TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology
Professor Gregory C. Herman [email protected] Manual
GCH 2018-01
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Sources notes within
GCH 2016-17
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 1.
Time-Life-Man.jpg
• One page, hand-written essay
on your interpretation of the
handout.
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 2. Minerals and Spectroscopy
• This lab is an introduction to minerals and spectroscopy, the latter being the
scientific study of how light interacts with solid matter.
• The Ward’s mineral sets contain different mineral samples that are found in all
different rock types, including those formed during 1) the cooling of molten
magma into igneous rock, and others from 2) the precipitation of minerals from
a) saturated, briny fluids or b) biological processes.
• By the end of this lab you should have a working familiarity with the 5 most
common rock-forming minerals (quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, and
pyroxene) and be able to identify them separately from other minerals that
appear similar but are usually softer and formed from precipitation ((b) above)
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
• Carbonates (CO3)-2
•Sulfates (SO4)-2
•Phosphates (PO4)-3
Calcite (CaCO3) is the
main constituent in the
sedimentary rock
limestone
Gypsum (CaSO4 . H4O) is a main
constituent in drywall
Turquoise CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8·5H2O
derived from the shells and hard parts of marine organisms or are precipitated
as seawater evaporates
derived from hydrothermal activity or
are precipitated as saline-water
evaporates
derived from hydrothermal
activity and igneous processes
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
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http://slideplayer.com/slide/8711262/26/images/9/Types+of+Cleavage.jpg
Laboratory 2. Mineral Cleavage Types
TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
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TCNJ Physics 120
Introduction to
Geology Lab Manual
Laboratory 2.
Minerals
From Cronin, V. S., and
Tasa, D., 11th Laboratory
Manual in Physical
Geology: Pearson, New
York, NY, 426 p.
Mohs Hardness Scale
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
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Laboratory 2.
Minerals
Adapted from Cronin,
V. S., and Tasa, D.,
11th Laboratory
Manual in Physical
Geology: Pearson,
New York, NY, 426 p.
TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Silicate Minerals
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
GCH Rev. 1.0 12-2015
Quartz – No. 2 of the 5 most common rock-forming (silicate) minerals
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
• Identify quartz, calcite, and gypsum by checking the type of habit, cleavage,
and visual aspects that you observe
Quartz (silica SiO4)
Calcite (carbonate CaCO3)
Gypsum (sulfate SiO4)
NOTES:
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
• Group of rock-forming tectosilicate minerals which make up as much as 60% of the Earth's crust.
•Two cleavage directions at 900.
•Hardness of 6 – 6.5.
•Will not scratch glass or quartz.
•Microcline and orthoclase
•Not usually clear.
•Often salmon pink or white and milky.
•Can also be aqua blue.
•Can have wavy stripes of similar color that go through the mineral.
Alkali feldspars (K,Na)AlSi3O8
Plagioclase feldspars (Na,Ca)AlSi3O8
•Albite to Anorthite solid-solution series
•Individual crystals a range of colors between white and dark gray.
•Exhibits striations
•Can have wavy stripes of similar color that go through the
mineral.
www.earthguide.ucsd.edu/mystery_detectives/media/flash/minerals_igneous/minerals_igneous.swf
FELDSPAR – No. 1 of the 5 most common rock-forming (silicate) minerals
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
• Identify plagioclase and alkali feldspar by color, microscopic twinning, and
mineral habit, hardness with respect to quartz and metal. Note any visual
and physical aspects that you observe.
Plagioclase feldspar (silicate (Na,Ca)AlSi3O8)
Twinning seen on face of large plagioclase sample
Alkali feldspar (K,Na)AlSi3O8)
NOTES:
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
• Identify the following minerals by color, and mineral habit, hardness with
respect to quartz and metal and one another. Note any distinctive visual and
physical aspects that you observe.
Mica (biotite and muscovite)
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Olivine/peridotite
NOTES:
Laboratory 2. Minerals
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
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1) Igneous are derived from the hardening of
molten magma (intrusive or volcanic, with felsic,
intermediate, and mafic varieties)
2) Sedimentary are derived from detrital or
chemical sediment, the products of mechanical
and chemical weathering and chemical
precipitation.
