The Technical Reference section includes articles covering regulator
theory, sizing, selection, overpressure protection, and other topics relating
to regulators. This section begins with the basic theory of a regulator
and ends with conversion tables and other informative charts. If there’s
something you need to know about a regulator that’s not covered in this
section, please contact your local sales office.
TECHNICAL
Table of Contents
448
TECHNICAL
Regulator Control TheoryFundamentals of Gas Pressure Regulators ..................... 453Pilot-Operated Regulators ............................................. 454Conclusion ..................................................................... 454
Regulator Components
Straight Stem Style Direct-Operated ............................. 455Lever Style Direct-Operated 4576Loading Style (Two-Path
Control) Pilot-Operated .................................... 457Unloading Style Pilot-Operated .................................... 458
Introduction to Regulators
Specific Regulator Types ............................................... 459Pressure Reducing Regulators ................................. 456Backpressure Regulators and Relief Valves ............ 460Pressure Switching Valves ....................................... 460
Types of Regulators ....................................................... 460Direct-Operated (Self-Operated) Regulators ........... 460Pilot-Operated Regulators ...................................... 460
Regulator Selection Criteria ........................................... 460Control Application ................................................ 460Pressure Reducing Regulator Selection ................... 461Outlet Pressure to be Maintained ............................ 461Inlet Pressure of the Regulator ................................ 461Capacity Required .................................................. 461Shutoff Capability ................................................... 461Process Fluid .......................................................... 461Process Fluid Temperature ..................................... 461Accuracy Required ................................................. 461Pipe Size Required .................................................. 461End Connection Style .............................................. 462Required Materials ................................................. 462Control Lines .......................................................... 462Stroking Speeds ...................................................... 462Overpressure Protection .......................................... 462Regulator Replacement ........................................... 462Regulator Price ....................................................... 462
Backpressure Regulator Selection .................................. 463Relief Valve Selection .................................................... 463
Theory
Principles of Direct-Operated RegulatorsIntroduction .................................................................. 464
Regulator Basics ........................................................... 464Essential Elements ........................................................ 464
Restricting Element ................................................ 465Measuring Element ................................................ 465Loading Element .................................................... 465
Regulator Operation ...................................................... 465Increasing Demand ................................................ 465Decreasing Demand ............................................... 465Weights versus Springs ............................................ 465Spring Rate ............................................................. 466Equilibrium with a Spring ...................................... 466
Spring as Loading Element ........................................... 466Throttling Example ................................................ 466Regulator Operation and P2 .................................... 467Regulator Performance ........................................... 467Performance Criteria ............................................... 467Setpoint ................................................................... 467Droop ..................................................................... 467Capacity ................................................................. 467Accuracy ................................................................ 467Lockup.................................................................... 467
Spring Rate and Regulator Accuracy ............................ 468Spring Rate and Droop ........................................... 468Effect on Plug Travel .............................................. 468Light Spring Rate ................................................... 468Practical Limits ...................................................... 468
Diaphragm Area and Regulator Accuracy .................... 468Diaphragm Area..................................................... 468Increasing Diaphragm Area ................................... 469Diaphragm Size and Sensitivity .............................. 469
Restricting Element and Regulator Performance ........... 469Critical Flow .......................................................... 469Orifice Size and Capacity ....................................... 469Orifice Size and Stability ........................................ 470Orifice Size, Lockup, and Wear .............................. 470Orifice Guideline .................................................... 470Increasing P1 .......................................................... 470
Factors Affecting Regulator Accuracy .......................... 470Performance Limits ....................................................... 470
Cycling ................................................................... 4701esign Variations .................................................... 470Improving Regulator Accuracy with a Pitot Tube... 471Numerical Example ............................................... 471Decreased Droop (Boost) ........................................ 471
Improving Performance with a Lever ............................ 471
Principles of Pilot-Operated RegulatorsPilot-Operated Regulator Basics ................................... 472
Regulator Pilots ...................................................... 472Gain ....................................................................... 472
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Disadvantages ........................................................ 480Monitoring Regulators .................................................. 481
Advantages ............................................................. 481Disadvantages ........................................................ 481
Working Monitor .......................................................... 481Series Regulation ........................................................... 481
Advantages ............................................................. 482Disadvantages ........................................................ 482
Shutoff Devices ............................................................. 482Advantages ............................................................. 482Disadvantages ........................................................ 482
Relief Monitor............................................................... 482Summary ....................................................................... 483
Principles of Relief ValvesOverpressure Protection ................................................ 484Maximum Pressure Considerations ............................... 484
Downstream Equipment ......................................... 484Main Regulator ...................................................... 484Piping ..................................................................... 484
Relief Valves ................................................................. 484Relief Valve Popularity ........................................... 485Relief Valve Types .................................................. 485
Selection Criteria ........................................................... 485Pressure Buildup ..................................................... 485Periodic Maintenance ............................................. 485Cost versus Performance ......................................... 485Installation and Maintenance Considerations ........ 485
Pop Type Relief Valve ................................................... 485Operation ............................................................... 485Typical Applications .............................................. 486Advantages ............................................................. 486Disadvantage ......................................................... 486
Identifying Pilots .................................................... 472Setpoint ................................................................... 472Spring Action.......................................................... 472Pilot Advantage ...................................................... 472
Gain and Restrictions .................................................... 472Stability .................................................................. 472Restrictions, Response Time, and Gain ................... 473
Loading and Unloading Designs .................................. 473Two-Path Control (Loading Design) ....................... 473Two-Path Control Advantages ................................ 473Unloading Control ................................................. 474Unloading Control Advantages .............................. 474
Performance Summary .................................................. 474Accuracy ................................................................ 474Capacity ................................................................. 474Lockup.................................................................... 475Applications ........................................................... 475
Two-Path Control .......................................................... 475Type 1098-EGR ...................................................... 475Type 99 ................................................................... 476
Unloading Design ......................................................... 476
Selecting and Sizing Pressure Reducing RegulatorsIntroduction .................................................................. 477The Natural Gas Regulators Application Guide ........... 477
Quick Selection Guides ........................................... 477Product Pages ......................................................... 477The Role of Experience ........................................... 477Special Requirements .............................................. 477
Sizing Equations ............................................................ 477General Sizing Guidelines ............................................. 478
Body Size ................................................................ 478Construction ........................................................... 478Pressure Ratings ...................................................... 478Wide-Open Flow Rate ............................................. 478Outlet Pressure Ranges and Springs ........................ 478Accuracy ................................................................ 478Inlet Pressure Losses ............................................... 478Orifice Diameter ..................................................... 478Speed of Response ................................................... 478Turn-Down Ratio .................................................... 478
Sizing Exercise: Industrial Plant Gas Supply ............... 478
Overpressure Protection MethodsMethods of Overpressure Protection .............................. 480Relief Valves ................................................................. 480
Types of Relief Valves ............................................. 480Advantages ............................................................. 480
Direct-Operated Relief Valves ....................................... 486Operation ............................................................... 486Product Example .................................................... 487Typical Applications .............................................. 487Selection Criteria .................................................... 487
Pilot-Operated Relief Valves ......................................... 488Operation ............................................................... 488Product Example .................................................... 488Performance ........................................................... 489Typical Applications .............................................. 489Selection Criteria .................................................... 489
Internal Relief ............................................................... 489Operation ............................................................... 489Product Example .................................................... 490Performance and Typical Applications ................... 490Selection Criteria .................................................... 490
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Viscosity Corrections .............................................. 496Finding Valve Size .................................................. 496Predicting Flow Rate .............................................. 497Predicting Pressure Drop ........................................ 497Flashing and Cavitation ......................................... 497Choked Flow .......................................................... 499Liquid Sizing Summary .......................................... 500Liquid Sizing Nomenclature .................................. 501
Sizing for Gas or Steam Service ..................................... 502Universal Gas Sizing Equation .............................. 502General Adaptation for Steam and Vapors .............. 503Special Equation for Steam Below 1000 psig .......... 503Gas and Steam Sizing Summary ............................. 503
Temperature Considerations
Cold Temperature ConsiderationsRegulators Rated for Low Temperatures ........................ 505Selection Criteria ........................................................... 505
FreezingIntroduction .................................................................. 506Reducing Freezing Problems ......................................... 506
Heat the Gas ........................................................... 506Antifreeze Solution ................................................. 506Equipment Selection ............................................... 506System Design ........................................................ 507Water Removal ....................................................... 507
Summary ....................................................................... 507
Sulfide Stress Cracking—NACE MR0175-2002,MR0175/ISO 15156
The Details .................................................................... 508New Sulfide Stess Cracking Standards For Refineries .... 508Responsibility ................................................................ 509Applicability of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 ................. 509Basics of Sulfide Strss Cracking (SSC) and Stress
Corrosion Cracking (SCC) ................................ 509Carbon Steel .................................................................. 510
Carbon and Low-Alloy SteelWelding Hardness Require-ments ................................................................ 510
Selection and Sizing Criteria ......................................... 490Maximum Allowable Pressure ................................ 490Regulator Ratings ................................................... 490Piping ..................................................................... 490Maximum Allowable System Pressure .................... 490Determining Required Relief Valve Flow ............... 490Determine Constant Demand ................................. 491
Selecting Relief Valves .................................................. 491Required Information .............................................. 491Regulator Lockup Pressure ..................................... 491Identify Appropriate Relief Valves ......................... 491Final Selection ........................................................ 491Applicable Regulations ........................................... 491
Sizing and Selection Exercise ........................................ 491Initial Parameters ................................................... 491Performance Considerations .................................... 491Upstream Regulator ................................................ 491Pressure Limits ....................................................... 492Relief Valve Flow Capacity .................................... 492Relief Valve Selection ............................................. 492
Principles of Series Regulation and Monitor RegulatorsSeries Regulation ........................................................... 493
Failed System Response .......................................... 493Regulator Considerations ........................................ 493Applications and Limitations .................................. 493
Upstream Wide-Open Monitors .................................... 493System Values ......................................................... 493Normal Operation .................................................. 493Worker Regulator B Fails ....................................... 494Equipment Considerations ...................................... 494
Downstream Wide-Open Monitors ................................ 494Normal Operation .................................................. 494Worker Regulator A Fails ....................................... 494
Upstream Versus Downstream Monitors ....................... 494Working Monitors ......................................................... 494Sizing Monitor Regulators ............................................ 495
Estimating Flow when Pressure Drop is Critical ..... 495Assuming Pintermediate to Determine Flow ............... 495
Fisher Monitor Sizing Program .................................... 495
Valve Sizing Calculations
Introduction .................................................................. 496Sizing for Liquid Service ............................................... 496
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Low-Alloy Steel Welding Hardness Requirements ... 511Cast Iron ....................................................................... 511Stainless Steel ................................................................ 511
400 Series Stainless Steel ......................................... 511300 Series Stainless Steel ......................................... 511S20910 .................................................................... 512CK3MCuN ............................................................. 512S17400 .................................................................... 512Duplex Stainless Steel ............................................. 512Highly Alloyed Sustenitic Stainless Steels ............... 512
Nonferrous Alloys ......................................................... 513Nickel-Base Alloys ................................................. 513Monel® K500 and Inconel® X750 ........................ 513Cobalt-Base Alloys ................................................. 513Aluminum and Copper Alloys ................................. 514Titanium ................................................................. 514Zirconium ............................................................... 514
Springs .......................................................................... 514Coatings ........................................................................ 514Stress Relieving ............................................................. 514Bolting .......................................................................... 514Bolting Coatings ............................................................ 514Composition Materials .................................................. 515Tubulars ........................................................................ 515Expanded Limits and Materials .................................... 515Codes and Standards ...................................................... 516Certifications ................................................................. 516
Reference
Powder Paint CoatingIntroduction .................................................................. 517Economic Advantages ................................................... 517Environmental Advantages ........................................... 517Mechanical Properties ................................................... 518Corrosion Resistance ..................................................... 518ASTM Test Results ........................................................ 518
Regulator TipsRegulator Tips ............................................................... 519
Chemical Compatibility of Elastomers and MetalsIntroduction .................................................................. 521Elastomers: Chemical Names and Uses ....................... 521General Properties of Elastomers .................................. 522
Fluid Compatibility of Elastomers ................................ 523Compatibility of Metals ................................................ 524
Conversions, Equivalents, and Useful InformationPressure Equivalents ..................................................... 526Pressure Conversion - Pounds per Square Inch
(PSI) to Bar ...................................................... 526Volume Equivalents ...................................................... 526Volume Rate Equivalents .............................................. 527Mass Conversion—Pounds to Kilograms....................... 527Temperature Conversion Formulas ............................... 527Area Equivalents ........................................................... 527Kinematic-Viscosity Conversion Formulas ................... 527Conversion Units ........................................................... 528Other Useful Conversions .............................................. 528Converting Volumes of Gas ........................................... 528Fractional Inches to Millimeters ................................... 529Length Equivalents ....................................................... 529Whole Inch-Millimeter Equivalents .............................. 529Metric Prefixes and Symbols ......................................... 529Greek Alphabet ............................................................. 529Length Equivalents - Fractional and Decimal
Inches to Millimeters ....................................... 530Temperature Conversions .............................................. 531A.P.I. and Baumé Gravity Tables and Weight Factors .... 534Characteristics of the Elements ..................................... 535Recommended Standard Specifications for Valve
Materials Pressure-Containing Castings .......... 536Physical Constants of Hydrocarbons ............................. 539Physical Constants of Various Fluids ............................. 540Properties of Water ........................................................ 542Properties of Saturated Steam ....................................... 542Properties of Saturated Steam—Metric Units ............... 545Properties of Superheated Steam ................................... 546Determine Velocity of Steam in Pipes ............................ 549Recommended Steam Pipe Line Velocities .................... 549Typical Condensation Rates in Insulated Pipes ............. 549Typical Condensation Rates without Insulation............. 549Flow of Water Through Schedule 40 Steel Pipes ........... 550Flow of Air Through Schedule 40 Steel Pipes ................ 552Average Properties of Propane ...................................... 554Orifice Capacities for Propane ....................................... 554Standard Domestic Propane Tank Specifications .......... 554Approximate Vaporization Capacities of
Propane Tanks ................................................. 554Pipe and Tubing Sizing .................................................. 555Vapor Pressures of Propane ........................................... 555Converting Volumes of Gas ........................................... 555
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BTU Comparisons ...................................................... 5555Capacities of Spuds and Orifices ................................... 556Kinematic Viscosity - Centistokes ................................. 559Specific Gravity of Typical Fluids vs
Temperature .................................................... 560Effect of Inlet Swage On Critical Flow
Cg Requirements .............................................. 561ANSI Face-To-Face Dimensions for
Flanged Regulators .......................................... 562Seat Leakage Classifications ......................................... 562Class VI Seat Leakage Allowable .................................. 562Pressure-Temperature Ratings for Valve Bodies ............ 563Diameter of Bolt Circles ................................................ 564
Wear and Galling Resistance Chart of MaterialCombinations ................................................... 565
Equivalent Lengths of Pipe Fittings and Valves ............ 565Pipe Data: Carbon and Alloy Steel—Stainless Steel ..... 566American Pipe Flange Dimensions ............................... 568DIN Cast Steel Flange Standards .................................. 568DIN Standards - DIN Cast Steel Valve Ratings ............. 568Drill Sizes for Pipe Taps ................................................ 570Standard Twist Drill Sizes ............................................. 570
GlossaryGlossary of Terms ......................................................... 571
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Regulator Control Theory
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TECHNICAL
Fundamentals of Gas Pressure Regulators
The primary function of any gas regulator is to match the flowof gas through the regulator to the demand for gas placed uponthe system. At the same time, the regulator must maintain thesystem pressure within certain acceptable limits.
A typical gas pressure system might be similar to that shown inFigure 1, where the regulator is placed upstream of the valve orother device that is varying its demand for gas from the regulator.
The loading element can be one of any number of things such asa weight, a handjack, a spring, a diaphragm actuator, or a pistonactuator, to name a few of the more common ones.
A diaphragm actuator and a spring are frequently combined, asshown in Figure 3, to form the most common type of loadingelement. A loading pressure is applied to a diaphragm to producea loading force that will act to close the restricting element. Thespring provides a reverse loading force which acts to overcomethe weight of the moving parts and to provide a fail-safe operat-ing action that is more positive than a pressure force.
If the load flow decreases, the regulator flow must decrease also.Otherwise, the regulator would put too much gas into the systemand the pressure (P2) would tend to increase. On the other hand,if the load flow increases, then the regulator flow must increasealso in order to keep P
2 from decreasing due to a shortage of gas
in the pressure system.
From this simple system it is easy to see that the prime job of theregulator is to put exactly as much gas into the piping system asthe load device takes out.
If the regulator were capable of instantaneously matching its flowto the load flow, then we would never have major transientvariation in the pressure (P
2) as the load changes rapidly. From
practical experience we all know that this is normally not the case,and in most real-life applications, we would expect some fluctua-tions in P2 whenever the load changes abruptly.
Since the regulator’s job is to modulate the flow of gas into thesystem, we can see that one of the essential elements of anyregulator is a Restricting Element that will fit into the flow streamand provide a variable restriction that can modulate the flow ofgas through the regulator.
Figure 2 shows a schematic of a typical regulator restrictingelement. This restricting element is usually some type of valvearrangement. It can be a single-port globe valve, a cage style valve,butterfly valve, or any other type of valve that is capable ofoperating as a variable restriction to the flow.
In order to cause this restricting element to vary, some type ofloading force will have to be applied to it. Thus we see that thesecond essential element of a gas regulator is a Loading Elementthat can apply the needed force to the restricting element.
Figure 1
So far, we have a restricting element to modulate the flow throughthe regulator, and we have a loading element that can apply thenecessary force to operate the restricting element. But, how do weknow when we are modulating the gas flow correctly? How dowe know when we have the regulator flow matched to the loadflow? It is rather obvious that we need some type of MeasuringElement which will tell us when these two flows have beenperfectly matched. If we had some economical method of directlymeasuring these flows, we could use that approach; however, thisis not a very feasible method.
We noted earlier in our discussion of Figure 1 that the systempressure (P2) was directly related to the matching of the twoflows. If the restricting element allows too much gas into thesystem, P
2 will increase. If the restricting element allows too little
gas into the system, P2 will decrease. We can use this convenient
fact to provide a simple means of measuring whether or not theregulator is providing the proper flow.
Figure 2
Figure 3
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Manometers, Bourdon tubes, bellows, pressure gauges, anddiaphragms are some of the possible measuring elements that wemight use. Depending upon what we wish to accomplish, some ofthese measuring elements would be more advantageous thanothers. The diaphragm, for instance, will not only act as ameasuring element which responds to changes in the measuredpressure, but it also acts simultaneously as a loading element. Assuch, it produces a force to operate the restricting element thatvaries in response to changes in the measured pressure. If we addthis typical measuring element to the loading element and therestricting element that we selected earlier, we will have a completegas pressure regulator as shown in Figure 4.
Let’s review the action of this regulator. If the restricting elementtries to put too much gas into the system, the pressure (P
2) will
increase. The diaphragm, as a measuring element, responds tothis increase in pressure and, as a loading element, produces aforce which compresses the spring and thereby restricts theamount of gas going into the system. On the other hand, if theregulator doesn’t put enough gas into the system, the pressure(P2) falls and the diaphragm responds by producing less force.The spring will then overcome the reduced diaphragm force andopen the valve to allow more gas into the system. This type ofself-correcting action is known as negative feedback. Thisexample illustrates that there are three essential elements neededto make any operating gas pressure regulator. They are aRestricting Element, a Loading Element, and a MeasuringElement. Regardless of how sophisticated the system maybecome, it still must contain these three essential elements.
Pilot-Operated Regulators
So far we have only discussed self-operated regulators. This is thename given tot hat class of regulators where the measured
Figure 4
Figure 5
pressure is applied directly to the loading element with nointermediate hardware. There are really only two basic configura-tions of self-operated regulators that are practical. These twobasic types are illustrated in Figures 4 and 5.
If the proportional band of a given self-operated regulator is toogreat for a particular application, there are a number of things wecan do. From our previous examples we recall that spring rate,valve travel, and effective diaphragm area were the three param-eters that affected the proportional band. In the last section wepointed out the way to change these parameters in order toimprove the proportional band. If these changes are eitherinadequate or impractical, the next logical step is to install apressure amplifier in the measuring or sensing line. This pressureamplifier is frequently referred to as a pilot.
