that phosphorylation of sucrose as well as that
of its five linkage isomers was possible using permeabilized cells
ofKlebsellia pneumoniae at low pH (Scheme 9).189 Previous work
by Kunst et al. showed that sucrose-6-phosphate can be
synthesized from glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) and sucrose using a
levansucrase, which under the operating conditions led to the
conversion of 45% of the G6P into S6P.190
3.5 Sucrose analogs
The sucrose derivatives described previously conserve the
sucrose-scaffold, which constitutes a fructofuranosyl unit linked
Scheme 8 The biosynthesis of lactosucrose using the b-fructofuranosidase from Arthrobacter sp.
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to a glucopyranosyl unit via an a(12)b glycosidic bond.
However, another way to modify sucrose is to replace the glu-
cosyl unit by alternative glycosyl moieties. Following this idea,
sucrose-like disaccharides which conserve the characteristic a(1
2)b glycosidic bond have been produced by fructosylation of
various monosaccharides using fructosyltransferases (e.g.
levansucrase) (Scheme 10). The synthesis of four sucrose analogs
by fructosylation of D-glycopyranosides, such as D-galactose, D-
mannose, D-xylose and D-fucose, was first described using a
levansucrase from Bacillus subtilis with yields of 54, 4, 62 and
21%, respectively.191 Further biocatalytic investigations enabled,
fructosylation from sucrose as a fructosyl donor to othercarbohydrates, including monosaccharides (e.g. 2-deoxy-D-
glucose, D-allose, 3-ketoglucose) and disaccharides (e.g. iso-
maltose, maltose, melibiose, cellobiose or lactose) with yields
going from 0.01% for D-allose to 53% for isomaltose. Using
raffinose as fructosyl donor, the fructosylation ofL-sugars (e.g. L-
glucose, L-rhamnose, L-galactose, L-fucose and L-xylose) was also
successfully achieved with yields going from 0.1% for L-rham-
nose up to 27% for L-xylose.175 Interestingly, some of these
sucrose analogs a-D-xylopyranosyl-b-D-fructofuranoside (Xyl-
Fru), a-D-mannopyranosyl-b-D-fructofuranoside (Man-Fru) and
a-D-galactopyranosyl-b-D-fructofuranoside (Gal-Fru) were
further tested as acceptor substrates by the highly active
recombinant b-fructofuranosidase from Aspergillus niger,
leading to fructosylated products, such as 1-kestose and 1-nys-
tose analogs. Of note, two analogs were previously described by
Avigad et al. using a levansucrase from Aerobacter levani-
cum.192,193 In this report, Xyl-Fru and Gal-Fru were synthesizedfrom 10 g of raffinose as the fructosyl donor and xylose or
galactose, respectively, as the fructosyl acceptors to produce pure
Xyl-Fru (400 mg) and Gal-Fru (70 mg).
4 Sucrose isomers as alternative sucrose skeletons
Some properties of sucrose isomers, such as sweetness, solubility,
or cariogenic effect, differ significantly from those of sucrose,
thus offering novel opportunities for the development of prebi-
otics or edulcorants. Five sucrose isomers are naturally accessible
and can be produced either in vitro using carbohydrate-active
enzymes (CAZy)194 or in vivo using selected microorganisms. Of
note, the fructosyl moiety in sucrose isomers has been found inmany different forms (e.g. acyclic, cyclic, furanose, pyranose).
Hereafter are described the biochemical syntheses of leucrose,
turanose, trehalulose, maltulose and isomaltulose (palatinose).
4.1 Leucrose
a-D-glucopyranosyl-1,5-b-D-fructose, commonly named leu-
crose, is a reducing disaccharide derived from sucrose. Although
half as sweet as sucrose, leucrose is fully digestible and non-
cariogenic. It was firstly isolated from dextran-producing
cultures of Leuconostoc mesenteroides and Streptococcus
bovis.195,196 Different experimental conditions have been tested,
allowing high product yield and the proposition of a kinetic
model.197 Production of leucrose from sucrose using immobilized
dextransucrase entrapped in calcium alginate beads has been
carried out, showing its best results in a tubular reactor.198,199
More recently, immobilization of the dextransucrase from
Leuconostoc mesenteroides NRRL B-512F using a convenient
affinity interaction with resin showed promising results by
increasing conversion rate up to 74% after one day.200
4.2 Turanose
a-D-glucopyranosyl-1,3-b-D-fructose or turanose was first
discovered by Alekhine in 1889. It resulted from the hydrolysis of
melezitose, a trisaccharide extracted from Turkestan Manna,
giving an equimolar mixture of glucose and turanose.201 Likeleucrose, it is non-cariogenic and half as sweet as sucrose. Tur-
anose has also been identified as a by-product of the polymeri-
zation reaction catalyzed by amylosucrases.202204 The synthesis
of turanose from sucrose using Neisseria polysaccharea amylo-
sucrase has been improved by increasing the substrate concen-
tration up to 2.5 M. The production of turanose was thus
favoured and allowed a maximal production yield of 56.2% after
a 120 h at 35 C. Turanose was further purified using preparative
HPLC.205 The amylosucrase from Deinococcus geothermalis has
been described to synthesize equimolar amounts of turanose and
trehalulose.204,206
Scheme 9 The synthesis of sucrose-6-phosphate using permeabilized
cells from S. mutans or K. pneumoniae.
Scheme 10 A schematic representation of sucrose analogs synthesized
using a levansucrase from B. subtilis.
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4.3 Trehalulose
In 1973, Lund and Wyatt identified the a-D-glucopyranosyl-1,1-
b-D-fructose in cultures of Erwinia carotovora var. atroseptica
grown on medium containing 24% sucrose.207 This compound,
also known as trehalulose, is a highly soluble reducing disac-
charide nearly 70% as sweet as sucrose.208 It has been found in
honeydew from Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), thus relating its
production to Insecta.