3) Metamorphic are the result of burial,
increasing temperature and pressure, and fluid
transfer processes during recrystallization
(low, medium, and high grade)
• Igneous rock forms when hot magma cools and solidifies. Sedimentary rocks form when
sediment is compacted and cemented together (lithified), or when minerals precipitate from
solutions. Mechanical weathering and physical breakdown of a parent material (usually rock)
produces clastic or detrital sediment, whereas chemical sediment is accreted through
biological processes or precipitates directly from hydrothermal or briny waters. Metamorphic
rocks are compacted, heated, pressurized, and altered from burial, thermal contact, and fluid
transfer during recrystallization and alteration.
TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
• Rocks are identified by their textures, colors, and other physical
properties like hardness, weight (density or specific gravity), magnetism
(magnetite), and reactivity with acids (limestone and marble).
• Two rock sets are presented for this lab.
• The Green buckets contain intrusive and extrusive samples of felsic,
intermediate, and mafic igneous rocks.
• The Ward’s mineral sets contain different mineral samples that are found
in all different rock types, not just igneous ones.
• By the end of this lab you should have a working familiarity with the 5
most common rock-forming minerals (quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole,
and pyroxene) and be able to identify them both in mineral form and in
some of the felsic, intermediate, and mafic igneous rocks.
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GCH 2016-17
TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 3. Igneous Rocks
+1 os
+2 os
os – oxidation state
An element having a
+2 os (or charge) has
a higher electron
affinity because it has
twice the charge than
one with a +1 os.
• Calcium and magnesium (+2) are proportionately more abundant in mafic rocks
that crystallize form magma first with slow cooling and crystal growth.
•Parent magma composition largely determines the composition of igneous
rocks but a single magma can, however, yield different rock types.
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 3. Igneous Rocks
Texture in igneous rocks is related to cooling history; the slower the
magma cools, the more coarse-grained the rock becomes.
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 3. Igneous Rocks
•Typically, the coarsest-grained rocks formed in deep crustal chambers after rising out of the
mantle where it can accumulate and pond at the base of the crust or in the crust, or deep in
the roots of crustal mountain where rocks begin to melt from burial and heat. They become
exposed at the surface Eons after formation from crustal tectonics.
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GCH 2016-17
TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 3. Igneous Rocks
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Laboratory 3. Igneous Rocks
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 3. Igneous Rocks
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 3. Igneous Rocks
_____ SS - red sandstone _______ B - basalt dike leading to basalt flow ______ D - diorite stock and sills
______Gr – granite ________ Pg – pegmatite ______ Gb – Gabbro
Laboratory 3. Igneous Rocks
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
NOTES:
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 3. Igneous Rocks
Laboratory 5. Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks
• LAB 5 provides samples of all three principal groupings of rocks including:
1) Igneous (plutonic and extrusive felsic, intermediate, and mafic varieties)
2) Sedimentary (detrital and chemical) and
3) Metamorphic (low, medium, and high grade)
• Because we studied igneous rocks in LAB3,
this will serve as a review for those, but
our focus in this lab will be the different
types and subtypes of sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks and how they
compare to igneous rocks, to one another,
and with respect to the rock cycle.
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
• LAB 5 is set up with all three groups of rocks arranged on laboratory tables 1 to 6.
•Each group will systematically move to adjacent tables in a clockwise rotation to study the rocks
at each station for ~20-minute intervals.
VOLCANIC IGNEOUS
DETRITAL
SEDIMENTARY
CHEMICAL
SEDIMENTARYLOW-GRADE
METAMORPHIC
MEDIUM- TO HIGH-GRADE
METAMORPHIC
123
4 5 6
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 5. Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks
•The two primary types of sediment are chemical (table 1) and detrital (table 2)
•Sediment becomes lithified into sedimentary rocks by cementation and
compaction.
•Chemical sediment consists of minerals precipitated from solution by
inorganic processes and by the activities of biological organisms.