Conclusion
It should be obvious at this point that there are fundamentals tounderstand in order to properly select and apply a gas regulatorto do a specific job. Although these fundamentals are profuse innumber and have a sound theoretical base, they are relativelystraightforward and easy to understand.
As you are probably aware by now, we made a number ofsimplifying assumptions as we progressed. This was done in theinterest of gaining a clearer understanding of these fundamentalswithout getting bogged down in special details and exceptions. Byno means has the complete story of gas pressure regulation beentold. The subject of gas pressure regulation is much broader inscope than can be presented in a single document such as this, butit is sincerely hoped that this application guide will help to gain aworking knowledge of some fundamentals that will enable one todo a better job of designing, selecting, applying, evaluating, ortroubleshooting any gas pressure regulation equipment.
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Regulator Components
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TECHNICAL
Straight Stem Style Direct-Operated Regulator Components
Type 133L
ORIFICE
INLET PRESSURE
OUTLET PRESSURE
BOOST PRESSURE
VALVE DISC
SPRING SEAT
SPRINGADJUSTOR
SPRING CASE
DIAPHRAGMHEAD
CAGE
VALVE STEMBALANCINGDIAPHRAGM
CLOSING CAP
VENT
EXTERNALCONTROL LINECONNECTIONREGISTRATION
DIAPHRAGM
BODY
DIAPHRAGMCASE
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Lever Style Direct-Operated Regulator Components
Type 627
INLET PRESSURE
OUTLET PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
BODY
VALVE DISC
SPRING
ADJUSTING SCREW
DIAPHRAGM
LEVER
VENT
VALVE STEM
SPRING SEAT
ORIFICE
DIAPHRAGMHEAD
DIAPHRAGMCASE
CLOSING CAP
SPRING CASE
INTERNAL CONTROLREGISTRATION
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TECHNICAL
INLET PRESSURE
OUTLET PRESSURE
LOADING PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Loading Style (Two-Path Control) Pilot-Operated Regulator Components
Type 1098-EGR
TRAVEL INDICATOR
CONTROL LINE(EXTERNAL)
1098 ACTUATOR
PILOT
INLET PRESSURE
INLINE FILTER
BALANCED EGR TRIM
VENT
PILOT SUPPLYPRESSURE
MAIN SPRING
BODY
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Unloading Style Pilot-Operated Regulator Components
Type EZR
2RUN
STA
RT
46
8
INLET PRESSURE
OUTLET PRESSURE
LOADING PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
TYPE 161EB PILOT
TYPE 252 PILOTSUPPLY FILTER
TYPE 112 RESTRICTOR
STRAINER BODY
VENTEXTERNALCONTROLLINE
TRAVELINDICATOR
PLUG ANDDIAPHRAGMTRIM
CAGE
EXTERNAL PILOTSUPPLY LINE
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Introduction to Regulators
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TECHNICAL
Instrument engineers agree that the simpler a system is the betterit is, as long as it provides adequate control. In general,regulators are simpler devices than control valves. Regulatorsare self-contained, self-operated control devices which useenergy from the controlled system to operate whereas controlvalves require external power sources, transmitting instruments,and control instruments.Specific Regulator Types
Within the broad categories of direct-operated and pilot-operated regulators fall virtually all of the general regulatordesigns, including:
• Pressure reducing regulators• Backpressure regulators• Pressure relief valves• Pressure switching valves• Shutoff valves
Pressure Reducing Regulators
A pressure reducing regulator maintains a desired reducedoutlet pressure while providing the required fluid flow to satisfya downstream demand. The pressure which the regulatormaintains is the outlet pressure setting (setpoint) of the regula-tor.
Pressure Reducing Regulator Types
This section describes the various types of regulators. Allregulators fit into one of the following two categories:
1. Direct-Operated (also called Self-Operated)
2. Pilot-Operated
Direct-Operated (Self-Operated) Regulators
Direct-operated regulators are the simplest style of regulators.At low set pressures, typically below 1 psig (0,07 bar), they can
Figure 1. Type 627 Direct-Operated Regulator and Operational Schematic Figure 2. Type 1098-EGR PIlot-Operated Regulator and Operational Schematic
INLET PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSUREOUTLET PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
INLET PRESSURE
OUTLET PRESSURE
LOADING PRESSURE
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have very accurate (±1%) control. At high control pressures, upto 500 psig (34.5 bar), 10 to 20% control is typical.
In operation, a direct-operated, pressure reducing regulatorsenses the downstream pressure through either internal pressureregistration or an external control line. This downstreampressure opposes a spring which moves the diaphragm andvalve plug to change the size of the flow path through theregulator.
Pilot-Operated Regulators
Pilot-operated regulators are preferred for high flow rates orwhere precise pressure control is required. A popular type ofpilot-operated system uses two-path control. In two-pathcontrol, the main valve diaphragm responds quickly to down-stream pressure changes, causing an immediate correction in themain valve plug position. At the same time, the pilot diaphragmdiverts some of the reduced inlet pressure to the other side ofthe main valve diaphragm to control the final positioning of themain valve plug. Two-path control results in fast response andaccurate control.
A pressure relief valve limits pressure buildup (preventsoverpressure) at its location in a pressure system. The reliefvalve opens to prevent a rise of inlet pressure in excess of aspecified value. The pressure at which the relief valve begins toopen pressure is the relief pressure setting.
Relief valves and backpressure regulators are the same devices.The name is determined by the application. Fisher relief valvesare not ASME safety relief valves.
Shutoff Valves
Shutoff valves will close offthe flow if a pressure signal isoutside adjusted limits.
Pressure Switching Valves
Pressure switching valves are used in pneumatic logic systems.These valves are for either two-way or three-way switching.Two way switching valves are used for on/off service in pneu-matic systems.
Three-way switching valves direct inlet pressure from one outletport to another whenever the sensed pressure exceeds or dropsbelow a preset limit.
Regulator Selection Criteria
This section describes the procedure normally used to selectregulators for various applications. For most applications, thereis generally a wide choice of regulators that will accomplish therequired function. The vendor and the customer, workingtogether, have the task of deciding which of the availableregulators is best suited for the job at hand. The selectionprocedure is essentially a process of elimination wherein theanswers to a series of questions narrow the choice down to aspecific regulator.
Control Application
To begin the selection procedure, it’s necessary to define whatthe regulator is going to do. In other words, what is the controlapplication? The answer to this question will determine thegeneral type of regulator required, such as:
• Pressure reducing regulators• Backpressure regulators• Pressure relief valves
Figure 3. Type 63-EG Backpressure Regulator/Relief Valve and OperationalSchematic
Backpressure Regulators and Pressure Relief Valves
A backpressure regulator maintains a desired upstream pressureby varying the flow in response to changes in upstream pressure.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
INLET PRESSURE
OUTLET PRESSURE
LOADING PRESSURE
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The selection criteria used in selecting each of these generalregulator types is described in greater detail in the followingsubsections.
Pressure Reducing Regulator Selection
The majority of applications require a pressure reducingregulator. Assuming the application calls for a pressure reducingregulator, the following parameters must be determined:
• Outlet pressure to be controlled
• Inlet pressure to the regulator• Capacity required• Shutoff capability required• Process fluid• Process fluid temperature• Accuracy required• Pipe size required• End connection style• Material requirements• Control line needed• Overpressure protection
Outlet Pressure to be Controlled
For a pressure reducing regulator, the first parameter todetermine is the required outlet pressure. When the outletpressure is known, it helps determine:
• Spring requirements• Casing pressure rating• Body outlet rating• Orifice rating and size• Regulator size
Inlet Pressure of the Regulator
The next parameter is the inlet pressure. The inlet pressure(minimum and maximum) determines the:
• Pressure rating for the body inlet• Orifice pressure rating and size• Main spring (in a pilot-operated regulator)• Regulator size
If the inlet pressure varies significantly, it can have an effect on:
• Accuracy of the controlled pressure• Capacity of the regulator• Regulator style (direct operated or pilot operated)
Capacity Required
The required flow capacity influences the following decisions:
• Size of the regulator• Orifice size• Style of regulator (direct-operated or pilot-operated)
Shutoff Capability
The required shutoff capability determines the type of diskmaterial:
• Standard disk materials are nitrile and neoprene, thesematerials provide the tightest shutoff.
• Other materials, such as nylon, Teflon (TFE),fuoroelastomer (FKM), and ethylenepropylene (EPDM),are used when standard material cannot be used.
• Metal disks are used in high temperatures and whenelastomers are not compatible with the process fluid;however, tight shutoff is typically not achieved.
Process Fluid
Each process fluid has its own set of unique characteristics interms of its chemical composition, corrosive properties, impuri-ties, flammability, hazardous nature, toxic effect, explosive limits,and molecular structure. In some cases special care must betaken to select the proper materials that will come in contactwith the process fluid.
Process Fluid Temperature
Fluid temperature may determine the materials used in theregulator. Standard regulators use steel and nitrile or neopreneelastomers that are good for a temperature range of -40° to180°F (-40° to 82°C). Temperatures above and below this rangemay require other materials, such as stainless steel,ethylenepropylene (EPDM), or perfluoroelastomer (FFKM).
Accuracy Required
The accuracy requirement of the process determines theacceptable droop (also called proportional band or offset).
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Regulators fall into the following groups as far as droop isconcerned:
• Rough-cut group. This group generally includes many first-stage, rough-cut direct-operated regulators. This groupusually has the highest amount of droop. However, somedesigns are very accurate, especially the low-pressure gas orair types, such as house service regulators, which incorporate a relatively large diaphragm casing.
• Close control group. This group usually includes pilot-operated regulators. They provide high accuracy over alarge range of flows. Applications that require close controlinclude these examples:
• Burner control where the fuel/air ratio is critical toburner efficiency and the gas pressure has a significanteffect on the fuel/air ratio
• Metering devices, such as gas meters, which requireconstantinput pressures to ensure accurate measurement
Pipe Size Required
If the pipe size is known, it gives the specifier of a new regulatora more defined starting point. If, after making an initial selectionof a regulator, the regulator is larger than the pipe size, it usuallymeans that an error has been made either in selecting the pipesize or the regulator, or in determining the original parameters(such as pressure or flow) required for regulator selection. Inmany cases, the outlet piping needs to be larger than theregulator for the regulator to reach full capacity.
End Connection Style
In general, the following end connections are available for theindicated regulator sizes:
• Pipe threads or socket weld: 2-inch (DN 50) and smaller• Flanged: 1-inch (DN 25) and larger• Butt weld: 1-inch (DN 25) and larger
Note: Not all end connections are available for all regulators.
Required Materials
The regulator construction materials are generally dictated bythe application. Standard materials are:
• Aluminum• Cast iron or ductile iron
• Steel• Bronze and brass• Stainless steel
Special materials required by the process can have an effect onthe type of regulator that can be used. Oxygen service, forexample, requires special materials, requires special cleaningpreparation, and requires that no oil or grease be in the regula-tor.
Control Lines
For pressure registration, control lines are connected down-stream of a pressure reducing regulator, and upstream of abackpressure regulator. Typically large direct-operated regula-tors have external control lines, and small direct-operatedregulators have internal registration instead of a control line.Most pilot-operated regulators have external control lines, butthis should be confirmed for each regulator type considered.
Stroking Speed
Stroking speed is often an important selection criteria. Direct-operated regulators are very fast, and pilot-operated regulatorsare slightly slower. Both types are faster than most controlvalves. When speed is critical, techniques can be used to decreasestroking time.
Overpressure Protection
The need for overpressure protection should always be consid-ered. Overpressure protection is generally provided by anexternal relief valve, or in some regulators, by an internal reliefvalve. Internal relief is an option that you must choose at thetime of purchase. The capacity of internal relief is usually limitedin comparison with a separate relief valve. Other methods suchas shutoff valves andmonitor regulators may also be used.
Regulator Replacement
When a regulator is being selected to replace an existing regula-tor, the existing regulator can provide the following information:
• Style of regulator• Size of regulator• Type number of the regulator• Special requirements for the regulator, such as downstream
pressure sensing through a control line versus internalpressure registration
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Backpressure Regulator Selection
Backpressure regulators control the inlet pressure rather thanthe outlet pressure. The selection criteria for a backpressureregulator is the same as for a pressure reducing regulator.
Relief Valve Selection
An external relief valve is a form of backpressure regulator. Arelief valve opens when the inlet pressure exceeds a set value.Relief is generally to atmosphere. The selection criteria is thesame as for a pressure reducing regulator.
Figure 4. Backpressure Regulator/Relief Valve Applications
MAIN VALVE
VENT VALVE B
BLOCK VALVE A
MAIN PRESSURE LINE
NONRESTRICTIVEVENTS AND PIPING
ALTERNATE PILOTEXHAUST PIPING
PILOT
CONTROL LINE
Relief Pressure Control at Relief Valve Inlet
BLOCK VALVE AVENT VALVE B
MAIN VALVE
VENT VALVE D
ALTERNATE PILOTEXHAUST PIPING
VENT VALVE C
PILOT
CONTROL LINE
Backpressure Control
Regulator Price
The price of a regulator is only a part of the cost of ownership.Additional costs include installation and maintenance. Inselecting a regulator, you should consider all of the costs thatwill accrue over the life of the regulator. The regulator with alow initial cost may not be the most economical in the long run.For example, a direct-operated regulator is generally lessexpensive, but a pilot-operated regulator may provide morecapacity per dollar. To illustrate, a 2-inch (DN 50) pilot-operatedregulator can have the same capacity and a lower price than a 3-inch (DN 80), direct-operated regulator.
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Introduction
Pressure regulators have become very familiar items over theyears, and nearly everyone has grown accustomed to seeingthem in factories, public buildings, by the roadside, and even onthe outside of their own homes. As is frequently the case withsuch familiar items, we have a tendency to take them for granted.It’s only when a problem develops, or when we are selecting aregulator for a new application, that we need to look moredeeply into the fundamentals of the regulator’s operation.
Regulators provide a means of controlling the flow of a gas orother fluid supply to downstream processes or customers. Anideal regulator would supply downstream demand whilekeeping downstream pressure constant; however, the mechanicsof direct-operated regulator construction are such that there willalways be some deviation (droop or offset) in downstreampressure.
larger opening and increased flow. Ideally, a regulator shouldprovide a constant downstream pressure while delivering therequired flow.
The service regulator mounted on the meter outside virtuallyevery home serves as an example. As appliances such as a furnaceor stove call for the flow of more gas, the service regulatorresponds by delivering the required flow. As this happens, thepressure should be held constant. This is important because thegas meter, which is the cash register of the system, is oftencalibrated for a given pressure.
Direct-operated regulators have many commercial and residentialuses. Typical applications include industrial, commercial, anddomestic gas service, instrument air supply, and a broad range ofapplications in industrial processes.
Regulators automatically adjust flow to meet downstreamdemand. Before regulators were invented, someone had to watcha pressure gauge for pressure drops which signaled an increase indownstream demand. When the downstream pressure decreased,more flow was required. The operator then opened the regulatingvalve until the gauge pressure increased, showing that down-stream demand was being met.
Essential Elements
Direct-operated regulators have three essential elements:
• A restricting element—a valve, disk, or plug• A measuring element—generally a diaphragm• A loading element—generally a spring
MEASURINGELEMENT
Figure 1. Direct-Operated Regulators
TYPE 630
Regulator Basics
A pressure reducing regulator must satisfy a downstreamdemand while maintaining the system pressure within certainacceptable limits. When the flow rate is low, the regulator plug ordisk approaches its seat and restricts the flow. When demandincreases, the plug or disk moves away from its seat, creating a Figure 2. Three Essential Elements
LOADINGELEMENT (WEIGHT)
RESTRICTINGELEMENT
TYPE HSR
133 SERIES
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Restricting Element
The regulator’s restricting element is generally a disk or plug thatcan be positioned fully open, fully closed, or somewhere inbetween to control the amount of flow. When fully closed, thedisk or plug seats tightly against the valve orifice or seat ring toshut off flow.
Measuring Element
The measuring element is usually a flexible diaphragm thatsenses downstream pressure (P2). The diaphragm moves aspressure beneath it changes. The restricting element is oftenattached to the diaphragm with a stem so that when thediaphragm moves, so does the restricting element.
Loading Element
A weight or spring acts as the loading element. The loadingelement counterbalances downstream pressure (P2). The amountof unbalance between the loading element and the measuringelement determines the position of the restricting element.Therefore, we can adjust the desired amount of flow throughthe regulator, or setpoint, by varying the load. Some of the firstdirect-operated regulators used weights as loading elements.Most modern regulators use springs.
Regulator Operation
To examine how the regulator works, let’s consider these valuesfor a direct-operated regulator installation:
• Upstream Pressure (P1) = 100 psig• Downstream Pressure (P2) = 10 psig• Pressure Drop Across the Regulator (P) = 90 psi• Diaphragm Area (AD) = 10 square inches• Loading Weight = 100 pounds
Let’s examine a regulator in equilibrium as shown in Figure 3.The pressure acting against the diaphragm creates a force actingup to 100 pounds.
Diaphragm Force (FD) = Pressure (P2) x Area of Diaphragm (AD)or
FD = 10 psig x 10 square inches = 100 pounds
The 100-pound weight acts down with a force of 100 pounds, soall the opposing forces are equal, and the regulator plug remainsstationary.
Increasing Demand
If the downstream demand increases, P2 will drop. The pressureon the diaphragm drops, allowing the regulator to open further.Suppose in our example P2 drops to 9 psig. The force acting upthen equals 90 pounds (9 psig x 10 square inches = 90 pounds).Because of the unbalance of the measuring element and theloading element, the restricting element will move to allow passageof more flow.
Decreasing Demand
If the downstream demand for flow decreases, downstreampressure increases. In our example, suppose P2 increases to 11psig. The force acting up against the weight becomes 110 pounds(11 psig x 10 square inches = 110 pounds). In this case, unbalancecauses the restricting element to move up to pass less flow orlockup.
Weights versus Springs
One of the problems with weight-loaded systems is that they areslow to respond. So if downstream pressure changes rapidly, ourweight-loaded regulator may not be able to keep up. Always
At Equilibrium
Figure 3. Elements
100 LBAREA = 10 IN2
P2 = 10 PSIGP1 = 10 PSIG
FW = 100 LB
FD = 100 LB
FD = (P2 x AD) = (10 PSIG)(10 IN2) = 100 LB
Open
100 LBAREA = 10 IN2
P2 = 9 PSIGP1 = 10 PSIG
FW = 100 LB
FD = 90 LB
FD = (P2 x AD) = (9 PSIG)(10 IN2) = 90 LB
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behind, it may become unstable and cycle—continuously goingfrom the fully open to the fully closed position. There are otherproblems. Since the amount of weight controls regulatorsetpoint, the regulator is not easy to adjust. The weight willalways have to be on top of the diaphragm. So, let’s considerusing a spring. By using a spring instead of a weight, regulatorstability increases because a spring has less stiffness.
Spring Rate
We choose a spring for a regulator by its spring rate (K). Krepresents the amount of force necessary to compress the springone inch. For example, a spring with a rate of 100 pounds perinch needs 100 pounds of force to compress it one inch, 200pounds of force to compress it two inches, and so on.
Equilibrium with a Spring
Instead of a weight, let’s substitute a spring with a rate of 100pounds per inch. And, with the regulator’s spring adjustor, we’llwind in one inch of compression to provide a spring force (FS) of100 pounds. This amount of compression of the regulatorspring determines setpoint, or the downstream pressure that wewant to hold constant. By adjusting the initial spring compres-sion, we change the spring loading force, so P2 will be at adifferent value in order to balance the spring force.
Now the spring acts down with a force of 100 pounds, and thedownstream pressure acts up against the diaphragm producing aforce of 100 pounds (FD = P2 x AD). Under these conditions the
regulator has achieved equilibrium; that is, the plug or disk isholding a fixed position.
Spring as Loading Element
By using a spring instead of a fixed weight, we gain bettercontrol and stability in the regulator. The regulator will now beless likely to go fully open or fully closed for any change indownstream pressure (P2). In effect, the spring acts like amultitude of different weights.
Throttling Example
Assume we still want to maintain 10 psig downstream. Con-sider what happens now when downstream demand increasesand pressure P2 drops to 9 psig. The diaphragm force (FD)acting up is now 90 pounds.
FD = P2 x AD
FD = 9 psig x 10 in2
FD = 90 pounds
We can also determine how much the spring will move (extend)which will also tell us how much the disk will travel. To keep theregulator in equilibrium, the spring must produce a force (FS)equal to the force of the diaphragm. The formula for determin-ing spring force (FS) is:
FS = (K)(X)
where K = spring rate in pounds/inch and X = travel orcompression in inches.
AREA = 10 IN2
P1 = 10 PSIG
Spring as Element
At Equilibrium
FS = FDFS = (K)(X)
FD = (P2)(AD)
FS
FD
(TO KEEP DIAPHRAGM FROMMOVING)FD = (10 PSIG)(102) = 100 LB
FS = (100LB/IN)(X) = 100 LB
X = 1-INCH COMPRESSION
FS = 90 LB
FD = 90 LB
P1 = 100 PSIG P2 = 9 PSIG
0.1-INCH
Figure 4. Spring as Element
Figure 5. Plug Travel
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We know FS is 90 pounds and K is 100 pounds/inch, so we cansolve for X with:
X = FS ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ KX = 90 pounds ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ 100 pounds/inchX = 0.9 inch
The spring, and therefore the disk, has moved down 1/10-inch,allowing more flow to pass through the regulator body.
Regulator Operation and P2
Now we see the irony in this regulator design. We recall that thepurpose of an ideal regulator is to match downstream demandwhile keeping P2 constant. But for this regulator design toincrease flow, there must be a change in P2.
Regulator Performance
We can check the performance of any regulating system byexamining its characteristics. Most of these characteristics can bebest described using pressure versus flow curves as shown inFigure 6.
Performance Criteria
We can plot the performance of an ideal regulator such that nomatter how the demand changes, our regulator will match thatdemand (within its capacity limits) with no change in thedownstream pressure (P2). This straight line performancebecomes the standard against which we can measure theperformance of a real regulator.
Setpoint
The constant pressure desired is represented by the setpoint. Butno regulator is ideal. The downward sloping line on the diagramrepresents pressure (P2) plotted as a function of flow for anactual direct-operated regulator. The setpoint is determined bythe initial compression of the regulator spring. By adjusting theinitial spring compression you change the spring loading force,so P2 will be at a different value in order to balance the springforce. This establishes setpoint.
Droop
Droop, proportional band, and offset are terms used todescribe the phenomenon of P2 dropping below setpoint as flowincreases. Droop is the amount of deviation from setpoint at agiven flow, expressed as a percentage of setpoint. This “droop”curve is important to a user because it indicates regulating(useful) capacity.
Capacity
Capacities published by regulator manufacturers are given fordifferent amounts of droop. Let’s see why this is important.
Let’s say that for our original problem, with the regulator set at10 psig, our process requires 200 scfh (standard cubic feet perhour) with no more than a 1 psi drop in setpoint. We need tokeep the pressure at or above 9 psig because we have a low limitsafety switch set at 9 psig that will shut the system down ifpressure falls below this point.Figure 6 illustrates the performance of a regulator that can dothe job. And, if we can allow the downstream pressure to dropbelow 9 psig, the regulator can allow even more flow.
The capacities of a regulator published by manufacturers aregenerally given for 10 percent droop and 20 percent droop. Inour example, this would relate to flow at 9 psig and at 8 psig.
Accuracy
The accuracy of a regulator is determined by the amount offlow it can pass for a given amount of droop. The closer theregulator is to the ideal regulator curve (setpoint), the moreaccurate it is.
Lockup
Lockup is the pressure above setpoint that is required to shutthe regulator off tight. In many regulators, the orifice has a knife
Figure 6. Typical Performance Curve
As the flow rate approaches zero, P2 increases steeply. Lockup is the term applied to the value of P2 at zero flow.
LOCKUP
SETPOINT
DROOP(OFFSET)
WIDE-OPEN
P2
FLOW
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edge while the disk is a soft material. Some extra pressure, P2, isrequired to force the soft disk into the knife edge to make a tightseal. The amount of extra pressure required is lockup pressure.Lockup pressure may be important for a number of reasons.Consider the example above where a low pressure limit switchwould shut down the system if P2 fell below 9 psig. Nowconsider the same system with a high pressure safety cut outswitch set a 10.5 psig. Because our regulator has a lockuppressure of 11 psig, the high limit switch will shut the systemdown before the regulator can establish tight shutoff. Obviously,we’ll want to select a regulator with a lower lockup pressure.
Spring Rate and Regulator Accuracy
Using our initial problem as an example, let’s say we now needthe regulator to flow 300 scfh at a droop of 10 percent from ouroriginal setpoint of 10 psig. Ten percent of 10 psig = 1 psig, soP2 cannot drop below 10 - 1, or 9 psi. Our present regulatorwould not be accurate enough. For our regulator to pass 300scfh, P2 will have to drop to 8 psig, or 20% droop.
Spring Rate and Droop
One way to make our regulator more accurate is to change to alighter spring rate. To see how spring rate affects regulatoraccuracy, let’s return to our original example. We first tried aspring with a rate of 100 pounds/inch. Let’s substitute one witha rate of 50 pounds/inch. To keep the regulator in equilibrium,we’ll have to initially adjust the spring to balance the 100 poundforce produced by P2 acting on the diaphragm. Recall how wecalculate spring force:
FS = K (spring rate) x X (compression)
Knowing that FS must equal 100 pounds and K = 50 pounds/inch, we can solve for X, or spring compression, with:
X = FS ÷÷÷÷÷ K, or X = 2 inches
So, we must wind in 2-inches of initial spring compression tobalance diaphragm force, FD.
Effect on Plug Travel
We saw before that with a spring rate of 100 pounds/inch, whenP2 dropped from 10 to 9 psig, the spring relaxed (and the valvedisk traveled) 0.1 inch. Now let’s solve for the amount of disktravel with the lighter spring rate of 50 pounds per inch. Theforce produced by the diaphragm is still 90 pounds.
FD = P2 x AD
To maintain equilibrium, the spring must also produce a forceof 90 pounds. Recall the formula that determines spring force:
FS = (K)(X)
Because we know FS must equal 90 pounds and our spring rate(K) is 50 pounds/inch, we can solve for compression (X) with:
X = FS ÷÷÷÷÷ K
X = 90 pounds ÷÷÷÷÷ 50 pounds/inchX = 1.8 inches
To establish setpoint, we originally compressed this spring 2inches. Now it has relaxed so that it is only compressed 1.8inches, a change of 0.2 inch. So with a spring rate of 50 pounds/inch, the regulator responded to a 1 psig drop in P2 by openingtwice as far as it did with a spring rate of 100 pounds/inch.Therefore, our regulator is now more accurate because it hasgreater capacity for the same change in P2. In other words, it hasless droop or offset. Using this example, it is easy to see howcapacity and accuracy are related and how they are related tospring rate.
Light Spring Rate
Experience has shown that choosing the lightest available springrate will provide the most accuracy (least droop). For example, aspring with a range of 35 to 100 psig is more accurate than aspring with a range of 90 to 200 psig. If you want to set yourregulator at 100 psig, the 35 to 100 psig spring will providebetter accuracy.
Practical Limits
While a lighter spring can reduce droop and improve accuracy,using too light a spring can cause instability problems. Fortu-nately, most of the work in spring selection is done by regulatormanufacturers. They determine spring rates that will providegood performance for a given regulator, and publish these ratesalong with other sizing information.
Diaphragm Area and Regulator Accuracy
Diaphragm Area
Until this point, we have assumed the diaphragm area to beconstant. In practice, the diaphragm area changes with travel.We’re interested in this changing area because it has a majorinfluence on accuracy and droop.
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Diaphragms have convolutions in them so that they are flexibleenough to move over a rated travel range. As they changeposition, they also change shape because of the pressureapplied to them. Consider the example shown in Figure 7. Asdownstream pressure (P2) drops, the diaphragm moves down.As it moves down, it changes shape and diaphragm areaincreases because the centers of the convolutions becomefurther apart. The larger diaphragm area magnifies the effect ofP2 so even less P2 is required to hold the diaphragm in place.This is called diaphragm effect. The result is decreased accuracybecause incremental changes in P2 do not result in correspond-ing changes in spring compression or disk position.
Increasing Diaphragm Area
To better understand the effects of changing diaphragm area,let’s calculate the forces in the exaggerated example given inFigure 7. First, assume that the regulator is in equilibrium witha downstream pressure P2 of 10 psig. Also assume that the areaof the diaphragm in this position is 10 square inches. Thediaphragm force (FD) is:
FD = (P2)(AD)FD = (10 psi) (10 square inches)FD = 100 pounds
Now assume that downstream pressure drops to 9 psigsignaling the need for increased flow. As the diaphragm moves,its area increases to 11 square inches. The diaphragm force nowproduced is:
FD = (9 psi) (11 square inches)FD = 99 pounds
The change in diaphragm area increases the regulator’s droop.
SETPOINT
WIDE-OPEN
FLOW
P2
Figure 8. Critical Flow
While it’s important to note that diaphragm effect contributes todroop, diaphragm sizes are generally determined by manufac-turers for different regulator types, so there is rarely a useroption.
Diaphragm Size and Sensitivity
Also of interest is the fact that increasing diaphragm size canresult in increased sensitivity. A larger diaphragm area willproduce more force for a given change in P2. Therefore, largerdiaphragms are often used when measuring small changes inlow-pressure applications. Service regulators used in domesticgas service are an example.
Restricting Element and Regulator Performance
Critical Flow
While changing the orifice size can increase capacity, a regulatorcan pass only so much flow for a given orifice size and inletpressure, no matter how much we improve the unit’s accuracy.As you can see in Figure 8, after the regulator is wide-open,reducing P2 does not result in higher flow. This area of the flowcurve identifies critical flow. To increase the amount of flowthrough the regulator, the flowing fluid must pass at higher andhigher velocities. But, the fluid can only go so fast. Holding P1constant while deceasing P2, flow approaches a maximum whichis the speed of sound in that particular gas, or its sonic velocity.Sonic velocity depends on the inlet pressure and temperature forthe flowing fluid. Critical flow is generally anticipated whendownstream pressure (P2) approaches a value that is less thanor equal to one-half of inlet pressure (P1).
Orifice Size and Capacity
One way to increase capacity is to increase the size of the orifice.
Figure 7. Changing Diaphragm Area
DIAPHRAGM EFFECT ON DROOP
A = 10 IN2
FD1
A = 11 IN2
FD2
WHEN P2 DROPS TO 9
FD = P2 x A
FD1 = 10 x 10 = 100 LB
FD2 = 9 x 11 = 99 LB
CRITICAL FLOW
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The variable flow area between disk and orifice depends directlyon orifice diameter. Therefore, the disk will not have to travel asfar with a larger orifice to establish the required regulator flowrate, and droop is reduced. Sonic velocity is still a limiting factor,but the flow rate at sonic velocity is greater because more gas ispassing through the larger orifice.
Stated another way, a given change in P2 will produce a largerchange in flow rate with a larger orifice than it would with asmaller orifice. However, there are definite limits to the size oforifice that can be used. Too large an orifice makes the regulatormore sensitive to fluctuating inlet pressures. If the regulator isoverly sensitive, it will have a tendency to become unstable andcycle.
Orifice Size and Stability
One condition that results from an oversized orifice is known asthe “bathtub stopper” effect. As the disk gets very close to theorifice, the forces of fluid flow tend to slam the disk into theorifice and shut off flow. Downstream pressure drops and thedisk opens. This causes the regulator to cycle—open, closed,open, closed. By selecting a smaller orifice, the disk will operatefarther away from the orifice so the regulator will be more stable.
Orifice Size, Lockup, and Wear
A larger orifice size also requires a higher shutoff pressure, orlockup pressure. In addition, an oversized orifice usuallyproduces faster wear on the valve disk and orifice because itcontrols flow with the disk near the seat. This wear is acceleratedwith high flow rates and when there is dirt or other erosivematerial in the flowstream.
Orifice Guideline
Experience indicates that using the smallest possible orifice isgenerally the best rule-of-thumb for proper control and stability.
Increasing P1
Regulator capacity can be increased by increasing inlet pressure(P1).
Factors Affecting Regulator Accuracy
As we have seen, the design elements of a regulator—the spring,diaphragm, and orifice size—can affect its accuracy. Some ofthese inherent limits can be overcome with changes to theregulator design.
Performance Limits
The three curves in Figure 9 summarize the effects of spring rate,diaphragm area, and orifice size on the shape of the controlledpressure-flow rate curve. Curve A is a reference curve represent-
Figure 9. Increased Sensitivity
ing a typical regulator. Curve B represents the improvedperformance from either increasing diaphragm area or decreas-ing spring rate. Curve C represents the effect of increasingorifice size. Note that increased orifice size also offers higherflow capabilities. But remember that too large an orifice size canproduce problems that will negate any gains in capacity.
Cycling
The sine wave in Figure 10 might be what we see if we increaseregulator sensitivity beyond certain limits. The sine waveindicates instability and cycling.
Design Variations
All direct-operated regulators have performance limits thatresult from droop. Some regulators are available with featuresdesigned to overcome or minimize these limits.
Figure 10. Cycling
SETPOINT
AB
C
FLOW
P2
SETPOINT
TIME
P2
FLOW INCREASED
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Improving Regulator Accuracy with a Pitot Tube
In addition to the changes we can make to diaphragm area,spring rate, orifice size, and inlet pressure, we can also improveregulator accuracy by adding a pitot tube. Internal to theregulator, the pitot tube connects the diaphragm casing with alow-pressure, high velocity region within the regulator body.The pressure at this area will be lower than P2 further down-stream. By using a pitot tube to measure the lower pressure, theregulator will make more dramatic changes in response to any
instead of droop. So the use of a pitot tube, or similar device,can dramatically improve droop characteristics of a regulator.
Improving Performance with a Lever
The lever style regulator is a variation of the simple direct-operated regulator. It operates in the same manner, except that ituses a lever to gain mechanical advantage and provide a highshutoff force.
In earlier discussions, we noted that the use of a larger dia-phragm can result in increased sensitivity. This is because anychange in P2 will result in a larger change in diaphragm force.The same result is obtained by using a lever to multiply the forceproduced by the diaphragm as shown in Figure 13.
The main advantage of lever designs is that they provideincreased force for lockup without the extra cost, size, andweight associated with larger diaphragms, diaphragm casings,and associated parts.
Figure 11. Pitot Tube
P2 = 10 PSIGP1 = 100 PSIG
SENSE PRESSURE HERE
psig to 9 psig, the pressure sensed by the pitot tube may dropfrom 8 psig to 6 psig. Therefore, the regulator opens furtherthan it would if it were sensing actual downstream pressure.
Decreased Droop (Boost)
The pitot tube offers one chief advantage for regulator accuracy,it decreases droop. As we see in Figure 12, the diaphragmpressure, PD, must drop just as low with a pitot tube as withoutto move the disk far enough to supply the required flow. But thesolid curve shows that P2 does not decrease as much as it didwithout a pitot tube. In fact, P2 may increase. This is called boost
Figure 12. Performance with Pitot Tube
PRESSURE
SETPOINTP2
PD
FLOW
Figure 13. Lever Style Regulator
PIVOT POINT
P2 = DOWNSTREAM PRESSUREPD = PRESSURE UNDER DIAPHRAGM
INLET PRESSURE
OUTLET PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
change in P2. In other words, the pitot tube tricks the regulator,causing it to respond more than it would otherwise.
Numerical Example
For example, we’ll establish setpoint by placing a gauge down-stream and adjusting spring compression until the gauge reads10 psig for P2. Because of the pitot tube, the regulator mayactually be sensing a lower pressure. When P2 drops from 10
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Pilot-Operated Regulator Basics
In the evolution of pressure regulator designs, the shortcomingsof the direct-operated regulator naturally led to attempts toimprove accuracy and capacity. A logical next step in regulatordesign is to use what we know about regulator operation toexplore a method of increasing sensitivity that will improve allof the performance criteria discussed.
Identifying Pilots
Analysis of pilot-operated regulators can be simplified byviewing them as two independent regulators connected together.The smaller of the two is generally the pilot.
Setpoint
We may think of the pilot as the “brains” of the system.Setpoint and many performance variables are determined by thepilot. It senses P2 directly and will continue to make changes inPL on the main regulator until the system is in equilibrium. Themain regulator is the “muscle” of the system, and may be usedto control large flows and pressures.
Spring Action
Notice that the pilot uses a spring-open action as found indirect-operated regulators. The main regulator, shown in Figure1, uses a spring-close action. The spring, rather than loadingpressure, is used to achieve shutoff. Increasing PL from thepilot onto the main diaphragm opens the main regulator.
Pilot Advantage
Because the pilot is the controlling device, many of the perfor-mance criteria we have discussed apply to the pilot. For example,droop is determined mainly by the pilot. By using very smallpilot orifices and light springs, droop can be made small.Because of reduced droop, we will have greater usable capacity.Pilot lockup determines the lockup characteristics for thesystem. The main regulator spring provides tight shutoffwhenever the pilot is locked up.
Gain and Restrictions
Stability
While increased gain (sensitivity) is often considered an advan-tage, it also increases the gain of the entire pressure regulatorsystem. If the system gain is too high, it may become unstable.In other words, the regulator may tend to oscillate; over-reacting by continuously opening and closing. Pilot gain can bemodified to tune the regulator to the system. To provide ameans for changing gain, every pilot-operated regulator systemcontains both a fixed and a variable restriction. The relative sizeof one restriction compared to the other can be varied tochange gain and speed of response.
Regulator Pilots
To improve the sensitivity of our regulator, we would like to beable to sense P2 and then somehow make a change in loadingpressure (PL) that is greater than the change in P2. To accom-plish this, we can use a device called a pilot, or pressure ampli-fier.
The major function of the pilot is to increase regulator sensitiv-ity. If we can sense a change in P2 and translate it into a largerchange in PL, our regulator will be more responsive (sensitive) tochanges in demand. In addition, we can significantly reducedroop so its effect on accuracy and capacity is minimized.
Gain
The amount of amplification supplied by the pilot is called“gain.” To illustrate, a pilot with a gain of 20 will multiply theeffect of a 1 psi change on the main diaphragm by 20. Forexample, a decrease in P2 opens the pilot to increase PL 20 timesas much.
Figure 1. Pilot-Operated Regulator
MAINREGULATOR
UPSTREAM PRESSURE, P1
LOADING PRESSURE, PL
DOWNSTREAM PRESSURE, P2
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
PILOTREGULATOR
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increase PL to the desired level because of the larger fixedrestriction.
Loading and Unloading Designs
A loading pilot-operated design (Figure 2), also called two-pathcontrol, is so named because the action of the pilot loads PLonto the main regulator measuring element. The variablerestriction, or pilot orifice, opens to increase PL.
PILOT
FLOW
PILOT
FLOW
P2
P1
PL
VARIABLERESTRICTION SMALLER FIXED
RESTRICTION
LARGER FIXEDRESTRICTION
VARIABLERESTRICTION
P2P1
PL
P2
P2
TO M
AIN
REGU
LATO
R
TO M
AIN
REGU
LATO
R
Figure 2. Fixed Restrictions and Gain (Used on Two-Path Control Systems)
Figure 3. Unloading Systems
Restrictions, Response Time, and Gain
Consider the example shown in Figure 2 with a small fixedrestriction. Decreasing P2 will result in pressure PL increasing.Increasing P2 will result in a decrease in PL while PL bleeds outthrough the small fixed restriction.
If a larger fixed restriction is used with a variable restriction, thegain (sensitivity) is reduced. A larger decrease in P2 is required to
An unloading pilot-operated design (Figure 3) is so namedbecause the action of the pilot unloads PL from the mainregulator.
Two-Path Control (Loading Design)
In two-path control systems (Figure 4), the pilot is piped sothat P2 is registered on the pilot diaphragm and on the mainregulator diaphragm at the same time. When downstreamdemand is constant, P2 positions the pilot diaphragm so thatflow through the pilot will keep P2 and PL on the main regula-tor diaphragm. When P2 changes, the force on top of the mainregulator diaphragm and on the bottom of the pilot diaphragm
PILOT
FLOW
FIXEDRESTRICTION VARIABLE
RESTRICTION
P2
P1PL P2
TO M
AIN
REGU
LATO
R
Figure 4. Two-Path Control
VARIABLERESTRICTION
FLOW
FIXED RESTRICTION
UPSTREAM PRESSURE, P1
LOADING PRESSURE, PL
DOWNSTREAM PRESSURE, P2
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
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changes. As P2 acts on the main diaphragm, it begins reposition-ing the main valve plug. This immediate reaction to changes inP2 tends to make two-path designs faster than other pilot-operated regulators. Simultaneously, P2 acting on the pilotdiaphragm repositions the pilot valve and changes PL on themain regulator diaphragm. This adjustment to PL accuratelypositions the main regulator valve plug. PL on the main regula-tor diaphragm bleeds through a fixed restriction until the forceson both sides are in equilibrium. At that point, flow through theregulator valve matches the downstream demand.
Two-Path Control Advantages
The primary advantages of two-path control are speed andaccuracy. These systems may limit droop to less than onepercent. They are well suited to systems with requirements forhigh accuracy, large capacity, and a wide range of pressures.
Unloading Control
Unloading systems (Figure 5) locate the pilot so that P2 actsonly on the pilot diaphragm. P1 constantly loads under theregulator diaphragm and has access to the top of the diaphragmthrough a fixed restriction.
When downstream demand is constant, the pilot valve is openenough that PL holds the position of the main regulatordiaphragm. When downstream demand changes, P2 changes andthe pilot diaphragm reacts accordingly. The pilot valve adjustsPL to reposition and hold the main regulator diaphragm.
Unloading Control Advantages
Unloading systems are not quite as fast as two-path systems,and they can require higher differential pressures to operate.However, they are simple and more economical, especially inlarge regulators. Unloading control is used with popularelastomer diaphragm style regulators. These regulators use aflexible membrane to throttle flow.
Performance Summary
Accuracy
Because of their high gain, pilot-operated regulators areextremely accurate. Droop for a direct-operated regulator maybe in the range of 10 to 20 percent whereas pilot-operatedregulators are between one and three percent with values underone percent possible.
Capacity
Pilot-operated designs provide high capacity for two reasons.First, we have shown that capacity is related to droop. Andbecause droop can be made very small by using a pilot, capacityis increased. In addition, the pilot becomes the “brains” of thesystem and controls a larger, sometimes much larger, mainregulator. This also allows increased flow capabilities.
DO
WN
STR
EAM
PR
ESSU
RE
(P2)
HIGH CAPACITY
FLOW RATE
MINIMALDROOP
Figure 6. Pilot-Operated Regulator Performance Figure 5. Unloading Control
MAIN REGULATORDIAPHRAGM
UPSTREAM PRESSURE, P1
LOADING PRESSURE, PL
DOWNSTREAM PRESSURE, P2
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
FIXEDRESTRICTION
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INLET PRESSURE
OUTLET PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
LOADING PRESSURE
Figure 8. Type 99, Typical Two-Path Controlwith Integrally Mounted Pilot
Lockup
The lockup characteristics for a pilot-operated regulator are thelockup characteristics of the pilot. Therefore, with small orifices,lockup pressures can be small.
Applications
Pilot-operated regulators should be considered wheneveraccuracy, capacity, and/or high pressure are important selectioncriteria. They can often be applied to high capacity services withgreater economy than a control valve and actuator withcontroller.
Two-Path Control
In some designs (Figure 7), the pilot and main regulator areseparate components. In others (Figure 8), the system isintegrated into a single package. All, however, follow the basicdesign concepts discussed earlier.
Type 1098-EGR
The schematic in Figure 7 illustrates the Type 1098-EGRregulator’s operation. It can be viewed as a model for all two-path, pilot-operated regulators. The pilot is simply a sensitivedirect-operated regulator used to send loading pressure to themain regulator diaphragm.
Identify the inlet pressure (P1). Find the downstream pressure(P2). Follow it to where it opposes the loading pressure on themain regulator diaphragm. Then, trace P2 back to where itopposes the control spring in the pilot. Finally, locate the routeof P2 between the pilot and the regulator diaphragm.
Changes in P2 register on the pilot and main regulator dia-phragms at the same time. As P2 acts on the main diaphragm, itbegins repositioning the main valve plug. Simultaneously, P2acting on the pilot diaphragm repositions the pilot valve andchanges PL on the main regulator diaphragm. This adjustmentin PL accurately positions the main regulator valve plug.
Figure 7. Type 1098-EGR, Typical Two-Path Control
INLET PRESSURE
OUTLET PRESSURE
LOADING PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
, P1, P2
, PL
, P1, P2
, PL
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As downstream demand is met, P2 rises. Because P2 acts directlyon both the pilot and main regulator diaphragms, this designprovides fast response.
Type 99
The schematic in Figure 8 illustrates another typical two-pathcontrol design, the Type 99. The difference between the Type1098-EGR and the Type 99 is the integrally mounted pilot of theType 99.
The pilot diaphragm measures P2. When P2 falls below the pilotsetpoint, the diaphragm moves away from the pilot orifice andallows loading pressure to increase. This loads the top of themain regulator diaphragm and strokes the main regulator valveopen further.
Unloading Design
Unloading designs incorporate a molded composition dia-phragm that serves as the combined loading and restrictingcomponent of the main regulator. Full upstream pressure (P1) isused to load the regulator diaphragm when it is seated. Theregulator shown in Figure 9 incorporates an elastomeric valveclosure member.
Unloading regulator designs are slower than two-pathcontrol systems because the pilot must first react to changesin P2 before the main regulator valve moves. Recall that intwo-path designs, the pilot and main regulator diaphragmsreact simultaneously.
P1 passes through a fixed restriction and fills the space abovethe regulator diaphragm. This fixed restriction may beadjusted to increase or decrease regulator gain. P1 also fillsthe cavity below the regulator diaphragm. Because the surfacearea on the top side of the diaphragm is larger than the areaexposed to P1 below, the diaphragm is forced down against the
Figure 9. Type EZR, Unloading Design
INLET PRESSURE, P1
OUTLET PRESSURE, P2
LOADING PRESSURE, PL
cage to close the regulator.
When downstream demand increases, the pilot opens. Whenthe pilot opens, regulator loading pressure escapes down-stream much faster than P1 can bleed through the fixedrestriction. As pressure above the regulator diaphragmdecreases, P1 forces the diaphragm away from its seat.
When downstream demand is reduced, P2 increases until it’shigh enough to compress the pilot spring and close the pilotvalve. As the pilot valve closes, P1 continues to pass throughthe fixed restriction and flows into the area above the mainregulator diaphragm. This loading pressure, PL, forces thediaphragm back toward the cage, reducing flow through theregulator.
2RUN
STA
RT
46
8
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Introduction
Those who are new to the regulator selection and sizing processare often overwhelmed by the sheer number of regulator typesavailable and the seemingly endless lists of specifications inmanufacturer’s literature. This handbook is designed to assistyou in selecting a regulator that fits your application’s specificneeds.
The Natural Gas Regulators Application Guide
Although it might seem obvious, the first step is to consider theapplication itself. Some applications immediately point to agroup of regulators designed specifically for that type ofservice. The Natural Gas Regulator Application Guide isdivided into applications sections to help identify regulatorsthat are designed for specific applications. Within each sectionthere is an Application Map, Quick Selection Guide, anApplications section, and Product Pages. The Application Mapshows some of the common applications and the regulatorsthat are used in those applications. The Quick Selection Guidelists the regulators by application, and provides importantselection information about each regulator. The Applicationssection explains the applications covered in the section and italso explains many of the application considerations. TheProduct Pages provide specific details about the regulators thatare suitable for the applications covered in the section. To beginselecting a regulator, turn to the Quick Selection Guide in theappropriate application section.
Quick Selection Guides
Quick Selection Guides identify the regulators with the appro-priate pressure ratings, outlet pressure ranges, and capacities.These guides quickly narrow the range of potentially appropri-ate regulators. The choices identified by using a Quick SelectionGuide can be narrowed further by using the Product Pages tofind more information about each of the regulators.
Product Pages
Identifying the regulators that can pass the required flownarrows the possible choices further. When evaluating flowrequirements, consider the minimum inlet pressure andmaximum flow requirements. Again, this worst case combina-tion ensures that the regulator can pass the required flow underall anticipated conditions.
After one or more regulators have been identified as potentiallysuitable for the service conditions, consult specific Product
Pages to check regulator specifications and capabilities. Theapplication requirements are compared to regulator specifica-tions to narrow the range of appropriate selections. Thefollowing specifications can be evaluated in the Product Pages:
• Product description and available sizes
• Maximum inlet and outlet pressures (operating andemergency)
• Outlet pressure ranges
• Flow capacity
• End connection styles
• Regulator construction materials
• Accuracy
• Pressure registration (internal or external)
• Temperature capabilities
After comparing the regulator capabilities with the applicationrequirements, the choices can be narrowed to one or a fewregulators. Final selection may depend upon other factorsincluding special requirements, availability, price, and individualpreference.
Special Requirements
Finally, evaluate any special considerations, such as the needfor external control lines, special construction materials, orinternal overpressure protection. While overpressure protec-tion may be considered during sizing and selection, it is notcovered in this section.
The Role of Experience
Experience in the form of knowing what has worked in thepast, and familiarity with specific products, has great value inregulator sizing and selection. Knowing the regulator perfor-mance characteristics required for a specific applicationsimplifies the process. For example, when fast speed of re-sponse is required, a direct-operated regulator may come tomind; or a pilot-operated regulator with an auxiliary, largecapacity pilot to speed changes in loading pressure.
Sizing Equations
Sizing equations are useful when sizing pilot-operated regula-tors and relief valves. They can also be used to calculate thewide-open flow of direct-operated regulators. Use the capacitytables or curves in this handbook when sizing direct-operated
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regulators and relief/backpressure regulators. The sizingequations are in the Valve Sizing Calculations section.
General Sizing Guidelines
The following are intended to serve only as guidelines whensizing pressure reducing regulators. When sizing any regulator,consult with experienced personnel or the regulator manufac-turer for additional guidance and information relating tospecific applications.
Body Size
Regulator body size should never be larger than the pipe size.However, a properly sized regulator may be smaller than thepipeline.
Construction
Be certain that the regulator is available in materials that arecompatible with the controlled fluid and the temperatures used.Also, be sure that the regulator is available with the desired endconnections.
Pressure Ratings
While regulators are sized using minimum inlet pressures toensure that they can provide full capacity under all conditions,pay particular attention to the maximum inlet and outletpressure ratings.
Wide-Open Flow Rate
The capacity of a regulator when it has failed wide-open isusually greater than the regulating capacity. For that reason,use the regulating capacities when sizing regulators, and thewide-open flow rates only when sizing relief valves.
Outlet Pressure Ranges and Springs
If two or more available springs have published outlet pressureranges that include the desired pressure setting, use the springwith the lower range for better accuracy. Also, it is not neces-sary to attempt to stay in the middle of a spring range, it isacceptable to use the full published outlet pressure rangewithout sacrificing spring performance or life.
Accuracy
Of course, the need for accuracy must be evaluated. Accuracy isgenerally expressed as droop, or the reduction of outletpressure experienced as the flow rate increases. It is stated inpercent, inchesof water column, or pounds per square inch. It indicates thedifference between the outlet pressure at low flow rates and theoutlet pressure at the published maximum flow rate. Droop isalso called offset or proportional band.
Inlet Pressure Losses
The regulator inlet pressure used for sizing should be mea-sured directly at the regulator inlet. Measurements made at anydistance upstream from the regulator are suspect because lineloss can significantly reduce the actual inlet pressure to theregulator. If the regulator inlet pressure is given as a systempressure upstream, some compensation should be considered.Also, remember that downstream pressure always changes tosome extent when inlet pressure changes.
Orifice Diameter
The recommended selection for orifice size is the smallestdiameter that will handle the flow. This can benefit operation inseveral ways: instability and premature wear may be avoided,relief valves may be smaller, and lockup pressures may bereduced.
Speed of Response
Direct-operated regulators generally have faster response toquick flow changes than pilot-operated regulators.
Turn-Down Ratio
Within reasonable limits, most soft-seated regulators canmaintain pressure down to zero flow. Therefore, a regulatorsized for a high flow rate will usually have a turndown ratiosufficient to handle pilot-light sized loads during periods oflow demand.
Sizing Exercise: Industrial Plant Gas Supply
Regulator selection and sizing generally requires some subjec-tive evaluation and decision making. For those with little
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Selecting and Sizing Pressure Reducing Regulators
479
TECHNICALTECHNICAL
Q = 95,000 SCFH
P2 = 1 PSIG
GAS
SUPP
LY =
30-
40 P
SIG
METER
INDUSTRIAL PLANT
Figure 1. Natural Gas Supply
experience, the best way to learn is through example. Therefore,these exercises present selection and sizing problems forpracticing the process of identifying suitable regulators.
Our task is to select a regulator to supply reduced pressurenatural gas to meet the needs of a small industrial plant. Theregulated gas is metered before entering the plant. The selectionparameters are:
• Minimum inlet pressure, P1min = 30 psig
• Maximum inlet pressure, P1max = 40 psig
• Outlet pressure setting, P2 = 1 psig
• Flow, Q = 95,000 scfh
• Accuracy (droop required) = 10% or less
Quick Selection Guide
Turn to the Natural Gas section. Find the Commercial/Industrial Quick Selection Guide. From the Quick SelectionGuide, we find that the choices are:
• Type 133
• Type 1098-EGR
• Type 99
Product Pages
Under the product number on the Quick Selection Guide is thepage number of the Product Page. Look at the flow capacities
of each of the possible choices. From the Product Pages wefound the following:
• At 30 psig inlet pressure and 10% droop, the Type 133 hasa flow capacity of 90,000 scfh. This regulator does not meet therequired flow capacity.
• At 30 psig inlet pressure, the Type 1098-EGR has a flowcapacity of 131,000 scfh. By looking at the Proportional Band(Droop) table, we see that the Type 6352 pilot with the yellowpilot spring and the green main valve has 0.05 psig droop. Thisregulator meets the selection criteria.
• At 30 psig inlet pressure, The Type 99 has a flow capacityof 39,000 scfh. This regulator does not meet the required flowcapacity.
Final Selection
We find that the Type 1098-EGR meets the selection criteria.
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Overpressure Protection Methods
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TECHNICAL
Overpressure protective devices are of vital concern. Safety codesand current laws require their installation each time a pressurereducing station is installed that supplies gas from any system toanother system with a lower maximum allowable operatingpressure.
Methods of Overpressure Protection
The most commonly used methods of overpressure protection,not necessarily in order of use or importance, include:
• Relief Valves (Figure 1)
• Monitors (Figures 2 and 3)
• Series Regulation (Figure 4)
• Shutoff (Figure 5)
Figure 1. Relief Valve Schematic
Relief Valves
A relief valve is a device that vents process fluid to atmosphereto maintain the pressure downstream of the regulator below thesafe maximum pressure. Relief is a common form of overpres-sureprotection typically used for low to medium capacity applica-tions. (Note: Fisher relief valves are not ASME safety reliefvalves.)
Types of Relief Valves
The basic types of relief valves are:
• Pop type
• Direct-operated relief valves
• Pilot-operated relief valves
• Internal relief valves
The pop type relief valve is the simplest form of relief. Pop reliefvalves tend to go wide-open once the pressure has exceeded itsset point by a small margin. The setpoint can drift over time,and because of its quick opening characteristic the pop relief cansometimes become unstable when relieving, slamming open andclosed. Many have a non-adjustable setpoint that is set andpinned at the factory.
If more accuracy is required from a relief valve, the direct-operated relief valve would be the next choice. They can throttlebetter than a pop relief valve, and tend to be more stable, yet arestill relatively simple. Although there is less drift in the setpointof the direct-operated relief valve, a significant amount ofbuildup is often required to obtain the required capacity.
The pilot-operated relief valves have the most accuracy, but arealso the most complicated and expensive type of relief. They usea pilot to dump loading pressure, fully stroking the main valvewith very little buildup above setpoint. They have a largecapacity and are available in larger sizes than other types ofrelief.
Many times, internal relief will provide adequate protection for adownstream system. Internal relief uses a relief valve built intothe regulator for protection. If the pressure builds too farabove the setpoint of the regulator, the relief valve in theregulator opens up, allowing excess pressure to escape throughthe regulator vent.
Advantages
The relief valve is considered to be the most reliable type ofoverpressure protection because it is not subject to blockage byforeign objects in the line during normal operations. It alsoimposes no decrease in the regulator capacity which it isprotecting, and it has the added advantage of being its ownalarm when it vents. It is normally reasonable in cost and keepsthe customer in service despite the malfunction of the pressurereducing valve.
Disadvantages
When the relief valve blows, it could possibly create a hazard inthe surrounding area by venting. The relief valve must be sizedcarefully to relieve the gas or fluid that could flow through thepressure reducing valve at its maximum inlet pressure and in thewide-open position, assuming no flow to the downstream.Therefore, each application must be sized individually. Therequirement for periodic testing of relief valves also creates anoperational and/or public relations problem.
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Monitoring Regulators
Monitoring is overpressure control by containment. When theworking pressure reducing valve ceases to control the pressure, asecond regulator installed in series, which has been sensing thedownstream pressure, goes into operation to maintain thedownstream pressure at a slightly higher than normal pressure.The monitoring concept is gaining in popularity, especially inlow-pressure systems, because very accurate relay pilots permitreasonably close settings of the working and monitoringregulators.
The two types of wide-open monitoring are upstream anddownstream monitoring. One question often asked is, “Whichis better, upstream or downstream monitoring?” Using twoidentical regulators, there is no difference in overall capacity witheither method.
When using monitors to protect a system or customer who mayat times have zero load, a small relief valve is sometimes installeddownstream of the monitor system with a setpoint just abovethe monitor. This allows for a token relief in case dust or dirt inthe system prevents bubble tight shutoff of the regulators.
Advantages
The major advantage is that there is no venting to atmosphere.During an overpressure situation, monitoring keeps thecustomer on line and keeps the downstream pressure relativelyclose to the setpoint of the working regulator. Testing isrelatively easy and safe. To perform a periodic test on a monitor,increase the outlet set pressure of the working device and watchthe pressure to determine if the monitor takes over.
Disadvantages
Compared to relief valves, monitoring generally requires ahigher initial investment. Monitoring regulators are subject toblocking, which is why filters or strainers are specified withincreasing frequency. Because the monitor is in series, it is anadded restriction in the line. This extra restriction can some-times force one to use a larger, more expensive working regula-tor.
Figure 2. Monitoring Regulators Schematic
Working Monitor
A variation of monitoring overpressure protection that over-comes some of the disadvantages of a wide-open monitor is the“working monitor” concept wherein a regulator upstream of theworking regulator uses two pilots. This additional pilot permitsthe monitoring regulator to act as a series regulator to controlan intermediate pressure during normal operation. In this way,both units are always operating and can be easily checked forproper operation. Should the downstream pressure regulatorfail to control, however, the monitoring pilot takes over thecontrol at a slightly higher than normal pressure and keeps thecustomer on line. This is pressure control by containment andeliminates public relations problems.
Figure 3. Working Monitor Schematic
Figure 4. Series Regulation Schematic
Series Regulation
Series regulation is also overpressure protection by containmentin that two regulators are set in the same pipeline. The first unitmaintains an inlet pressure to the second valve that is within themaximum allowable operating pressure of the downstreamsystem. Under this setup, if either regulator should fail, theresulting downstream pressure maintained by the other regula-tor would not exceed the safe maximum pressure.
This type of protection is normally used where the regulatorstation is reducing gas to a pressure substantially below themaximum allowable operating pressure of the distributionsystem being supplied. Series regulation is also found frequentlyin farm taps and in similar situations within the guidelinesmentioned above.
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Advantages
Again, nothing is vented to atmosphere.
Disadvantages
Because the intermediate pressure must be cut down to apressure that is safe for the entire downstream, the second-stageregulator often has very little pressure differential available tocreate flow. This can sometimes make it necessary to increasethe size of the second regulator significantly. Another drawbackoccurs when the first-stage regulator fails and no change in thefinal downstream pressure is noticed because the systemoperates in what appears to be a “normal” manner withoutbenefit of protection. Also, the first-stage regulator andintermediate piping must be capable of withstanding andcontaining maximum upstream pressure.
The second-stage regulator must also be capable of handling thefull inlet pressure in case the first-stage unit fails to operate. Incase the second-stage regulator fails, its actuator will be sub-jected to the intermediate pressure set by the first-stage unit.The second-stage actuator pressure ratings should reflect thispossibility.
Advantages
By shutting off the customer completely, the safety of thedownstream system is assured. Again, there is no public relationsproblem or hazard from venting gas or other media.
Disadvantages
The customer may be shut off because debris has temporarilylodged under the seat of the operating regulator, preventing tightshutoff. A small relief valve can take care of this situation.
On a distribution system with a single supply, using a slam-shutcan require two trips to each customer, the first to shut off theservice valve, and the second visit after the system pressure hasbeen restored to turn the service valve back on and re-light theappliances. In the event a shutoff is employed on a service linesupplying a customer with processes such as baking, meltingmetals, or glass making, the potential economic loss could dictatethe use of an overpressure protection device that would keep thecustomer online.
Another problem associated with shutoffs is encountered whenthe gas warms up under no-load conditions. For instance, aregulator locked up at approximately 7-inches w.c. could experi-ence a pressure rise of approximately 0.8-inches w.c. per degreeFahrenheit rise, which could cause the high-pressure shutoff totrip when there is actually no equipment failure.
Figure 5. Shutoff SchematicFigure 6. Relief Monitor Schematic
Shutoff Devices
The shutoff device also accomplishes overpressure protection bycontainment. In this case, the customer is shut off completelyuntil the cause of the malfunction is determined and the device ismanually reset. Many gas distribution companies use this as anadded measure of protection for places of public assembly suchas schools, hospitals, churches, and shopping centers. In thosecases, the shutoff device is a secondary form of overpressureprotection. Shutoff valves are also commonly used by boilermanufacturers in combustion systems.
Relief Monitor
Another concept in overpressure protection for small industrialand commercial loads, up to approximately 10,000 cubic feet perhour, incorporates both an internal relief valve and a monitor. Inthis device, the relief capacity is purposely restricted to preventexcess venting of gas in order to bring the monitor into operationmore quickly. The net result is that the downstream pressure isprotected, in some cases to less than 1 psig. The amount of gasvented under maximum inlet pressure conditions does not exceedthe amount vented by a domestic relief type service regulator.
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Overpressure Protection Methods
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TECHNICAL
With this concept, the limitation by regulator manufacturers ofinlet pressure by orifice size, as is found in “full relief” devices, isovercome. Downstream protection is maintained, even withabnormally high inlet pressure. Public relations problems arekept to a minimum by the small amount of vented gas. Also, theunit does not require manual resetting, but can go back intooperation automatically.
Dust or dirt can clear itself off the seat, but if the obstruction tothe disk closing still exists when the load goes on, the customerwould be kept online. When the load goes off, the downstreampressure will again be protected. During normal operation, themonitoring portion of the relief monitor is designed to moveslightly with minor fluctuations in downstream pressure or flow.
Summary
From the foregoing discussion, it becomes obvious that thereare many design philosophies available and many choices ofequipment to meet overpressure protection requirements. Also,
assume the overpressure device will be called upon to operatesometime after it is installed. The overall design must include ananalysis of the conditions created when the protection deviceoperates.
The accompanying table shows:
• What happens when the various types of overpressureprotection devices operate
• The type of reaction required
• The effect upon the customer or the public
• Some technical conditions
These are the general characteristics of the various types ofsafety devices. From the conditions and results shown, it iseasier to decide which type of overpressure equipment bestmeets your needs. Undoubtedly, compromises will have to bemade between the conditions shown here and any others whichmay govern your operating parameters.
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08TechOver.pmd 2/14/2005, 10:06 AM483
Principles of Relief Valves
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TECHNICAL
Overpressure Protection
Overpressure protection is a primary consideration in the designof any piping system. The objective of overpressure protectionis to maintain the pressure downstream of a regulator at a safemaximum value.
that all the downstream equipment can be subjected to.
Main Regulator
Pressure reducing regulators have different pressure ratingswhich refer to the inlet, outlet, and internal components. Thelowest of these should be used when determining the maximumallowable pressure.
Piping
Piping is limited in its ability to contain pressure. In addition toany physical limitations, some applications must also conformto one or more applicable pressure rating codes or regulations.
Relief Valves
Relief involves maintaining the pressure downstream of aregulator at a safe maximum pressure using any device thatvents fluid to a lower pressure system (often the atmosphere).Relief valve exhaust must be directed or piped to a safe location.Relief valves perform this function. They are considered to be
NATURAL G
AS
TRANSMISSION LI
NEREGULATOR
RELIEF VALVE
RELIEF VALVEREGULATOR
Type 289 Direct-Operated
Type 627 with Internal ReliefType 289P-6358 Pilot-Operated
H200 Series Pop Type
In the system shown in Figure 1, a high-pressure transmissionsystem delivers natural gas through a pressure reducingregulator to a lower pressure system that distributes gas toindividual customers. The regulators, the piping, and the devicesthat consume gas are protected from overpressure by reliefvalves. The relief valve’s setpoint is adjusted to a level estab-lished by the lowest maximum pressure rating of any of thelower pressure system components.
Maximum Pressure Considerations
Overpressure occurs when the pressure of a system is above thesetpoint of the device controlling its pressure. It is evidence ofsome failure in the system (often the upstream regulator), and itcan cause the entire system to fail if it’s not limited. To imple-ment overpressure protection, the weakest part in the pressuresystem is identified and measures are taken to limit overpressureto that component’s maximum pressure rating. The mostvulnerable components are identified by examining the maxi-mum pressure ratings of the:
• downstream equipment• low-pressure side of the main regulator• piping
The lowest maximum pressure rating of the three is the maxi-mum allowable pressure.
Downstream Equipment
The downstream component (appliance, burner, boiler, etc.) withthe lowest maximum pressure rating sets the highest pressure Figure 2. Types of Relief Valves
Figure 1. Distribution System
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one of the most reliable types of overpressure protectionavailable and are available in a number of different types. Fisherrelief valves are not ASME safety relief valves.
Relief Valve Popularity
Relief valves are popular for several reasons. They do not blockthe normal flow through a line. They do not decrease thecapacities of the regulators they protect. And, they have theadded advantage of being an alarm if they vent to atmosphere.
Relief Valve Types
Relief valves are available in four general types. These include:pop type, direct-operated, pilot-operated, and internal reliefvalves.
Selection Criteria
Pressure Buildup
Cost versus Performance
Given several types of relief valves to choose from, selecting onetype is generally based on the ability of the valve to provideadequate protection at the most economical cost. Reducedpressure buildup and increased capacity generally come at anincreased price.
Installation and Maintenance Considerations
Initial costs are only a part of the overall cost of ownership.Maintenance and installation costs must also be considered overthe life of the relief valve. For example, internal relief may beinitially more economical than an external relief valve. However,maintaining a regulator with internal relief requires that thesystem be shut down and the regulator isolated. This may involveadditional time and the installation of parallel regulators andrelief valves if flow is to be maintained to the downstream systemduring maintenance operations.
PRESSURE BUILDUP
RELIEF VALVE SETPOINT
FLOW
PRES
SURE
LOADING SPRING
POPPET
SOFT DISK
SEAT RING
Figure 3. Pressure BuildupFigure 4. Pop Type Relief Valve Construction and Operation
A relief valve has a setpoint at which it begins to open. For thevalve to fully open and pass the maximum flow, pressure mustbuild up to some level above the setpoint of the relief valve. Thisis known as pressure buildup over setpoint, or simply, buildup.
Periodic Maintenance
A relief valve installed in a system that normally performs withindesign limits is very seldom exercised. The relief valve sits andwaits for a failure. If it sits for long periods it may not performas expected. Disks may stick in seats, setpoints can shift overtime, and small passages can become clogged with pipelinedebris. Therefore, periodic maintenance and inspection isrecommended. Maintenance requirements may influence theselection of a relief valve.
Closed Closed Wide-Open
POP Type Relief Valve
The most simple type of relief valve is the pop type. They areused wherever economy is the primary concern and somesetpoint drift is acceptable.
Operation
Pop type relief valves are essentially on-off devices. They operatein either the closed or wide-open position. Pop type designsregister pressure directly on a spring-opposed poppet. Thepoppet assembly includes a soft disk for tight shutoff against theseat ring. When the inlet pressure increases above setpoint, thepoppet assembly is pushed away from the seat. As the poppetrises, pressure registers against a greater surface area of the
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poppet. This dramatically increases the force on the poppet.Therefore, the poppet tends to travel to the fully open positionreducing pressure buildup.
Buildup Over Setpoint
Recall that pressure buildup relates capacity to pressure; increas-ing capacity requires some increase in pressure. In throttling reliefvalves, pressure buildup is related to accuracy. In pop type reliefvalves, buildup over setpoint results largely because the device is arestriction to flow rather than the spring rate of the valve’sloading spring.
Fixed Setpoint
The setpoint of a pop type valve cannot be adjusted by the user.The spring is initially loaded by the manufacturer. A pinnedspring retainer keeps the spring in position. This is a safetymeasure that prevents tampering with the relief valve setpoint.
Typical Applications
This type of relief valve may be used where venting to theatmosphere is acceptable, when the process fluid is compatiblewith the soft disk, and when relief pressure variations areallowable. They are often used as inexpensive token relief. Forexample, they may be used simply to provide an audible signal ofan overpressure condition.
These relief valves may be used to protect against overpressurestemming from a regulator with a minimal amount of seatleakage. Unchecked, this seat leakage could allow downstreampressure to build to full P1 over time. The use of a small pop typevalve can be installed to protect against this situation.
These relief valves are also commonly installed with a regulator ina natural gas system farm tap, in pneumatic lines used to operateair drills, jackhammers, and other pneumatic equipment, and inmany other applications.
Advantages
Pop type relief valves use few parts. Their small size allowsinstallation where space is limited. Also, low initial cost, easyinstallation, and high capacity per dollar invested can result ineconomical system relief.
Disadvantages
The setpoint of a pop type relief valve may change over time.The soft disk may stick to the seat ring and cause the poppressure to increase.
DIAPHRAGMSPRING
VALVE
VENT
FLOW
SYSTEM PRESSURE LOWER-PRESSURE SYSTEM (USUALLYATMOSPHERE)
Figure 5. Direct-Operated Relief Valve Schematic
As an on-off device, this style of relief valve does not throttleflow over a pressure range. Because of its on-off nature, thistype of relief valve may create pressure surges in the down-stream system.
If the relief valve capacity is significantly larger than the failedregulator’s capacity, the relief valve may over-compensate eachtime it opens and closes. This can cause the downstreampressure system to become unstable and cycle. Cycling candamage the relief valve and downstream equipment.
Direct-Operated Relief Valves
Compared to pop type relief valves, direct-operated relief valvesprovide throttling action and may require less pressure buildupto open the relief valve.
Operation
A schematic of a direct-operated relief valve is shown in Figure5. It looks like an ordinary direct-operated regulator except that
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FLOW
CONTROL LINE
PILOT
RESTRICTION
MAIN RELIEFVALVE
PILOTEXHAUST
CONTROL LINE
PILOT
RESTRICTION
MAIN RELIEFVALVEPILOT
EXHAUST
ELASTOMERICELEMENT
INLET PRESSURE LOADING PRESSURE EXHAUST
ELASTOMERIC ELEMENT MAIN VALVE
PLUG AND SEAT RING MAIN VALVE
it senses upstream pressure rather than downstream pressure.And, it uses a spring-close rather than a spring-open action. Itcontains the same essential elements as a direct-operatedregulator:
• A diaphragm that measures system pressure
• A spring that provides the initial load to the diaphragm andis used to establish the relief setpoint
• A valve that throttles the relief flow
Opening the Valve
As the inlet pressure rises above the setpoint of the relief valve,the diaphragm is pushed upward moving the valve plug awayfrom the seat. This allows fluid to escape.
Pressure Buildup Over Setpoint
As system pressure increases, the relief valve opens wider. This
Low pressure near the end of the pitot tube draws fluid out ofthe volume above the relief valve diaphragm and creates a partialvacuum which helps to open the valve. The partial vacuumabove the diaphragm increases the relief valve capacity with lesspressure buildup over setpoint.
Typical Applications
Direct-operated relief valves are commonly used in natural gassystems supplying commercial enterprises such as restaurantsand laundries, and in industry to protect industrial furnaces andother equipment.
Selection Criteria
Pressure Buildup
Some direct-operated relief valves require significant pressure
LOADING SPRING
PITOT TUBE
DIAPHRAGM
VALVE DISK
SEAT RING
Figure 7. Pilot-Operated Designs
Figure 6. Type 289 Relief Valve with Pitot Tube
allows more fluid to escape and protects the system. Theincrease in pressure above the relief setpoint that is required toproduce more flow through the relief valve is referred to aspressure buildup. The spring rate and orifice size influence theamount of pressure buildup that is required to fully stroke thevalve.
Product Example
Pitot Tube
The relief valve shown in Figure 6 includes a pitot tube to reducepressure buildup. When the valve is opening, high fluid velocitythrough the seat ring creates an area of relatively low pressure.
MAINREGULATOREXHAUST
MAIN REGULATOREXHAUST
FLOW
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buildup to achieve maximum capacity. Others, such as thoseusing pitot tubes, often pass high flow rates with minimalpressure buildup. Direct-operated relief valves can provide goodaccuracy within their design capacities.
Cost versus Performance
The purchase price of a direct-operated relief valve is typicallylower than that of a pilot-operated design of the same size.However, pilot-operated designs may cost less per unit of capacityat very high flow rates.
Pilot-Operated Relief Valves
Pilot-operated relief valves utilize a pair of direct-operated reliefvalves; a pilot and a main relief valve. The pilot increases theeffect of changes in inlet pressure on the main relief valve.
Operation
The operation of a pilot-operated relief valve is quite similar tothe operation of a pilot-operated pressure reducing regulator.In normal operation, when system pressure is below setpoint ofthe relief valve, the pilot remains closed. This allows loadingpressure to register on top of the main relief valve diaphragm.Loading pressure on top of the diaphragm is opposed by anequal pressure (inlet pressure) on the bottom side of thediaphragm. With little or no pressure differential across thediaphragm, the spring keeps the valve seated. Notice that a light-rate spring may be used because it does not oppose a largepressure differential across the diaphragm. The light-rate springenables the main valve to travel to the wide-open position withlittle pressure buildup.
Increasing Inlet Pressure
When the inlet pressure rises above the relief setpoint, the pilotspring is compressed and the pilot valve opens. The open pilotbleeds fluid out of the main valve spring case, decreasingpressure above the main relief valve diaphragm. If loadingpressure escapes faster than it can be replaced through therestriction, the loading pressure above the main relief valvediaphragm is reduced and the relief valve opens. Systemoverpressure exhausts through the vent.
Decreasing Inlet Pressure
If inlet pressure drops back to the relief valve setpoint, the pilotloading spring pushes the pilot valve plug back against the pilot
valve seat. Inlet pressure again loads the main relief valvediaphragm and closes the main valve.
Control Line
The control line connects the pilot with the pressure that is to belimited. When overpressure control accuracy is a high priority,the control line tap is installed where protection is most critical.
Product Example
Physical Description
This relief valve is a direct-operated relief valve with a pilotattached (Figure 8). The pilot is a modified direct-operated reliefvalve, the inlet pressure loads the diaphragm and flows througha restriction to supply loading pressure to the main relief valvediaphragm.
Operation
During normal operation, the pilot is closed allowing loadingpressure to register above the main relief valve’s diaphragm. Thispressure is opposed by inlet pressure acting on the bottom ofthe diaphragm.
Figure 8. Pilot-Operated Relief Valve
INLET
EXHAUST
LOADING PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
PILOT
MAIN VALVEDIAPHRAGM
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If inlet pressure rises above setpoint, the pilot valve opens,exhausting the loading pressure. If loading pressure is reducedabove the main relief valve diaphragm faster than it is replacedthrough the pilot fixed restriction, loading pressure is reducedand inlet pressure below the diaphragm will cause the mainregulator to open.
If inlet pressure falls below the relief set pressure, the pilotspring will again close the pilot exhaust, increasing loadingpressure above the main relief valve diaphragm. This increasingloading pressure causes the main valve to travel towards theclosed position.
Performance
Pilot-operated relief valves are able to pass large flow rates witha minimum pressure buildup.
Typical Applications
Pilot-operated relief valves are used in applications requiringhigh capacity and low pressure buildup.
Selection Criteria
Minimal Buildup
The use of a pilot to load and unload the main diaphragm andthe light-rate spring enables the main valve to travel wide-open
with little pressure buildup over setpoint.
Throttling Action
The sensitive pilot produces smooth throttling action when inletpressure rises above setpoint. This helps to maintain a steadydownstream system pressure.
Internal Relief
Regulators that include internal relief valves may eliminate therequirement for external overpressure protection.
Operation
The regulator shown in Figure 9 includes an internal relief valve.The relief valve has a measuring element (the main regulatordiaphragm), a loading element (a light spring), and a restrictingelement (a valve seat and disk). The relief valve assembly islocated in the center of the regulator diaphragm.
Buildup Over Setpoint
Like other spring-loaded designs, internal relief valves will onlyopen wider if the inlet pressure increases. The magnitude ofpressure buildup is determined by the spring rates of the loading
Figure 9. Internal Relief Design
Regulators that include internal relief valves often eliminate the requirement for external overpressure protection. The illustration on the left shows the regulator with both the relief valve and the regulator valve in the closedposition. The illustration on the right shows the same unit after P2 has increased above the relief valve setpoint. The diaphragm has moved off the relief valve seat allowing flow (excess pressure) to exhaust through thescreened vent.
RELIEF VALVE CLOSED
MAIN VALVE CLOSED
RELIEF VALVE CLOSED
MAIN VALVE CLOSED
LARGE OPENING FOR RELIEF
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spring plus the main spring. Both springs are consideredbecause they act together to resist diaphragm movement whenpressure exceeds the relief valve setpoint.
Product Example
A typical internal relief regulator construction is shown inFigure 9. The illustration on the left shows the regulator withboth the relief valve and regulator valve in the closed position.The illustration on the right shows the same unit after the inletpressure has increased above the relief valve setpoint. Thediaphragm has moved off the relief valve seat allowing theexcess pressure to exhaust through the vent.
Performance and Typical Applications
This design is available in configurations that can protect manypressure ranges and flow rates. Internal relief is often used inapplications such as farm taps, industrial applications whereatmospheric exhaust is acceptable, and house service regulators.
Selection Criteria
Pressure Buildup
Relief setpoint is determined by a combination of the relief valveand regulator springs; this design generally requires significantpressure buildup to reach its maximum relief flow rate. For thesame reason, internal relief valves have limited relief capacities.They may provide full relief capacity, but should be carefullysized for each application.
Space
Internal relief has a distinct advantage when there is not enoughspace for an external relief valve.
Cost versus Performance
Because a limited number of parts are simply added to theregulator, this type of overpressure protection is relativelyinexpensive compared to external relief valves of comparablecapacity.
Maintenance
Because the relief valve is an integral part of the regulator’sdiaphragm, the regulator must be taken out of service when
maintenance is performed. Therefore, the application should beable to tolerate either the inconvenience of intermittent supply,or the expense of parallel regulators and relief valves.
Selection and Sizing Criteria
There are a number of common steps in the relief valveselection and sizing process. For every application, the maxi-mum pressure conditions, the wide-open regulator flowcapacity, and constant downstream demand should be deter-mined. Finally, this information is used to select an appropriaterelief valve for the application.
Maximum Allowable Pressure
Downstream equipment includes all the components of thesystem that contain pressure; household appliances, tanks, tools,machines, outlet rating of the upstream regulators, or otherequipment. The component with the lowest maximum pressurerating establishes the maximum allowable system pressure.
Regulator Ratings
Pressure reducing regulators upstream of the relief valve haveratings for their inlet, outlet, and internal components. Thelowest rating should be used when determining maximumallowable pressure.
Piping
Piping pressure limitations imposed by governmental agencies,industry standards, manufacturers, or company standardsshould be verified before defining the maximum overpressurelevel.
Maximum Allowable System Pressure
The smallest of the pressure ratings mentioned above should beused as the maximum allowable pressure. This pressure levelshould not be confused with the relief valve setpoint whichmust be set below the maximum allowable system pressure.
Determining Required Relief Valve Flow
A relief valve must be selected to exhaust enough flow toprevent the pressure from exceeding the maximum allowablesystem pressure. To determine this flow, review all upstream
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components for the maximum possible flow that will causeoverpressure. If overpressure is caused by a pressure reducingregulator, use the regulator’s wide-open flow coefficient tocalculate the required flow of the relief valve. This regulator’swide-open flow is larger than the regulating flow used to selectthe pressure reducing regulator.
Sizing equations have been developed to standardize valve sizing.Refer to the Valve Sizing Calculations section to find theseequations and explanations on how they are used.
Determine Constant Demand
In some applications, the required relief capacity can be reducedby subtracting any load that is always on the system. Thisprocedure should be approached with caution because it may bedifficult to predict the worst-case scenario for downstreamequipment failures. It may also be important to compare thechances of making a mistake in predicting the level of continu-ous flow consumption with the potential negative aspects of anerror. Because of the hazards involved, relief valves are oftensized assuming no continuous flow to downstream equipment.
Selecting Relief Valves
Required Information
We have already reviewed the variables required to calculate theregulator’s wide-open flow rate. In addition, we need to knowthe type and temperature of the fluid in the system, and the sizeof the piping. Finally, if a vent stack will be required, anyadditional buildup due to vent stack resistance should beconsidered.
Regulator Lockup Pressure
A relief valve setpoint is adjusted to a level higher than theregulator’s lockup pressure. If the relief valve setpoint overlapslockup pressure of the regulator, the relief valve may open whilethe regulator is still attempting to control the system pressure.
Identify Appropriate Relief Valves
Once the size, relief pressure, and flow capacity are determined,we can identify a number of potentially suitable relief valvesusing the Quick Selection Guide in the front of each applicationsection in this handbook. These selection guides give relief set
(inlet) pressures, capacities, and type numbers. These guides canthen be further narrowed by reviewing individual product pagesin each section.
Final Selection
Final selection is usually a matter of compromise. Relief capaci-ties, buildup levels, sensitivity, throttling capabilities, cost ofinstallation and maintenance, space requirements, initial pur-chase price, and other attributes are all considered whenchoosing any relief valve.
Applicable Regulations
The relief valves installed in some applications must meetgovernmental, industry, or company criteria.
Sizing and Selection Exercise
To gain a better understanding of the selection and sizingprocess, it may be helpful to step through a typical relief valvesizing exercise.
Initial Parameters
We’ll assume that we need to specify an appropriate relief valvefor a regulator serving a large plant air supply. There is suffi-cient space to install the relief valve and the controlled fluid isclean plant air that can be exhausted without adding a ventstack.
Performance Considerations
The plant supervisor wants the relief valve to throttle opensmoothly so that pressure surges will not damage instrumentsand equipment in the downstream system. This will require theselection of a relief valve that will open smoothly. Plant equip-ment is periodically shut down but the air supply systemoperates continuously. Therefore, the relief valve must also havethe capacity to exhaust the full flow of the upstream system.
Upstream Regulator
The regulator used is 1 inch in size with a 3/8-inch orifice. Theinitial system parameters of pressure and flow were determinedwhen the regulator was sized for this application.
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Pressure Limits
The plant maintenance engineer has determined that the reliefvalve should begin to open at 20 psig, and downstreampressure should not rise above 30 psig maximum allowablesystem pressure.
Relief Valve Flow Capacity
The wide-open regulator flow is calculated to be 23,188 SCFH.
Relief Valve Selection
Quick Selection Guide
Find the Relief Valve Quick Selection Guide in this ApplicationGuide; it gives relief set (inlet) pressures and comparative flowcapacities of various relief valves. Because this guide is used to
identify potentially suitable relief valves, we can check the reliefset (inlet) pressures closest to 20 psig and narrow the range ofchoices. We find that two relief valves have the required flowcapacity at our desired relief set (inlet) pressure.
Product Pages
If we look at the product pages for the potential relief valves,we find that a 1-inch 289H provides the required capacitywithin the limits of pressure buildup specified in our initialparameters.
Checking Capacity
Capacity curves for the 1-inch Type 289H with this spring areshown in Figure 10. By following the curve for the 20 psigsetpoint to the point where it intersects with the 30 psigdivision, we find that our relief valve can handle more than the23,188 SCFH required.
CAPACITIES IN THOUSANDS OF SCFH (m³/h(n)) OF AIR
INLE
T PR
ESSU
RE, P
SIG
INLE
T PR
ESSU
RE, B
AR
A-15 PSIG (1,0 BAR)1D751527022
B-10 PSIG (0,69 BAR)1D751527022
C-4 PSIG (0,28 BAR)D-1 PSIG (0,069 BAR)
1F782697052
1-INCH TYPE 289HVENT SCREEN INSTALLED
50 PSIG (3,4 BAR)1D745527142
40 PSIG (2,8 BAR)1D745527142
30 PSIG (2,1 BAR)1D745527142
20 PSIG (1,4 BAR)1D751527022
A
B
C
D
0
0 7.75(0,208)
15.5(0,415)
23.3(0,624)
31(0,831)
38.8(1,04)
46.5(1,25)
54.3(1,46)
62(1,66)
40
50
70
60
10
30
20
0
2,8
3,4
4,8
4,1
0,69
2,1
1,4
Figure 10. Type 289H Flow Capacities
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SETPOINT = 10 PSIG
SETPOINT = 15 PSIG
P1100 PSIG
P210 PSIG
PINTERMEDIATE
A B
MONITOR REGULATOR WORKER REGULATOR
Series Regulation
Series regulation is one of the simplest systems used to provideoverpressure protection by containment. In the example shownin Figure 1, the inlet pressure is 100 psig, the desired down-stream pressure is 10 psig, and the maximum allowable operat-ing pressure (MAOP) is 40 psig. The setpoint of the down-stream regulator is10 psig, and the setpoint of the upstreamregulator is 30 psig.
tation is reducing pressure to a value substantially below themaximum allowable operating pressure of the downstreamsystem. Farm taps are a good example. The problem of low-pressure drop across the second regulator is less pronouncedin low flow systems.
Upstream Wide-Open Monitors
The only difference in configuration between series regulationand monitors is that in monitor installations, both regulatorssense downstream pressure, P2. Thus, the upstream regulatormust have a control line.
SETPOINT = 30 PSIG SETPOINT = 10 PSIG
P1100 PSIG
P210 PSIG
PINTERMEDIATE30 PSIG
A B
Figure 1. Series Regulation
Failed System Response
If regulator B fails, downstream pressure (P2) is maintained atthe setpoint of regulator A less whatever drop is required topass the required flow through the failed regulator B. Ifregulator A fails, the intermediate pressure will be 100 psig.Regulator B must be able to withstand 100 psig inlet pressure.
Regulator Considerations
Either direct-operated or pilot-operated regulators may be usedin this system. Should regulator A fail, PIntermediate will approachP1 so the outlet rating and spring casing rating of regulator Amust be high enough to withstand full P1. This situation maysuggest the use of a relief valve between the two regulators tolimit the maximum value of PIntermediate.
Applications and Limitations
A problem with series regulation is maintaining tight control ofP2 if the downstream regulator fails. In this arrangement, it isoften impractical to have the setpoints very close together. Ifthey are, the pressure drop across regulator B will be quite small.With a small pressure drop, a very large regulator may berequired to pass the desired flow.
Because of the problem in maintaining close control of P2, seriesregulation is best suited to applications where the regulator
In wide-open monitor systems, both regulators sense downstream pressure. Setpoints may be very closeto each other. If the worker regulator fails, the monitor assumes control at a slightly higher setpoint. Ifthe monitor regulator fails, the worker continues to provide control.
Figure 2. Wide-Open Upstream Monitor
System Values
In the example shown in Figure 2, assume that P1 is 100 psig,and the desired downstream pressure, P2, is 10 psig. Also assumethat the maximum allowable operating pressure of the down-stream system is 20 psig; this is the limit we cannot exceed. Thesetpoint of the downstream regulator is set at 10 psig tomaintain the desired P2 and the setpoint of the upstreamregulator is set at 15 psig to maintain P2 below the maximumallowable operating pressure.
Normal Operation
When both regulators are functioning properly, regulator Bholds P2 at its setpoint of 10 psig. Regulator A, sensing apressure lower than its setpoint of 15 psig tries to increase P2 bygoing wide-open. This configuration is known as an upstreamwide-open monitor where upstream regulator A monitors thepressure established by regulator B. Regulator A is referred to asthe monitor or standby regulator while regulator B is called theworker or the operator.
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Worker Regulator B Fails
If regulator B fails open, regulator A, the monitor, assumescontrol and holds P2 at 15 psig. Note that pressure PIntermediate isnow P2 plus whatever drop is necessary to pass the requiredflow through the failed regulator B.
Equipment Considerations
Wide-open monitoring systems may use either direct- or pilot-operated regulators, the choice of which is dependent on othersystem requirements. Obviously, the upstream regulator musthave external registration capability in order to sense down-stream pressure, P2.
In terms of ratings, PIntermediate will rise to full P1 when regulatorA fails, so the body outlet of regulator A and the inlet ofregulator B must be rated for full P1.
Downstream Wide-Open Monitors
The difference between upstream and downstream monitorsystems (Figure 3) is that the functions of the two regulators arereversed. In other words, the monitor, or standby regulator, isdownstream of the worker, or operator. Systems can bechanged from upstream to downstream monitors, and vice-versa, by simply reversing the setpoints of the two regulators.
Worker Regulator A Fails
If the worker, regulator A, fails in an open position, themonitor, regulator B, senses the increase in P2 and holds P2 at itssetpoint of 15 psig. Note that PIntermediate is now P1 minuswhatever drop is taken across the failed regulator A.
Upstream Versus Downstream Monitors
The decision to use either an upstream or downstream monitorsystem is largely a matter of personal preference or companypolicy.
In normal operation, the monitor remains open while theworker is frequently exercised. Many users see value in changingthe system from an upstream to a downstream monitor atregular intervals, much like rotating the tires on an automobile.Most fluids have some impurities such as moisture, rust, orother debris, which may deposit on regulator components, suchas stems, and cause them to become sticky or bind. Therefore,occasionally reversing the roles of the regulators so that bothare exercised is sometimes seen as a means of ensuring thatprotection is available when needed. The job of switching isrelatively simple as only the setpoints of the two regulators arechanged. In addition, the act of changing from an upstream to adownstream monitor requires that someone visit the site sothere is an opportunity for routine inspection.
Working Monitors
Working monitors (Figure 4) use design elements from bothseries regulation and wide-open monitors. In a working monitorinstallation, the two regulators are continuously working asseries regulators to take two pressure cuts.
SETPOINT = 10 PSIG
SETPOINT = 15 PSIG
P1100 PSIG P2
10 PSIG
PINTERMEDIATE
A B
MONITOR REGULATORWORKER REGULATOR
The only difference between upstream wide-open monitor systems and downstream wide-open monitorsystems is the role each regulator plays. Workers and monitors may be switched by simply reversing thesetpoints.
Figure 3. Wide-Open Downstream Monitor
Normal Operation
Again, assume an inlet pressure of 100 psig and a controlledpressure (P2) of 10 psig. Regulator A is now the worker so itmaintains P2 at its setpoint of 10 psig. Regulator B, the monitor,is set at 15 psig and so remains open.
SETPOINT = 10 PSIG
MONITOR PILOT(SETPOINT—15 PSIG)
P1100 PSIG
P210 PSIG
PINTERMEDIATE45 PSIG
WORKER PILOT(SETPOINT—45 PSIG)
Figure 4. Working Monitor
Working monitor systems must use a pilot-operated regulator as the monitor, which is always in theupstream position. Two pilots are used on the monitor regulator; one to control the intermediatepressure and one to monitor the downstream pressure. By taking two pressure drops, both regulatorsare allowed to exercise.
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Downstream Regulator
The downstream regulator may be either direct- or pilot-operated. It is installed just as in a series or wide-open monitorsystem. Its setpoint controls downstream pressure, P2.
Upstream Regulator
The upstream regulator must be a pilot-operated type because ituses two pilots; a monitor pilot and a worker pilot. The workerpilot is connected just as in series regulation and controls theintermediate pressure PIntermediate. Its setpoint (45 psig) is atsome intermediate value that allows the system to take twopressure drops. The monitor pilot is in series ahead of theworker pilot and is connected so that it senses downstreampressure, P2. The monitor pilot setpoint (15 psig) is set slightlyhigher than the normal P2 (10 psig).
Normal Operation
When both regulators are performing properly, downstreampressure is below the setting of the monitor pilot, so it is fullyopen trying to raise system pressure. Standing wide-open, themonitor pilot allows the worker pilot to control the intermedi-ate pressure, PIntermediate at45 psig. The downstream regulator is controlling P2 at 10 psig.
Downstream Regulator Fails
If the downstream regulator fails, the monitor pilot will sensethe increase in pressure and take control at 15 psig.
Upstream Regulator Fails
If the upstream regulator fails, the downstream regulator willremain in control at 10 psig. Note that the downstreamregulator must be rated for the full system inlet pressure P1 of100 psig because this will be its inlet pressure if the upstreamregulator fails. Also note that the outlet rating of the upstream
regulator, and any other components that are exposed toPIntermediate, must be rated for full P1.
Sizing Monitor Regulators
The difficult part of sizing monitor regulators is that PIntermediateis needed to determine the flow capacity for both regulators.Because PIntermediate is not available, other sizing methods areused to determine the capacity. There are three methods forsizing monitor regulators: estimating flow when pressure dropis critical, assuming PIntermediate to calculate flow, and the FisherMonitor Sizing Program.
Estimating Flow when Pressure Drop is Critical
If the pressure drop across both regulators from P1 to P2 iscritical (assume PIntermediate = P1 - P2/2 + P2, P1 - PIntermediate > P1,and PIntermediate - P2 > 1/2 PIntermediate), and both regulators arethe same type, the capacity of the two regulators together is 70to 73 percent of a single regulator reducing the pressure from P1to P2.
Assuming PIntermediate to Determine Flow
Assume PIntermediate is halfway between P1 and P2. Guess aregulator size. Use the assumed PIntermediate and the Cg for eachregulator to calculate the available flow rate for each regulator.If PIntermediate was correct, the calculated flow through eachregulator will be the same. If the flows are not the same, changePIntermediate and repeat the calculations. (PIntermediate will go to thecorrect assumed pressure whenever the flow demand reachesmaximum capacity.)
Fisher Monitor Sizing Program
Fisher offers a Monitor Sizing Program on the Fisher RegulatorLiterature CD. Call your local sales office to request a copy ofthe CD. Please reference P/N D102220X012. To locate your localsales office, log on to www.fisherregualtors.com.
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Introduction
Improper valve sizing can be both expensive and inconvenient.A valve that is too small will not pass the required flow, and theprocess will be starved. An oversized valve will be moreexpensive, and it may lead to instability and other problems.
The days of selecting a valve based upon the size of the pipelineare gone. Selecting the correct valve size for a given applicationrequires a knowledge of process conditions that the valve willactually see in service. The technique for using this informationto size the valve is based upon a combination of theory andexperimentation.
Sizing for Liquid Service
Using the principle of conservation of energy, Daniel Bernoullifound that as a liquid flows through an orifice, the square of thefluid velocity is directly proportional to the pressure differentialacross the orifice and inversely proportional to the specificgravity of the fluid. The greater the pressure differential, thehigher the velocity; the greater the density, the lower the velocity.The volume flow rate for liquids can be calculated by multiply-ing the fluid velocity times the flow area.
By taking into account units of measurement, the proportional-ity relationship previously mentioned, energy losses due tofriction and turbulence, and varying discharge coefficients forvarious types of orifices (or valve bodies), a basic liquid sizingequation can be writtenas follows:
Q = C P / Gv ∆ (1)
where:
Q = Capacity in gallons per minute
C v = Valve sizing coefficient determined experimentally foreach style and size of valve, using water at standardconditions as the test fluid
∆P = Pressure differential in psi
G = Specific gravity of fluid (water at 60°F = 1.0000)
Thus, Cv is numerically equal to the number of U.S. gallons ofwater at 60°F that will flow through the valve in one minutewhen the pressure differential across the valve is one pound persquare inch. Cv varies with both size and style of valve, butprovides an index for comparing liquid capacities of differentvalves under a standard set of conditions.
To aid in establishing uniform measurement of liquid flow
capacity coefficients (Cv) among valve manufacturers, the FluidControls Institute (FCI) developed a standard test pipingarrangement, shown in Figure 1. Using such a piping arrange-ment, most valve manufacturers develop and publish Cvinformation for their products, making it relatively easy tocompare capacities of competitive products.
To calculate the expected Cv for a valve controlling water orother liquids that behave like water, the basic liquid sizingequation abovecan be re-written as follows:
C = Q GPv ∆ (2)
Viscosity Corrections
Viscous conditions can result in significant sizing errors in usingthe basic liquid sizing equation, since published Cv values arebased on test data using water as the flow medium. Althoughthe majority of valve applications will involve fluids whereviscosity corrections can be ignored, or where the correctionsare relatively small, fluid viscosity should be considered in eachvalve selection.
Fisher has developed a nomograph (Figure 2) that provides aviscosity correction factor (Fv). It can be applied to the stan-dard Cv coefficient to determine a corrected coefficient (Cvr) forviscous applications.
Finding Valve Size
Using the Cv determined by the basic liquid sizing equation andthe flow and viscosity conditions, a fluid Reynolds number canbe found by using the nomograph in Figure 2. The graph ofReynolds number vs. viscosity correction factor (Fv) is used todetermine the correction factor needed. (If the Reynoldsnumber is greater than 3500, the correction will be ten percent orless.) The actual required Cv (Cvr) is found by the equation:
Figure 1. Standard FCI Test Piping for Cv Measurement
PRESSUREINDICATORS∆∆∆∆∆P ORIFICE
METER
INLET VALVE TEST VALVE LOAD VALVE
FLOW
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Figure 2. Nomograph for Determining Viscosity Correction
Nomograph InstructionsUse this nomograph to correct for the effects of viscosity. When assembling data, all units mustcorrespond to those shown on the nomograph. For high-recovery, ball-type valves, use the liquidflow rate Q scale designated for single-ported valves. For butterfly and eccentric disk rotaryvalves, use the liquid flow rate Q scale designated for double-ported valves.
Nomograph Equations
1. Single-Ported Valves: NR = 17250
Q
C v csν
2. Double-Ported Valves: NR = 12200Q
C v csν
Nomograph Procedure1. Lay a straight edge on the liquid sizing coefficient on Cv scale and flow rate on Q scale.
Mark intersection on index line. Procedure A uses value of Cvc; Procedures B and C use valueof Cvr.
2. Pivot the straight edge from this point of intersection with index line to liquid viscosity onproper n scale. Read Reynolds number on NR scale.
3. Proceed horizontally from intersection on NR scale to proper curve, and then verticallyupward or downward to Fv scale. Read Cv correction factor on Fv scale.
3000
3,000
4,000
6,000
8,00010,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
60,000
80,000100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
600,000
800,0001,000,000
1 2 3 4 6
CV CORRECTION FACTOR - FV
RE
YN
OL
DS
NU
MB
ER
- N
R
VIS
CO
SIT
Y -
SA
YB
OL
T S
EC
ON
DS
UN
IVE
RS
AL
LIQ
UID
FL
OW
RA
TE
- G
PM
(S
ING
LE
PO
RT
ED
ON
LY
)
LIQ
UID
FL
OW
CO
EF
FIC
IEN
T-
CV
CV
Q
INDEX FVHR
8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200
2000
2,000
1,000
2,000
2,000
3,000
3,000
4,000
4,000
6,000
6,000
8,000
8,000
10,000
10,000
800
600
400300
200
10080
60
40
30
20
108
6
4
3
2
1
1,000
1,000
2,000
2,000
3,000
3,000
4,000
4,000
6,000
6,000
8,000
8,000
10,000
10,000
20,000
20,000
30,000
30,000
40,000
40,000
60,000
60,000
80,000
80,000
100,000
100,000
200,000
300,000400,000
800
800
600
600
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
3532.6
30
20
1086
43
2
1
.8
.6
.4
.3
.2
.1.08
.06
.04
.03
.02
.01
1,000
1,000
800600
800
600
400
300
200
10080
60
40
30
20
400300
200
1008060
4030
20
10
10
8
8
6
6
4
4
3
3
2
2
1.8
.6
.4
.2
.1
.3
1.8.6
.4
.3
.2
.1.08.06
.04
.04
.06
.08
.03
.03
.02
.02
.01
.01
.008
.008.006
.006.004
.004.003
.003.002
.002
.001
.001.0008
.0008.0006
.0006.0004
.0004.0003
.0003.0002
.0002
.0001
.0001
1000800
600
400300
200
10080
60
40
30
20
108
6
4
3
2
1.8
.6
.4
.3
.2
.1
.08
.06
.04
.03
.02
.01
KIN
EM
AT
IC V
ISC
OS
ITY
- C
EN
TIS
TO
KE
SC
S
FOR PREDICTING PRESSURE DROP
FOR SELECTING VALVE SIZE
FOR PREDICTING FLOW RATE
LIQ
UID
FL
OW
RA
TE
- G
PM
(D
OU
BL
E P
OR
TE
D O
NL
Y)
CV CORRECTION FACTOR - FV
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TECHNICAL
less.) The actual required Cv (Cvr) is found by the equation:
C = F Cvr v v (3)
From the valve manufacturer’s published liquid capacityinformation, select a valve having a Cv equal to or higher thanthe required coefficient (Cvr) found by the equation above.
