![Page 1: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
![Page 2: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Presented To :Sir Munir Afzal
Presented By :Hadiqa Zehra
![Page 3: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
Symbolism and Diagrams for Categorical Propositions
![Page 4: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Categorical Propositions Categorical proposition is the base
for the Classical Logic. They are called categorical propositions because they are about categories or classes.
Such propositions affirm or deny that some class S is included in some other class p, completely or partially.
![Page 5: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Symbolism and Diagrams for Categorical Propositions Boolean interpretation of categorical
propositions depends heavily on the notation of an empty class, it is convenient to have a symbol to represent it.
The symbol zero 0, is used for this purpose.
The term S has no members, we write an equal sign between S and 0.
![Page 6: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Thus the equation S = 0 says that there are no S’s, or that S has no members.
To deny that S is empty S does have members.
We symbolize that denial by drawing a slanting line through the equals sign.
The inequality S ≠ 0 says that there are S’s, by denying that S is empty.
![Page 7: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
A Proposition
To symbolize A proposition. The A proposition, “All S is P”, says that
all members of class S are also member of the class P.
That is, there are no members of the class S that that are not members of P or “No S is non- P”
![Page 8: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
E Proposition
To symbolize E propositions. The E propositions, “No S is P”, says that
no members of the class S are the members of class P.
This can be rephrased by saying that the product of the two classes is empty which is symbolized by the equation SP = 0.
![Page 9: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
I Proposition
To symbolize I proposition. The I proposition “Some S is P”, says that
at least one member of S is also a member of P.
This means that the product of the classes S and P is not empty.
It is symbolized by the inequality SP ≠ 0.
![Page 10: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
O Proposition
To symbolize O proposition. The O proposition, “Some S is not P”,
obverts to the logically equivalent to I propositions, “Some S is non-P”.
It is symbolized by the inequality SP ≠ 0.
![Page 11: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Modern square of opposition
The relationship between these propositions contradict each other in several ways, as can be illustrated here.
![Page 12: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
This diagram shows that :1. Contradictories2. Contrary3. Sub-Contrary4. Sub-Alternation
![Page 13: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Contradictories
Contradictory means they have opposite truth values.
A and O propositions are contradictory as are E and I proposition.
They are opposite of each other in both Quantity and Quality therefore, have opposite truth values.
When any Categorical statement is true, its partner across the diagonal is false.
When false its contradictory must be true.
![Page 14: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Example:if “all rubies are red stones” (A) is true, then “some rubies are not red stones” (O) must be false.
Similarlyif “no mammals are aquatic” (E) is false, then “some mammals are aquatic” (I) must be true.
![Page 15: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Contrary
A and E propositions are contrary. Propositions are contrary when they cannot both
be true.Example:
An A proposition e.g. “all giraffes have long necks” cannot be true at the same time as the corresponding E proposition: “no giraffes have long necks”.
They are opposite in Quality only (both are universals).however that corresponding A and E proposition while contrary are not contradictory.
![Page 16: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Sub Contrary
I and O propositions are Sub Contrary. Propositions are Sub Contrary when it is
impossible for both to false.Example:
“some lunches are free” is false, “some lunches are not free” must be true.
However that is possible for corresponding I and O both to be true.
![Page 17: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Example:“some nations are democratic” and “some nations are not democratic”. Again I and O propositions are sub contrary, but not contrary or contradictory
![Page 18: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Sub Alternation
Sub alternation are same in Quality but different in Quantity.
From A to I ( is A is true then, the I is true).
From E to O ( if E is true then, O is true).Now for Falsity From I to A ( if the I is false, then A is
false). From O to E (if O is false then, E is false).
![Page 19: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Boolean Venn diagrams of the four types of categorical propositions
All S are P. No S are P.
Some S are P. Some S are not P.
![Page 20: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
The Venn diagrams constitute an iconic representation of the standard form categorical propositions, in which spatial inclusions and exclusions correspond to the non-spatial inclusions and exclusions of classes.
They provide an exceptionally clear method of notation.
![Page 21: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
![Page 22: Symbolism And Diagram for Categorical Proposition](https://reader033.vdocument.in/reader033/viewer/2022061202/547bf6b8b4af9f88428b476c/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION!