Teaching Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines
Stephen BrookfieldUniversity of St. Thomas
www.stephenbrookfield.com
Tweet: #tc5815
Finding a Common Language
• What language will communicate a commonly shared intellectual project that will communicate a shared understanding of what critical thinking entails – for both students and faculty across all disciplines?
• A process of APPRAISAL• Appraise Accuracy / Validity of ASSUMPTIONS• Explore ALTERNATIVE PERSPECTIVES
A Process of Appraisal• Critical thinking as a process of appraisal – we
judge the accuracy & validity of assumptions by viewing them from different perspectives
• Appraisal means sometimes our assumptions are accurate & make sense - & here’s why
• Focusing on Appraisal means we avoid students thinking critical thinking is a process of always finding fault, demolition
• What We Appraise Is How Accurate Are Procedures We Use to Establish Valid Knowledge – thinking like a ……. ???
Someone Who Thinks Critically Can …
• Identify Assumptions Behind Thinking & Actions• Check Assumptions for Accuracy &
Validity• View Ideas & Actions from
Multiple Perspectives• Take Informed Action
An Informed Action…
• One Based on Assessed Evidence or Experience
• One That Has Its Assumptions Known & Checked
• One That Stands a Chance of Achieving Its Intended Consequence
• One That has a Rationale that Can Be Clearly Explained
Why Is Critical Thinking Difficult?• Because it’s hard for us to see our own
assumptions without some kind of peer assistance
• Because we don’t want to questions assumptions – life becomes more difficult
• Because 18-22 year olds are grappling with their intellectual development
Developmentally 18-22 year olds are..
• Moving to ‘Formal Operations’ Stage Starting to Think Abstractly & Conceptually• Can formulate hypotheses • Understand cause & effect• Can apply problem-solving protocols
Developmentally 18-22 year olds struggle with…
• Dialectical thinking – holding 2 ideas in tension; i.e. good leaders should be transparent about the reasons for their actions –v- in some situations the LAST thing you want is to be transparent about your actions
• Contextuality/Relativism – behavior & action can only be fully understood in its historical/social/intellectual context, & context changes EVERYTHING
Developmentally we’re headed to adulthood
• Post-formal Operations (Jan Sinnott): adults who can tolerate ambiguity, understand the role of context
• Informed Commitment (William Perry): adults who can confidently commit to a theory, explanation, or course of action – all the while acknowledging this will be changed & reframed if experience convinces us to do so
Appraising Knowledge How Students Speak
• I assume this idea is accurate because it’s what you told me• I assume this is the right action to fit this situation because
my experience tells me so• I assume this is the right action to fit this situation because
that’s what I saw you do• I assume this scholarship is legitimate because it’s in the text• I am going to act this way because I assume that’s what
others do in this situation• I assume I have understood you correctly because here’s my
precis of your point
How Students Check Assumptions 4 Typical Approaches
• This assumption is accurate because it is corroborated by my peers (Groupthink)
• This assumption is accurate because it is corroborated by experts (Dependence on Authority as De-Facto Correct)
• This assumption is accurate because it is corroborated by own experience (Self-Delusion, Denial & Blind Spots)
• This assumption is accurate because I have tested it out (Flawed Problem Posing)
Categories of Assumptions
• CAUSAL - purport to explain a sequence of events: retroactive or predictive • PRESCRIPTIVE - assumptions about how
things should happen, we should behave• PARADIGMATIC - framing, structuring
assumptions viewed as obvious, common sense, taken for granted
A Personal Example
• Clinical Depression is Caused by External Circumstances
• The Way to Deal With It Is To Reason Through It & Tell Yourself To Snap Out of It
• Medications Are For Those Too Weak To Deal With The World
Rooted in Ideology: PATRIARCHY(Men are to be entrusted with making decisions by virtue of their superior rationality & logic)
A Pedagogic Example
• If I get to class early & arrange the chairs in circles, students will feel respected when they walk in. This will reduce the distance between me & them, & will also create a relaxed, congenial environment for learning
• The Circle is an Arena of Surveillance• I am being Coerced into Speech before you
have earned the right to expect that
The Circle
• Causal: Having Chairs in a Circle creates a Relaxed, Respectful Environment for Learning
• Prescriptive: Good educators Create a Relaxed Environment
• Paradigmatic: I Have Power Over My Classroom Environment
TRADITIONS - ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY
• ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY – logical fallacies, argument analysis – inductive, deductive, analogical, inferential
• A good critical thinker is someone who can spot flaws in arguments, identify illogical thought, detect correct & incorrect ladders of inference that someone has constructed, excel in debate, speak articulately, be alert to misuse of language & rhetorical tricks, and consistently identify evidence for assumptions & arguments
TRADITIONS – NATURAL SCIENCE
• NATURAL SCIENCE – hypothetical-deductive method, principle of falsifiability
• A good critical thinker is someone who can generate a plausible hypothesis to explain a sequence of events, can set up an experiment to test the validity of that hypothesis, knows how to respond if the hypothesis is disproven, and views knowledge/theories as valid only if that knowledge/theory is open to being disproved.
TRADITIONS – CRITICAL THEORY• CRITICAL THEORY – uncovering power dynamics,
identifying hegemony &pushing back against ideological manipulation
• A critical thinker is a student who is constantly asking questions about power dynamics in the classroom, in the wider community, and in the discipline. They question who decides what counts as legitimate knowledge & frequently challenge teachers authority & the authority of experts in the field. They consistently link classroom work to broader issues of social justice & equity
TRADITIONS - PRAGMATISM
• PRAGMATISM – experimental pursuit of beautiful consequences (democracy)
• A critical thinker is someone who is always open to rethinking positions & considering new perspectives. They view their actions as contingent & open to improvement & refinement. They regard experience as an important guide to action & see the future as open. Teachers often work pragmatically
When Are Students Ready to Think Critically?
• When they have some grasp of the “Grammar” of a Subject (R.S. Peters)
• Content Grammar – the building blocks of knowledge, fundamental concepts
• Epistemological Grammar – the criteria used to judge good & bad scholarship, establish legitimate & illegitimate knowledge
Question
•What most helps students to think
critically?
What Students Say …• By Instructors MODELING, MODELING & MODELING• When It’s Sequenced – Begin by
Learning Protocols & Over Time Apply These to Our Own Reasoning• Social Learning Process – Peers as
Critically Reflective Mirrors
Critical Incident Questionnaire (CIQ)
•MOMENT MOST ENGAGED AS LEARNER•MOMENT MOST DISTANCED• ACTION MOST HELPFUL• ACTION MOST CONFUSING•WHAT SURPRISED YOU MOST
HOW ADMINISTERED?
• Last 5 minutes of Class• Anonymous• Frequency Analysis of Main Themes• Reported Out at Start of Next Class• Disclose How Results Confirm or Challenge
Your Assumptions / Provide New Perspectives• Disclose Any Changes You Will Make• Negotiation NOT Capitulation
Assumptions Inventories - Teachers
• Here’s the Assumptions I’m Working Under (Causal, Prescriptive, Paradigmatic)
• Here’s Why I Think they’re Accurate & Valid – Evidence / Expert Corroboration
• Here’s How My Assumptions have been Confirmed / Deepened
• Here’s How My Assumptions have Been Challenged
• Here’s the New Assumptions I’ve Discovered
Assumptions Inventories - Teachers
When Constructing this Argument as a Scholar or Taking This Action as a Practitioner here’s:-
• The Evidence That Was Most Accessible to Me• The Evidence I Took Most Seriously• The Evidence Most Open to Question
Assumption Inventories -TeachersIn Assessing My Argument or Action:• Here’s Where I Judge Further Inquiry
is Needed• Here’s How I Judge the Learning To
Fit Clinical Practice• Here’s My Assumptions That Could Not Be Checked Adequately• Here’s a Different Way I Could Have
Thought / Acted
Assumptions Inventories - Students
As I completed this assignment, here’s…• Assumptions I held about the topic that were
confirmed / strengthened / deepened• Assumptions I held about the topic that were
challenged / disturbed• New perspectives or interpretations of the topic I
considered• The most pressing questions about the topic I’m
left with
Ending With Questions
• At the end of a lecture or discussion you end by asking yourself (& students via tweeting) ….
• What’s been missing from this analysis?• What most needs further scrutiny?• What are the chief critiques of what I’ve been
saying?• What unresolved questions am I left with?• What are the most troubling questions we’ve
raised today?
‘Speaking in Tongues’• 3-4 signs posted around the auditorium,
each reflects a distinct theory/analytical framework
• When you stand under a sign you speak ONLY in the language & perspective of that theory
• When students ask questions you go to different stations & answer them ONLY from that perspective
What do YOU think professor?
• You give 2 or 3 Answers – Only 1 Represents Your Actual Opinion
• Students Vote on Whether They Think Answer A), B) or C) is Correct
• Students Assemble in Groups Based on their Responses – all A’s, all B’s & all C’s
• In Answer Groups they Discuss Why They Chose Their Particular Answer
• Class Assembles & Groups Give their Reasons• You Disclose Which Was Your Actual Opinion
Instructor Point-Counterpoint
Models
• Productive Questioning• Respectful Disagreement• Different Perspectives• Perspective Taking• Thoughtful Silence
Structured Devil’s Advocacy
The Clint Eastwood Chair• Here’s information that’s inconvenient for
your argument• What about these ethical / philosophical
issues you ignored?• What would you say to this criticism?• Here’s an assumption that bears further
examination
Chalk Talk
• Instructor writes a question in the middle of the board
• 5-10 minutes of silence is declared• Students write responses to the question on the
board whenever they feel ready• Students & instructor draw lines between similar
comments & add reactions & comments/questions• Ends when board is full or posting stops• Students photo board & post on Blackboard
What Stops It? No Scaffolding
• Definitions, Explanations & Examples of CT Provided in the Syllabus – Same Definition Embedded in School Wide Program & Course Descriptions
• Assessment Rubrics Distributed Containing Examples of Critical Thinking Participation
• Post Examples of Good (& Bad) Student Work Where Critical Thinking is Evident
• Each Assignment Provides an Example of CT • All Assignments Ask Students to Identify & Research
Assumptions
Critical Thinking RubricTo What Extent Did You….
• Provide evidence to confirm or challenge your argument
• Identify assumptions you held about the topic that were confirmed and challenged
• Introduce a new idea, perspective or piece of relevant information
• Ask question(s) that led to a new line of analysis
What Stops It? No Scaffolding
• Assignments Ask Students to Judge Validity of Different Sources Used – web sites, textbooks, wikipedia, etc.
• Assignments Ask Students to Spot the Deliberate Error (1 per unit / module)
• Assignments & Activities Use Common Language of Assumptions - Causal, Prescriptive, Paradigmatic
• Assignments Contain Example (s) of How the Instructor Has Thought Critically About the Topic
What Stops It? No Scaffolding
• Assignments Ask Students to Summarize Assumptions that Have been Confirmed &/or Challenged
• Asks Students to Report New Perspectives or Viewpoints
• End By Asking Students To Raise at least Two Questions about the Topic that the Assignment has Generated
What Stops It? No Scaffolding• Intro. Course for All Incoming Freshmen• Begins with Generic Real-Life Scenarios (reasons for
applying to the university, expectations of what it means to be a student, future goals, assumptions regarding workload, assessment etc.).
• Branch into Subject Specific Examples• Provides Videos of Former Students Talking About
How Critical Thinking Manifested Itself in Their Studies
• Provides Videos of Faculty Explaining How They Apply Critical Thinking in Work & Life
Assessing Critical Thinking
• Pre-test / Post test (Simulations, Scenarios)• Student Critical Thinking Audits• Standardized Tests (Ennis-Weir, New Jersey,
California, CAAP, Watson-Glaser)• Learning Journals Re. Applications in Practice• Multiple Choice Questions in Each Unit
Specifically on Assumptions / Evidence