Predicting Flow Rate
Select the required liquid sizing coefficient (Cvr) from themanufacturer’s published liquid sizing coefficients (Cv) for thestyle and size valve being considered. Calculate the maximumflow rate (Qmax) in gallons per minute (assuming no viscositycorrection required) using the following adaptation of the basicliquid sizing equation:
Q = C P / Gmax vr ∆ (4)
Then incorporate viscosity correction by determining the fluidReynolds number and correction factor Fv from the viscositycorrection nomograph and the procedure included on it.
Calculate the predicted flow rate (Qpred) using the formula:
Q = QFpredmax
v(5)
Predicting Pressure Drop
Select the required liquid sizing coefficient (Cvr) from thepublished liquid sizing coefficients (Cv) for the valve style andsize being considered. Determine the Reynolds number andcorrect factor Fv from the nomograph and the procedure on it.Calculate the sizing coefficient (Cvc) using the formula:
C = CFvc
vr
v(6)
Calculate the predicted pressure drop (∆Ppred) using the formula:
∆Ppred vc = G (Q /C )2 (7)
Flashing and Cavitation
The occurrence of flashing or cavitation within a valve can havea significant effect on the valve sizing procedure. These two
related physical phenomena can limit flow through the valve inmany applications and must be taken into account in order toaccurately size a valve. Structural damage to the valve andadjacent piping may also result. Knowledge of what is actuallyhappening within the valve may permit selection of a size orstyle of valve which can reduce, or compensate for, the undesir-able effects of flashing or cavitation.
The “physical phenomena” label is used to describe flashing andcavitation because these conditions represent actual changes inthe form of the fluid media. The change is from the liquid stateto the vapor state and results from the increase in fluid velocityat or just downstream of the greatest flow restriction, normallythe valve port. As liquid flow passes through the restriction,there is a necking down, or contraction, of the flow stream.The minimum cross-sectional area of the flow stream occursjust downstream of the actual physical restriction at a pointcalled the vena contracta, as shown in Figure 3.
To maintain a steady flow of liquid through the valve, thevelocity must be greatest at the vena contracta, where crosssectional area is the least. The increase in velocity (or kineticenergy) is accompanied by a substantial decrease in pressure (orpotential energy) at the vena contracta. Further downstream,as the fluid stream expands into a larger area, velocity decreases
Figure 3. Vena Contracta
Figure 4. Comparison of Pressure Profiles forHigh and Low Recovery Valves
VENA CONTRACTA
RESTRICTION
FLOW
FLOW
P1 P2
P1
P2
P2
P2
HIGH RECOVERY
LOW RECOVERY
P1
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Valve Sizing Calculationsand pressure increases. But, of course, downstream pressurenever recovers completely to equal the pressure that existedupstream of the valve. The pressure differential (∆P) that existsacross the valve is a measure of the amount of energy that wasdissipated in the valve. Figure 4 provides a pressure profileexplaining the differing performance of a streamlined highrecovery valve, such as a ball valve and a valve with lowerrecovery capabilities due to greater internal turbulence anddissipation of energy.
Regardless of the recovery characteristics of the valve, thepressure differential of interest pertaining to flashing andcavitation is the differential between the valve inlet and the venacontracta. If pressure at the vena contracta should drop belowthe vapor pressure of the fluid (due to increased fluid velocity atthis point) bubbles will form in the flow stream. Formation ofbubbles will increase greatly as vena contracta pressure dropsfurther below the vapor pressure of the liquid. At this stage,there is no difference between flashing and cavitation, but thepotential for structural damage to the valve definitely exists.
If pressure at the valve outlet remains below the vapor pressureof the liquid, the bubbles will remain in the downstream systemand the process is said to have “flashed.” Flashing can produceserious erosion damage to the valve trim parts and is character-ized by a smooth, polished appearance of the eroded surface.Flashing damage is normally greatest at the point of highestvelocity, which is usually at or near the seat line of the valve plugand seat ring.
However, if downstream pressure recovery is sufficient to raisethe outlet pressure above the vapor pressure of the liquid, thebubbles will collapse, or implode, producing cavitation. Collaps-ing of the vapor bubbles releases energy and produces a noisesimilar to what one would expect if gravel were flowing throughthe valve. If the bubbles collapse in close proximity to solidsurfaces, the energy released gradually wears the material leavinga rough, cinderlike surface. Cavitation damage may extend tothe downstream pipeline, if that is where pressure recoveryoccurs and the bubbles collapse. Obviously, “high recovery”valves tend to be more subject to cavitation, since the down-stream pressure is more likely to rise above the liquid’s vaporpressure.
Choked Flow
Aside from the possibility of physical equipment damage due toflashing or cavitation, formation of vapor bubbles in the liquidflowstream causes a crowding condition at the vena contractawhich tends to limit flow through the valve. So, while the basicliquid sizing equation implies that there is no limit to the
amount of flow through a valve as long as the differentialpressure across the valve increases, the realities of flashing andcavitation prove otherwise. If valve pressure drop is increasedslightly beyond the point where bubbles begin to form, a chokedflow condition is reached. With constant upstream pressure,further increases in pressure drop (by reducing downstreampressure) will not produce increased flow. The limiting pressuredifferential is designated ∆Pallow and the valve recovery coeffi-cient (Km) is experimentally determined for each valve, in orderto relate choked flow for that particular valve to the basic liquidsizing equation. Km is normally published with other valvecapacity coefficients. Figures 4 and 5 show these flow vs.pressure drop relationships.
Use the following equation to determine maximum allowablepressure drop that is effective in producing flow. Keep in mind,however, that the limitation on the sizing pressure drop, ∆Pallow,does not imply a maximum pressure drop that may be con-trolled by the valve.
Figure 5. Flow Curve Showing Cv and Km
Figure 6. Relationship Between Actual DP and DP Allowable
CHOKED FLOW
PILOT OF EQUATION (1)
P1 = CONSTANT
∆∆∆∆∆P (ALLOWABLE)Cv
Q(gpm) Km
∆ P
∆ P
∆∆∆∆∆P (ALLOWABLE)
ACTUAL ∆∆∆∆∆P
PREDICTED FLOW USINGACTUAL ∆∆∆∆∆P
Cv
Q(gpm)
ACTUALFLOW
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∆Pallow m 1 c v = K (P - r P ) (8)
where:
∆Pallow = maximum allowable differential pressure for sizingpurposes, psi
Km = valve recovery coefficient from manufacturer’sliterature
P1 = body inlet pressure, psia
rc = critical pressure ratio determined from Figures 7and 8
Pv = vapor pressure of the liquid at body inlet tempera-ture, psia (vapor pressures and critical pressures formany common liquids are provided in the PhysicalConstants of Hydrocarbons and Physical Con-stants of Fluids tables; refer to the Table of Con-tents for the page number).
After calculating ∆Pallow, substitute it into the basic liquid sizingequation Q v= C P / G∆ to determine either Q or Cv. If theactual ∆P is less the ∆Pallow, then the actual ∆P should be used inthe equation.
The equation used to determine ∆Pallow should also be used tocalculate the valve body differential pressure at which significantcavitation can occur. Minor cavitation will occur at a slightlylower pressure differential than that predicted by the equation,but should produce negligible damage in most globe-stylecontrol valves.
Consequently, it can be seen that initial cavitation and chokedflow occur nearly simultaneously in globe-style or low-recoveryvalves.
However, in high-recovery valves such as ball or butterfly valves,significant cavitation can occur at pressure drops below thatwhich produces choked flow. So while ∆Pallow and Km are usefulin predicting choked flow capacity, a separate cavitation index(Kc) is needed to determine the pressure drop at which cavitationdamage will begin (∆Pc) in high-recovery valves.
The equation can be expressed:
∆Pc c = K (P - P1 v ) (9)
This equation can be used anytime outlet pressure is greater thanthe vapor pressure of the liquid.
Addition of anti-cavitation trim tends to increase the value ofKm. In other words, choked flow and insipient cavitation willoccur at substantially higher pressure drops than was the casewithout the anti-cavitation accessory.
Liquid Sizing Summary
The most common use of the basic liquid sizing equation is todetermine the proper valve size for a given set of service condi-tions. The first step is to calculate the required Cv by using thesizing equation. The ∆P used in the equation must be the actual
Figure 7. Critical Pressure Ratios for Water Figure 8. Critical Pressure Ratios for Liquid Other than Water
Use this curve for water. Enter on the abscissa at the water vapor pressure at the valve inlet. Proceedvertically to intersect the curve. Move horizontally to the left to read the critical pressure ratio, rc, on theordinate.
Use this curve for liquids other than water. Determine the vapor pressure/critical pressure ratio by dividing the liquid vapor pressure at the valve inlet bythe critical pressure of the liquid. Enter on the abscissa at the ratio justcalculated and proceed vertically to intersect the curve. Move horizontally tothe left and read the critical pressure ratio, rc, on the ordinate.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
CRIT
ICAL
PRE
SSUR
E RA
TIO—
r c
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
VAPOR PRESSURE, PSIA
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
CRIT
ICAL
PRE
SSUR
E RA
TIO—
r c
0 .20 .40 .60 .80 1.0
VAPOR PRESSURE, PSIACRITICAL PRESSURE, PSIA
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TECHNICAL
Valve Sizing Calculations
valve pressure drop or ∆Pallow, whichever is smaller. The secondstep is to select a valve, from the manufacturer’s literature, with aCv equal to or greater than the calculated value.
Accurate valve sizing for liquids requires use of the dualcoefficients of Cv and Km. A single coefficient is not sufficientto describe both the capacity and the recovery characteristics ofthe valve. Also, use of the additional cavitation index factor Kcis appropriate in sizing high recovery valves, which may developdamaging cavitation at pressure drops well below the level of thechoked flow.
Liquid Sizing Nomenclature
Cv = valve sizing coefficient for liquid determinedexperimentally for each size and style of valve, usingwater at standard conditions as the test fluid
Cvc = calculated Cv coefficient including correction for
viscosity
Cvr = corrected sizing coefficient required for viscousapplications
∆P = differential pressure, psi
∆Pallow = maximum allowable differential pressure for sizingpurposes, psi
∆Pc = pressure differential at which cavitation damagebegins, psi
Fv = viscosity correction factor
G = specific gravity of fluid (water at 60°F = 1.0000)
Kc = dimensionless cavitation index used in determining∆Pc
Km = valve recovery coefficient from manufacturer’sliterature
P1 = body inlet pressure, psia
Pv = vapor pressure of liquid at body inlet temperature,psia
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Q = C P / Gv ∆
C = Q GPv ∆
C = F Cvr v v
Q = C P / Gmax vr ∆
Q = QFpredmax
v
C = CFvc
vr
v
∆Ppred vc = G (Q /C )2
∆Pallow m 1 c v = K (P - r P )
∆Pc c = K (P - P1 v)
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Q = flow rate capacity, gallons per minute
Qmax = designation for maximum flow rate, assuming noviscosity correction required, gallons per minute
Qpred = predicted flow rate after incorporating viscositycorrection, gallons per minute
rc = critical pressure ratio
Sizing for Gas or Steam Service
A sizing procedure for gases can be established based onadaptions of the basic liquid sizing equation. By introducingconversion factors to change flow units from gallons per minuteto cubic feet per hour and to relate specific gravity in meaningfulterms of pressure, an equation can be derived for the flow of airat 60°F. Since 60°F corresponds to 520° on the Rankine absolutetemperature scale, and since the specific gravity of air at 60°F is1.0, an additional factor can be included to compare air at 60°Fwith specific gravity (G) and absolute temperature (T) of anyother gas. The resulting equation can be written:
Q = . C P P
P
GTscfh v59 64520
11
∆ (A)
The equation shown above, while valid at very low pressure dropratios, has been found to be very misleading when the ratio ofpressure drop (∆P) to inlet pressure (P1) exceeds 0.02. Thedeviation of actual flow capacity from the calculated flowcapacity is indicated in Figure 8 and results from compressibilityeffects and critical flow limitations at increased pressure drops.
Critical flow limitation is the more significant of the twoproblems mentioned. Critical flow is a choked flow conditioncaused by increased gas velocity at the vena contracta. Whenvelocity at the vena contracta reaches sonic velocity, additionalincreases in ∆P by reducing downstream pressure produce noincrease in flow. So, after critical flow condition is reached(whether at a pressure drop/inlet pressure ratio of about 0.5 forglove valves or at much lower ratios for high recovery valves) theequation above becomes completely useless. If applied, the Cvequation gives a much higher indicated capacity than actuallywill exist. And in the case of a high recovery valve which reachescritical flow at a low pressure drop ratio (as indicated inFigure 8), the critical flow capacity of the valve may be over-estimated by as much as 300 percent.
The problems in predicting critical flow with a Cv-basedequation led to a separate gas sizing coefficient based on air flowtests. The coefficient (Cg) was developed experimentally for each
Figure 9. Critical Flow for High and Low RecoveryValves with Equal Cv
type and size of valve to relate critical flow to absolute inletpressure. By including the correction factor used in the previousequation to compare air at 60°F with other gases at otherabsolute temperatures, the critical flow equation can be written:
Q = C P 520 / GTcritical g 1 (B)
Universal Gas Sizing Equation
To account for differences in flow geometry among valves,equations (A) and (B) were consolidated by the introduction ofan additional factor (C1). C1 is defined as the ratio of the gassizing coefficient and the liquid sizing coefficient and provides anumerical indicator of the valve’s recovery capabilities. In general,C1 values can range from about 16 to 37, based on the individualvalve’s recovery characteristics. As shown in the example, twovalves with identical flow areas and identical critical flow (Cg)capacities can have widely differing C1 values dependent on theeffect internal flow geometry has on liquid flow capacity througheach valve. Example:
High Recovery ValveCg = 4680Cv = 254C1 = Cg/Cv
= 4680/254= 18.4
Low Recovery ValveCg = 4680
∆P/P1
HIGH RECOVERY
LOW RECOVERY
Cv
Q ∆PP
= 0.151
∆PP
= 0.51
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Valve Sizing Calculations
Cv = 135C1 = Cg/Cv
= 4680/135= 34.7
So we see that two sizing coefficients are needed to accuratelysize valves for gas flow—Cg to predict flow based on physicalsize or flow area, and C1 to account for differences in valverecovery characteristics. A blending equation, called the Univer-sal Gas Sizing Equation, combines equations (A) and (B) bymeans of a sinusoidal function, and is based on the “perfect gas”laws. It can be expressed in either of the following manners:
Q = 520GT
C P SIN 59.64
C
PP
rad.scfh g 11 1
⎛
⎝⎜
⎞
⎠⎟
⎡
⎣
⎢⎢
⎤
⎦
⎥⎥
∆(C)
OR
Q = 520GT
C P SIN 3417
C
PP
Deg.scfh g 11 1
⎛
⎝⎜
⎞
⎠⎟
⎡
⎣
⎢⎢
⎤
⎦
⎥⎥
∆(D)
In either form, the equation indicates critical flow when the sinefunction of the angle designated within the brackets equalsunity. The pressure drop ratio at which critical flow occurs isknown as the critical pressure drop ratio. It occurs when thesine angle reaches π/2 radians in equation (C) or 90 degrees inequation (D). As pressure drop across the valve increases, thesine angle increases from zero up to π/2 radians (90°). If theangle were allowed to increase further, the equations wouldpredict a decrease in flow. Because this is not a realistic situa-tion, the angle must be limited to 90 degrees maximum.
Although “perfect gases,” as such, do not exist in nature, thereare a great many applications where the Universal Gas SizingEquation, (C) or (D), provides a very useful and usable approxi-mation.
General Adaptation for Steam and Vapors
The density form of the Universal Gas Sizing Equation is themost general form and can be used for both perfect and non-perfect gas applications. Applying the equation requiresknowledge of one additional condition not included in previousequations, that being the inlet gas, steam, or vapor density (d1) inpounds per cubic foot. (Steam density can be determined fromtables.)
Then the following adaptation of the Universal Gas SizingEquation can be applied:
Q = 1.06 d P C SIN 3417C
P
P Deg.lb/hr 1 1 g
1 1
⎛
⎝⎜
⎞
⎠⎟
∆(E)
Special Equation Form for Steam Below 1000 psig
If steam applications do not exceed 1000 psig, density changescan be compensated for by using a special adaptation of theUniversal Gas Sizing Equation. It incorporates a factor foramount of superheat in degrees Fahrenheit (Tsh) and also asizing coefficient (Cs) for steam. Equation (F) eliminates the needfor finding the density of superheated steam, which was required inEquation (E). At pressures below 1000 psig, a constant relation-ship exists between the gas sizing coefficient (Cg) and the steamcoefficient (Cs). This relationship can be expressed: Cs = Cg/20.For higher steam pressure applications, use Equation (E).
Q =C P
1 + 0.00065T SIN
3417C
P
P Deg.lb/hr
s 1
sh 1 1
⎛
⎝⎜
⎞
⎠⎟
⎡
⎣⎢⎢
⎤
⎦⎥⎥
⎛
⎝⎜
⎞
⎠⎟
⎡
⎣
⎢⎢
⎤
⎦
⎥⎥
∆
(F)
Gas and Steam Sizing Summary
The Universal Gas Sizing Equation can be used to determine theflow of gas through any style of valve. Absolute units oftemperature and pressure must be used in the equation. Whenthe critical pressure drop ratio causes the sine angle to be 90degrees, the equation will predict the value of the critical flow.For service conditions that would result in an angle of greaterthan 90 degrees, the equation must be limited to 90 degrees inorder to accurately determine the critical flow.
Most commonly, the Universal Gas Sizing Equation is used todetermine proper valve size for a given set of service conditions.The first step is to calculate the required Cg by using theUniversal Gas Sizing Equation. The second step is to select avalve from the manufacturer’s literature. The valve selectedshould have a Cg which equals or exceeds the calculated value.Be certain that the assumed C1 value for the valve is selectedfrom the literature.
It is apparent that accurate valve sizing for gases that requiresuse of the dual coefficient is not sufficient to describe both thecapacity and the recovery characteristics of the valve.
Proper selection of a control valve for gas service is a highlytechnical problem with many factors to be considered. Leadingvalve manufacturers provide technical information, test data,sizing catalogs, nomographs, sizing slide rules, and computer orcalculator programs that make valve sizing a simple and
11TechVsize.pmd 2/14/2005, 10:06 AM503
Valve Sizing Calculations
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TECHNICAL
accurate procedure.
C1 = Cg/Cv
Cg = gas sizing coefficient
Cs = steam sizing coefficient, Cg/20
Cv = liquid sizing coefficient
d1 = density of steam or vapor at inlet, pounds/cu. foot
G = gas specific gravity (air = 1.0)
P1 = valve inlet pressure, psia
∆P = pressure drop across valve, psi
Qcritical = critical flow rate, scfh
Qscfh = gas flow rate, scfh
Qlb/hr = steam or vapor flow rate, pounds per hour
T = absolute temperature of gas at inlet, degreesRankine
Tsh = degrees of superheat, °F
Gas and Steam Sizing Nomenclature
Q = 520GT
C P SIN 59.64
C
PP
rad.scfh g 11 1
⎛
⎝⎜
⎞
⎠⎟
⎡
⎣
⎢⎢
⎤
⎦
⎥⎥
∆
Q = C P 520 / GTcritical g 1
Q = . C P P
P
GTscfh v59 64520
11
∆
Q = 520GT
C P SIN 3417C
P
P Deg.scfh g 1
1 1
⎛
⎝⎜
⎞
⎠⎟
⎡
⎣
⎢⎢
⎤
⎦
⎥⎥
∆
Q = 1.06 d P C SIN 3417C
P
P Deg.lb/hr 1 1 g
1 1
⎛
⎝⎜
⎞
⎠⎟
∆
Q = C P
1 + 0.00065T SIN
3417C
P
P Deg.lb/hr
s 1
sh 1 1
⎛
⎝⎜
⎞
⎠⎟
⎡
⎣⎢⎢
⎤
⎦⎥⎥
⎛
⎝⎜
⎞
⎠⎟
⎡
⎣
⎢⎢
⎤
⎦
⎥⎥
∆
noitacilppAnoitauqEgniziSmaetSdnasaGNOITAUQE NOITACILPPA
A P/PD(porderusserpwolyrevtaylnoesU 1 .sselro20.0fosoitar)
B .erusserptelninevigatayticapacwolflacitircenimretedotylnoesU
C
D
RO.noitauqEgniziSsaGlasrevinU
ehtotgnirehdasagynarof,sevlavyrevocerwolrohgihrehtierofwolftciderpotesU.snoitidnocecivresynarednudna,swalsagtcefrep
Eropavynarof,snoitacilppagnizissagtcefrep-nonrotcefreprofwolftciderpotesU
.nwonksiytisneddiulfnehwnoitidnocecivresynata,maetsgnidulcni
F .sselrogisp0001sierusserptelninehwwolfmaetsenimretedotylnoesU
11TechVsize.pmd 2/14/2005, 10:06 AM504
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TECHNICAL
Regulators Rated for Low Temperatures
In some areas of the world, regulators periodically operate intemperatures below -20°F (-29°C). These cold temperaturesrequire special construction materials to prevent regulatorfailure. Fisher offers regulator constructions that are RATEDfor use in service temperatures below -20°F (-29°C).