•Chemical sedimentary rocks (limestone, coal, microcrystalline quartz) are
formed from chemical sediment.
•Detrital sediment consists of solid particles, products of mechanical
weathering.
•Detrital sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation,
or lithification of detrital sediment.
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 5. Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks
Laboratory 5. Table 1, Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical sedimentary
rocks are:
a) Precipitated directly
from fresh or sea water
by biological
accumulation,
b) Precipitated from
saturated water (fresh,
marine, and
hydrothermal), or
c) Formed in bogs or
swamps from the
accumulation of dead
organic matter (animal
and vegetation)
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 5. Table 1, Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Checklist:
Limestone (CaCO3 in it’s pure form) is generally soft, gray to cream colored, will
react with HCL, and is softer than metal, and can contains marine fossils.
Dolomite is similar to limestone but is commonly has some Mg+2 replacing Ca+2, can
have an orange tint from also having some Fe+2, is slightly harder than limestone, is
less reactive to HCL
For coal, recognize the peat lignite coal transition and the bituminous versus
anthracite types. Bituminous is lower grade, has more sulfur (yellow mineral) and is
not as shiny. Antracite of higher ‘grade’ as it burens cleaner and gives off more
energy.
Differentiate among cryptocrystalline quartz and limestone that are precipitated
out of hydrothermal solutions or saturated waters.
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 5. Table 2, Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
Detrital sedimentary
rocks are transported
and deposited by
running water, wind,
or glacial ice.
Most are composed of
silica grains and/or
mineral and rock
fragments, and are
therefore
differentiated using
grain size.
Common cementing
agents are silica and
calcium carbonate.
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 5. Table 2, Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 5. Table 2, Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
Checklist:
Recognize increasing grain size of mudstone siltstone sandstone conglomerate.
Conglomerate contains rounded grains whereas breccia contains angular grains
The degree of rounding and sorting of grains in the various samples and discuss the
significance with respect to transport distance.
Those cemented with calcium carbonate are commonly more friable and can react
with dilute HCL whereas silica-cemented ones are harder and nonreactive to HCL.
Mudstone and shale differ because the latter has initial layering, or fissility, by the
preferred alignment of play minerals during early phases of burial and compaction.
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Note:
Metamorphic rocks form when minerals in a sedimentary or igneous rocks rock
begin to recrystallize into ne mineral forms when it is subjected to changes (usually
increases) in temperature and pressure from burial or through interaction with
groundwater.
The transition from sedimentary rocks into low-grade metamorphic rocks is gradual
as rocks become more deeply buried and heated through time, therefore it is
sometimes difficult to tell if a mudrock is sedimentary or low-grade metamorphic
without microscopy. Similarly the transition from limestone into a marble
sometimes requires microscopic work.
Generally speaking, metamorphic rocks are more compact and dense than their
sedimentary precursor rocks, have foliation caused by mineral banding or layering
that can be seen with the naked eye. But this isn’t the case for pure quartz or
limestone rocks that can be mono-minerallic and therefore locally lack visible
foliation.
Laboratory 5. Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 5. Table 3, Low-grade Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are a
result of new mineral growth
as a result of changing
temperature and
temperatures during burial,
tectonism, and plutonic
igneous activity.
Mostly foliated to
non-foliated silica and lime
rocks that are more dense,
hard, and mineralized than
sedimentary rocks.
Do not ordinarily include
plutonic igneous rocks
because igneous minerals
form at relatively high T & P’s.
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Checklist:
The transition of lime rocks to different types of
marble (foliated and non-foliated)
Hornfels are sedimentary rocks that have been altered
and mineralized by hydrothermal solutions percolating
through them.
The transition from sandstone to quartzite (foliated
and non-foliated).
The transition of mudrock from
mudstone argillite phyllite
Those cemented with calcium carbonate are
commonly more friable, are softer than steel, and
react with weak acid, whereas silica-cemented ones
are harder than metal and don’t react with acid.
Laboratory 5. Table 3, Low-grade Metamorphic Rocks
Quartzite and marble can look very similar, but metal
scratches marble but not quartzite.