209
The presence of trehalulose has beeninvestigated for various plantinsect couples going from 0.3%
up to 70% of the total carbohydrates.210 The biochemical
synthesis of trehalulose was previously described in 1959 using
a-glucosidases from yeast strains.211 Novel methods have since
been developed for the in vitro production of trehalulose.
Among others, sucrose isomerase from Erwinia rhapontici
NCPPB 1578 or immobilized cells of Pseudomonas
mesoacidophila MX-45 have been used for the conversion of
sucrose into trehalulose with yields of 60% and 83%,
respectively.212,213
4.4 Maltulose
a-D-glucopyranosyl-1,4-b-D-fructose, or maltulose, is a natural
sucrose isomer. It was isolated in low yield from a-amylase
hydrolysates of waxy corn starch214 and rabbit liver-glycogen.215
Its presence was also detected during saccharification of
starch.216 It was identified in honey in 1959 thanks to its previ-
ously reported infrared analysis.217,218 The in vitro synthesis of
maltulose from sucrose using intestinal a-glucosidases has also
been described.219
4.5 Isomaltulose
Isomaltulose (a-D-glucopyranosyl-1,6-b-D-fructose or pala-
tinose) was discovered in 1957 in Protaminobacter rubrum iso-
lated from sugar beet raw juice.220 It is about half as sweet as
sucrose but less soluble, less hygroscopic and much more
stable to acidity.221223 The US Food and Drink
Association approved the non-cariogenic health claim for iso-
maltulose in 2007. Moreover, the slow hydrolysis of the glyco-
sidic linkage limits the diffusion of glucose into the blood,
avoiding glycaemia and insulin peaks,224 and making it suitable
as a sweetener for industrial applications.225 Isomaltulose
naturally occurs in honey and sugar cane.226,227 Its biochemical
synthesis has been widely studied and various methods of
production have been proposed.228 Glucosyltransferase-producing microorganism Klebsiella sp. can be used for the
conversion of sucrose into isomaltulose with yields up to 86%.
Strains of Erwinia sp. are also likely to perform this
bioconversion and various processes have been proposed, such
as immobilized cells,229 free cells,230 fermentation,231
potato tubers as bioreactors and high isomaltulose yields
were obtained.232 Bioconversions involving microorganisms
such as Pantoea dispersa UQ68J,233 Enterobacter sp. FMB-1234
and Serratia plymuthica,229,235 have also been investigated
leading to a remarkable increase of conversion rates up to 98
100%.
5 Potential applications of sucrose derivatives in
sugar bioconversion
If recognized by the enzyme, sucrose-like molecules could offer
new opportunities as potential substrates of sucrose-utilizing
a-transglycosidases. Among them, glucansucrases, classified in
families 13 and 70 of glycoside-hydrolases are naturally able to
either polymerize glucose from solely sucrose or glucosylate a
wide variety of hydroxylated acceptors.5,236,237
These enzymes arehighly specific for the glucosyl moiety from sucrose and only a
few examples can be found in the literature where a sucrose
derivative has been used as an alternative glycosyl donor. A
sucrose epimer, namely a-D-galactopyranosyl-1,2-b-D-fructofur-
anoside, has been earlier described as a substrate for a prepara-
tion of amylosucrase from cells ofNeisseria perflava producing a
mixture of galactose, fructose, and an aldosidoketoside, likely
being a trisaccharide.193 Another example concerns the utiliza-
tion by a dextransucrase (E.C.2.4.1.5) of the 2-ketosucrose for
the synthesis of novel carbonyl-group-containing dextrans.129
The last example, to our knowledge, uses allosucrose (a-D-allo-
pyranosyl-1,2-b-D-fructofuranoside) and an amylosucrase func-
tioning as an allosyltransferase to glycosylate low mass acceptormolecules.238
The three sucrose analogs reported to date as an alternative
donor substrate for native glucansucrases only bear subtle
chemical modifications compared to parental sucrose. None-
theless, such successful examples of novel catalytic reactions are
full of promise and one could envision extending the concept to
sucrose-active enzymes in general in order to enlarge accessible
glycodiversification.
6 Conclusions
The main purpose of this article was to review the main biolog-
ical routes reported to date to produce sucrose derivatives oranalogs either by direct isolation from natural sources or in vitro
enzymatic synthesis. These structures may differ in the type of
regio- and/or chemo-modifications of sucrose, the type of
glycosidic linkage, or the nature of the glycosyl moiety linked to
the fructofuranosyl moiety. Libraries of sucrose-related classes
of molecules are thus accessible. Within this pool, sucrose-
derivatives are all attractive intermediates for further glyco-
diversification through carbohydrate chemistry and/or
biochemistry. Such future developments may represent prom-
ising sources for novel oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, sugar-
derived synthons, rare sugars, alternative sweeteners, or biolog-
ically active molecules.
However, all these molecules may not be accessible yet atyields compatible with industrial applications or further deriva-
tization. In addition, regarding biological transformation, the
diversity often remains limited by the substrate specificity of
the enzymes. These drawbacks could be circumvented through
the engineering of enzymes to generate more efficient catalysts
with adequate substrate specificity for non-natural donor or
acceptor substrates,239 although this has not been explored yet
for sucrose-utilizing enzymes. Another major evolution that
could be considered is coming from the rising field of synthetic
biology. Indeed, optimization of native metabolic pathway as
well as redesigning of synthetic metabolic pathways can now be
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investigated for the development of novel synthetic processes to
access carbohydrates displaying original properties and the
multiple products derived from them.
7 Acknowledgements
D. Daude was supported by a grant from the French Ministry of
Research.
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