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Schist is a medium-grade metamorphic rock with medium to large, flat, sheet-
like grains in a preferred orientation (nearby grains are roughly parallel). It is
defined by having more than 50% platy and elongated minerals, often finely
interleaved with quartz and feldspar.
Laboratory 5. Table 4, Medium-grade Metamorphic Rocks
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Gneiss is a high grade metamorphic rock, meaning that it has been subjected to higher
temperatures and pressures than schist. It is formed by the metamorphosis of granite,
or sedimentary rock. Gneiss displays distinct foliation, representing alternating layers
composed of different minerals.
Laboratory 5. Table 4, High-grade Metamorphic Rocks
Migmatite is a rock that is a mixture of metamorphic
rock and igneous rock. It is created when a
metamorphic rock such as gneiss partially melts, and
then that melt recrystallizes into an igneous rock,
creating a mixture of the un-melted metamorphic part
with the recrystallized igneous part.49
TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 5 Crustal rocks
garnet
A.
B.
C.
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 8. Geological Primary and Secondary Structures
• The first exercise for this lab is to study and become familiar with different
sets of secondary structures that I supply from my personal rock collection.
• Different rocks containing examples of rock fractures, cleavage, folds, and
faults will be placed on lab tables to study and discuss.
• After an introductory lecture about the different classes of structures,
groups of four students will rotate to each table in about 10-minute
intervals to inspect an discuss each set of rocks.
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 8. Primary and Secondary Rock Structures
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 8. Primary Rock Structures
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 8. Secondary Rock Structures
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 8. Secondary Rock Structures
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 8. Secondary Rock Structures
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Laboratory 8. Fault Strains and Fabrics
• A cleaved slab of rock with
lithons rotated 30o from simple
shear resulting in lengthening
(~10%) and flattening (~2%).
Rocks can become faulted with planar discontinuities that separate individual lithons, or fault slices
that nestle among themselves with 3D geometries resembling slip cleavage. The transition from slip
cleavage to faulting is a matter of scale and definition.
L2
H3 < H2
• Progressive strains from
shearing, rotation,
flattening, and
imbrication of lithons
occur in fault zones or
shear zones.
• In 3D, faulted lithons
become nestled together
like bunches of aligned
watermelon seeds
slipping past each other.
Shortening, shearing, and flattening
• In reality, lithons are elliptical in profile and terminate in 3D at tip lines.
Smaller lithons from
~20% volume loss
(area reduction in profile)
Larger fault planes
Apparent normal slip (flattening and lengthening)
Apparent reverse slip (thickening and shortening)
OR lithon
Small-fault planes appear as tip lines in profile
TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 8. Secondary Rock Structures
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TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
Laboratory 8. Secondary Rock Structures
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Laboratory 8. Secondary Rock Structures
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Laboratory 8. Secondary Rock Structures
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Laboratory 8. Fault Strains and Fabrics
• A cleaved slab of rock with
lithons rotated 30o from simple
shear resulting in lengthening
(~10%) and flattening (~2%).
Rocks can become faulted with planar discontinuities that separate individual lithons, or fault slices
that nestle among themselves with 3D geometries resembling slip cleavage. The transition from slip
cleavage to faulting is a matter of scale and definition.
L2
Shortening, shearing, and flattening
• Cleaved and faulted Lithons are elliptical in profile and terminate in 3D at tip lines.
TCNJ Physics 120 Introduction to Geology Lab Manual GCH 2018-01
• Progressive strains from
shearing, rotation,
flattening, and
imbrication of lithons
occur in fault zones or
shear zones.
• In 3D, faulted lithons
become nestled together
like bunches of aligned
watermelon seeds
slipping past each other.
Lithons become
progressively smaller
with higher strains
Larger faults
Apparent normal slip (flattening and lengthening)
Apparent reverse slip (thickening and shortening)
OR lithon
Fault planes appear as tip lines in profile
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Laboratory 8. Geological Primary and Secondary Structures
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Laboratory 8. Geological Primary and Secondary Structures
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Laboratory 8. Geological Primary and Secondary Structures
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Laboratory 8. Geological Primary and Secondary Structures