Selection Criteria
When selecting a regulator for extreme cold temperature service,the following guidelines should be considered:
• The body material should be 300 Series stainless steel,LCC, or LCB due to low carbon content in the materialmakeup.
• Give attention to the bolts used. Generally, specialstainless steel bolting is required.
• Gaskets and O-rings may need to be addressed ifproviding a seal between two parts exposed to the cold.
• Special springs may be required in order to preventfracture when exposed to extreme cold.
• Soft parts in the regulator that are also being used as aseal gasket between two metal parts (such as a dia-phragm) may need special consideration. Alternatediaphragm materials should be used to prevent leakagecaused by hardening and stiffening of the standardmaterials.
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Introduction
Freezing has been a problem since the birth of the gas industry.This problem will likely continue, but there are ways to mini-mize the effects of the phenomenon.
There are two areas of freezing. The first is the formation of icefrom water travelling within the gas stream. Ice will form whentemperatures drop below 32°F (0°C).
The second is hydrate formation. Hydrate is a frozen mixtureof water and hydrocarbons. This bonding of water around thehydrocarbon molecule forms a compound which can freezeabove 32°F (0°C). Hydrates can be found in pipelines that aresaturated with water vapor. It is also common to have hydrateformation in natural gas of high BTU content. Hydrateformation is dependent upon operating conditions and gascomposition.
Reducing Freezing Problems
To minimize problems, we have several options.
1. Keep the fluid temperature above the freezing point byapplying heat.
2. Feed an antifreeze solution into the flow stream.3. Select equipment that is designed to be ice-free in the
regions where there are moving parts.4. Design systems that minimize freezing effects.5. Remove the water from the flow stream.
Heat the Gas
Obviously, warm water does not freeze. What we have to knowis when heat is needed, then apply the heat.
Gas temperature is reduced whenever pressure is reduced. Thistemperature drop is about 1°F (1°C) for each 15 psi (2 bar)pressure drop. Potential problems can be identified by calculat-ing the temperature drop and subtracting from the initialtemperature. Usually ground temperature, about 50°F (10°C) isthe initial temperature. If a pressure reducing station droppedthe pressure from 400 to 250 psi (27 to 17 bar) and the initialtemperature is 50°F (10°C), the final temperature would be40°F (5°C).
50°F - (400-250 psi) (1°F/15 psi) = 40°F
(10°C - (27 - 17 bar) (1°C/2 bar) = 5°C)
In this case, a freezing problem is not expected. However, if thefinal pressure was 25 psi (3 bar) instead of 250 psi (27 bar), thefinal temperature would be 25°F (-2°C). We should expectfreezing in this example if there is any moisture in the gas
stream.
We can heat the entire gas stream with line heaters where thesituation warrants. However, this does involve some largeequipment and considerable fuel requirements.
Many different types of large heaters are on the market today.Some involve boilers that heat a water/glycol solution which iscirculated through a heat exchanger in the main gas line. Twoimportant considerations are: (1) fuel efficiencies, and (2) noisegeneration.
In many cases, it is more practical to build a box around thepressure reducing regulator and install a small catalytic heater towarm the regulator. When pilot-operated regulators are used,we may find that the ice passes through the regulator withoutdifficulty but plugs the small ports in the pilot. A small heatercan be used to heat the pilot supply gas or the pilot itself. Aword of caution is appropriate. When a heater remains in usewhen it is not needed, it can overheat the rubber parts of theregulator. They are usually designed for 180°F (82°C) maxi-mum. Using an automatic temperature control thermostat canprevent overheating.
Antifreeze Solution
An antifreeze solution can be introduced into the flow streamwhere it will combine with the water. The mixture can passthrough the pressure reducing station without freezing. Theantifreeze is dripped into the pipeline from a pressurizedreservoir through a needle valve. This system is quite effective ifone remembers to replenish the reservoir. There is a system thatallows the antifreeze to enter the pipeline only when needed. Wecan install a small pressure regulator between the reservoir andthe pipeline with the control line of the small regulator con-nected downstream of the pressure reducing regulator in thepipeline. The small regulator is set at a lower pressure than theregulator in the pipeline. When the controlled pressure isnormal, the small regulator remains closed and conserves theantifreeze. When ice begins to block the regulator in the pipeline,downstream pressure will fall below the setpoint of the smallregulator which causes it to open, admitting antifreeze into thepipeline as it is needed. When the ice is removed, the down-stream pressure returns to normal and the small regulator closesuntil ice begins to re-form. This system is quite reliable as longas the supply of the antifreeze solution is maintained. It isusually used at low volume pressure reducing stations.
Equipment Selection
We can select equipment that is somewhat tolerant of freezing ifwe know how ice forms in a pressure reducing regulator. Since
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the pressure drop occurs at the orifice, this is the spot where wemight expect the ice formation. However, this is not necessarilythe case. Metal regulator bodies are good heat conductors. As aresult, the body, not just the port, is cooled by the pressuredrop. The moisture in the incoming gas strikes the cooledsurface as it enters the body and freezes to the body wall beforeit reaches the orifice. If the valve plug is located upstream of theorifice, there is a good chance that it will become trapped in theice and remain in the last position. This ice often contains wormholes which allow gas to continue to flow. In this case, theregulator will be unable to control downstream pressure whenthe flow requirement changes. If the valve plug is locateddownstream of the port, it is operating in an area that isfrequently ice-free. It must be recognized that any regulator canbe disabled by ice if there is sufficient moisture in the flowstream.
System Design
We can arrange station piping to reduce freezing if we knowwhen to expect freezing. Many have noted that there are fewreported instances of freezing when the weather is very cold (0°F(-18°C)). They have observed that most freezing occurs whenthe atmospheric temperature is between 35° and 45°F (2° and7°C). When the atmospheric temperature is quite low, themoisture within the gas stream freezes to the pipe wall before itreaches the pressure reducing valve which leaves only dry gas topass through the valve. We can take advantage of this conceptby increasing the amount of piping that is exposed aboveground upstream of the pressure reducing valve. This willassure ample opportunity for the moisture to contact the pipewall and freeze to the wall.
When the atmospheric temperature rises enough to melt the icefrom the pipe wall, it is found that the operating conditions arenot favorable to ice formation in the pressure reducing valve.There may be sufficient solar heat gain to warm the regulatorbody or lower flow rates which reduces the refrigeration effectof the pressure drop.
Parallel pressure reducing valves make a practical antifreezesystem for low flow stations such as farm taps. The two parallelregulators are set at slightly different pressures (maybe one at 50psi (3 bar) and one at 60 psi (4 bar)). The flow will automati-cally go through the regulator with the higher setpoint. Whenthis regulator freezes closed, the pressure will drop and thesecond regulator will open and carry the load. Since mostfreezing instances occur when the atmospheric temperature isbetween 35° and 45°F (2° and 7°C), we expect the ice in the firstregulator to begin thawing as soon as the flow stops. When theice melts from the first regulator, it will resume flowing gas.
These two regulators will continue to alternate between flowingand freezing until the atmospheric temperature decreases orincreases, which will get the equipment out of the ice formationtemperature range.
Water Removal
Removing the moisture from the flow stream solves theproblem of freezing. However, this can be a difficult task.Where moisture is a significant problem, it may be beneficial touse a method of dehydration. Dehydration is a process thatremoves the water from the gas stream. Effective dehydrationremoves enough water to prevent reaching the dew point at thelowest temperature and highest pressure.
Two common methods of dehydration involve glycol absorp-tion and desiccants. The glycol absorption process requires thegas stream to pass through glycol inside a contactor. Watervapor is absorbed by the glycol which in turn is passed througha regenerator that removes the water by distillation. The glycolis reused after being stripped of the water. The glycol system iscontinuous and fairly low in cost. It is important, however,that glycol is not pushed downstream with the dried gas.
The second method, solid absorption or desiccant, has theability to produce much drier gas than glycol absorption. Thesolid process has the gas stream passing through a tower filledwith desiccant. The water vapor clings to the desiccant, until itreaches saturation. Regeneration of the desiccant is done bypassing hot gas through the tower to dry the absorptionmedium. After cooling, the system is ready to perform again.This is more of a batch process and will require two or moretowers to keep a continuous flow of dry gas. The desiccantsystem is more expensive to install and operate than the glycolunits.
Most pipeline gas does not have water content high enough torequire these measures. Sometimes a desiccant dryer installed inthe pilot gas supply lines of a pilot-operated regulator is quiteeffective. This is primarily true where water is present on anoccasional basis.
Summary
It is ideal to design a pressure reducing station that will neverfreeze, but anyone who has spent time working on this problemwill acknowledge that no system is foolproof. We can designsystems that minimize the freezing potential by being aware ofthe conditions that favor freezing.
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Sulfide Stress Cracking--NACE MR0175-2002, MR0175/ISO 15156
The Details
NACE MR0175, “Sulfide Stress Corrosion CrackingResistant Metallic Materials for Oil Field Equipment” iswidely used throughout the world. In late 2003, it becameNACE MR0175/ISO 15156, “Petroleum and Natural GasIndustries - Materials for Use in H
2S-Containing Environ-
ments in Oil and Gas Production.” These standards specifythe proper materials, heat treat conditions and strength levelsrequired to provide good service life in sour gas and oilenvironments.
NACE International (formerly the National Association ofCorrosion Engineers) is a worldwide technical organizationwhich studies various aspects of corrosion and the damagethat may result in refineries, chemical plants, water systemsand other types of industrial equipment. MR0175 was firstissued in 1975, but the origin of the document dates to 1959when a group of engineers in Western Canada pooled theirexperience in successful handling of sour gas. The grouporganized as a NACE committee and in 1963 issued specifica-tion 1B163, “Recommendations of Materials for SourService.” In 1965, NACE organized a nationwide committee,which issued 1F166 in 1966 and MR0175 in 1975. Revisionswere issued on an annual basis as new materials andprocesses were added. Revisions had to receive unanimousapproval from the responsible NACE committee.
In the mid-1990’s, the European Federation of Corrosion(EFC) issued 2 reports closely related to MR0175; Publica-tion 16, “Guidelines on Materials Requirements for Carbonand Low Alloy Steels for H
2S-Containing Environments in
Oil and Gas Production” and Publication 17, “CorrosionResistant Alloys for Oil and Gas Production: Guidance onGeneral Requirements and Test Methods for H
2S Service.”
EFC is located in London, England.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) isa worldwide federation of national standards bodies frommore than 140 countries. One organization from eachcountry acts as the representative for all organizations in thatcountry. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)is the USA representative in ISO. Technical Committee 67,“Materials, Equipment and Offshore Structures for Petro-leum, Petrochemical and Natural Gas Industries,” requestedthat NACE blend the different sour service documents into asingle global standard.
This task was completed in late 2003 and the document wasissued as ISO standard, NACE MR0175/ISO 15156. It isnow maintained by ISO/TC 67, Work Group 7, a 12-member“Maintenance Panel” and a 40-member Oversight Committeeunder combined NACE/ISO control. The three committees
are an international group of users, manufacturers and serviceproviders. Membership is approved by NACE and ISO basedon technical knowledge and experience. Terms are limited.Previously, some members on the NACE Task Group had servedfor over 25 years.
NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 is published in 3 volumes.
Part 1: General Principles for Selection of Cracking-ResistantMaterials
Part 2: Cracking-Resistant Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, andthe Use of Cast Irons
Part 3: Cracking-Resistant CRA’s (Corrosion-Resistant Alloys)and Other Alloys
NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 applies only to petroleum produc-tion, drilling, gathering and flow line equipment and fieldprocessing facilities to be used in H
2S bearing hydrocarbon
service. In the past, MR0175 only addressed sulfide stresscracking (SSC). In NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, however, butboth SSC and chloride stress corrosion cracking (SCC) areconsidered. While clearly intended to be used only for oil fieldequipment, industry has applied MR0175 in to many other areasincluding refineries, LNG plants, pipelines and natural gassystems. The judicious use of the document in these applicationsis constructive and can help prevent SSC failures wherever H
2S is
present. Saltwater wells and saltwater handling facilities are notcovered by NACE MR0175/ISO 15156. These are covered byNACE Standard RP0475, “Selection of Metallic Materials to BeUsed in All Phases of Water Handling for Injection into Oil-Bearing Formations.”
When new restrictions are placed on materials in NACEMR0175/ISO 15156 or when materials are deleted from thisstandard, materials in use at that time are in compliance. Thisincludes materials listed in MR0175-2002, but not listed in NACEMR0175/ISO 15156. However, if this equipment is moved to adifferent location and exposed to different conditions, thematerials must be listed in the current revision. Alternatively,successful use of materials outside the limitations of NACEMR0175/ISO 15156 may be perpetuated by qualification testingper the standard. The user may replace materials in kind forexisting wells or for new wells within a given field if the environ-mental conditions of the field have not changed.
New Sulfide Stress Cracking Standard for Refineries
Don Bush is chair of a NACE Task Group that has written adocument for refinery applications, NACE MR0103. The title is“Materials Resistant to Sulfide Stress Cracking in CorrosivePetroleum Refining Environments.” The requirements of this
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Sulfide Stress Cracking--NACE MR0175-2002, MR0175/ISO 15156
standard are very similar to the pre-2003 MR0175. Whenapplying this standard, there are few changes from NACEMR0175-2002.
Responsibility
It has always been the responsibility of the end user to deter-mine the operating conditions and to specify when NACEMR0175 applies. This is now emphasized more strongly thanever in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156. The manufacturer isresponsible for meeting the metallurgical requirements ofNACE MR0175/ISO 15156. It is the end user’s responsibility toensure that a material will be satisfactory in the intendedenvironment. Some of the operating conditions which must beconsidered include pressure, temperature, corrosiveness, fluidproperties, etc. When bolting components are selected, thepressure rating of flanges could be affected. It is always theresponsibility of the equipment user to convey the environmen-tal conditions to the equipment supplier, particularly if theequipment will be used in sour service.
The various sections of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 cover thecommonly available forms of materials and alloy systems. Therequirements for heat treatment, hardness levels, conditions ofmechanical work and post-weld heat treatment are addressedfor each form of material. Fabrication techniques, bolting,platings and coatings are also addressed.
Applicability of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156
Low concentrations of H2S (<0.05 psi (0.3 kPa) H
2S partial
pressure) and low pressures (<65 psia or 450 kPa) are consid-ered outside the scope of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156. The lowstress levels at low pressures or the inhibitive effects of oil maygive satisfactory performance with standard commercialequipment. Many users, however, have elected to take aconservative approach and specify compliance to either NACEMR0175 or NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 any time a measurableamount of H
2S is present. The decision to follow these
specifications must be made by the user based on economicimpact, the safety aspects should a failure occur and past fieldexperience. Legislation can impact the decision as well. Suchjurisdictions include; the Texas Railroad Commission and theU.S. Minerals Management Service (offshore). The Alberta,Canada Energy Conservation Board recommends use of thespecifications.
Basics of Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC) and StressCorrosion Cracking (SCC)
SSC and SCC are cracking processes that develop in thepresence of water, corrosion and surface tensile stress. It is a
Figure 1. Photomicrograph Showing Stress Corrosion Cracking
progressive type of failure that produces cracking at stress levelsthat are well below the material’s tensile strength. The break orfracture appears brittle, with no localized yielding, plasticdeformation or elongation. Rather than a single crack, anetwork of fine, feathery, branched cracks will form (see Figure1). Pitting is frequently seen, and will serve as a stress concentra-tor to initiate cracking.
With SSC, hydrogen ions are a product of the corrosion process(Figure 2). These ions pick up electrons from the base materialproducing hydrogen atoms. At that point, two hydrogen atomsmay combine to form a hydrogen molecule. Most molecules willeventually collect, form hydrogen bubbles and float awayharmlessly. However, some percentage of the hydrogen atomswill diffuse into the base metal and embrittle the crystallinestructure. When a certain critical concentration of hydrogen isreached and combined with a tensile stress exceeding a thresholdlevel, SSC will occur. H
2S does not actively participate in the
SSC reaction; however, sulfides act to promote the entry of thehydrogen atoms into the base material.
As little as 0.05 psi (0.3 kPa) H2S partial pressure in 65 psia (450
kPa) hydrocarbon gas can cause SSC of carbon and low alloysteels. Sulfide stress cracking is most severe at ambient tempera-ture, particularly in the range of 20 to 120°F (-5 to 50°C). Below20°F (-5°C) the diffusion rate of the hydrogen is so slow that thecritical concentration is never reached. Above 120°F (50°C), thediffusion rate is so fast that the hydrogen atoms pass throughthe material in such a rapid manner that the critical concentra-tion is not reached.
Chloride SCC is widely encountered and has been extensivelystudied. Much is still unknown, however, about its mechanism.
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Sulfide Stress Cracking--NACE MR0175-2002, MR0175/ISO 15156
One theory says that hydrogen, generated by the corrosionprocess, diffuses into the base metal in the atomic form andembrittles the lattice structure. A second, more widely acceptedtheory proposes an electrochemical mechanism. Stainless steelsare covered with a protective, chromium oxide film. Thechloride ions rupture the film at weak spots, resulting in anodic(bare) and cathodic (film covered) sites. The galvanic cellproduces accelerated attack at the anodic sites, which whencombined with tensile stresses produces cracking. A minimumion concentration is required to produce SCC. As the concen-tration increases, the environment becomes more severe,reducing the time to failure.
Temperature also is a factor in SCC. In general, the likelihoodof SCC increases with increasing temperature. A minimumthreshold temperature exists for most systems, below whichSCC is rare. Across industry, the generally accepted minimumtemperature for chloride SCC of the 300 SST’s is about 160°F(70°C). NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 has set a very conservativelimit of 140°F (60°C) due to the synergistic effects of thechlorides, H
2S and low pH values. As the temperature increases
above these values, the time to failure will typically decrease.
Resistance to chloride SCC increases with higher alloy materials.This is reflected in the environmental limits set by NACEMR0175/ISO 15156. Environmental limits progressivelyincrease from 400 series SST and ferritic SST to 300 series,highly alloy austenitic SST, duplex SST, nickel and cobalt basealloys.
Carbon Steel
Carbon and low-alloy steels have acceptable resistance to SSCand SCC however; their application is often limited by their low
resistance to general corrosion. The processing of carbon andlow alloy steels must be carefully controlled for good resistanceto SSC and SCC. The hardness must be less than 22 HRC. Ifwelding or significant cold working is done, stress relief isrequired. Although the base metal hardness of a carbon oralloy steel is less than 22 HRC, areas of the heat affected zone(HAZ) will be harder. PWHT will eliminate these excessivelyhard areas.
ASME SA216 Grades WCB and WCC and SAME SA105 arethe most commonly used body materials. It is Fisher’s policy tosress relieve all welded carbon steels that are supplied to NACEMR0175/ISO 15156.
All carbon steel castings sold to NACE MR0175/ISO 15156requirements are produced using one of the following processes:
1. In particular product lines where a large percentage of carbonsteel assemblies are sold as NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 compli-ant, castings are ordered from the foundry with a requirementthat the castings be either normalized or stress relieved followingall weld repairs, major or minor. Any weld repairs performed byFisher, either major or minor, are subsequently stress relieved.
2. In product lines where only a small percentage of carbon steelproducts are ordered NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 compliant,stock castings are stress relieved whether they are weld repairedby Fisher or not. This eliminates the chance of a minor foundryweld repair going undetected and not being stress relieved.
ASME SA352 grades LCB and LCC have the same compositionas WCB and WCC, respectively. They are heat treated differ-ently and impact tested at -50°F (-46°C) to ensure good tough-ness in low temperature service. LCB and LCC are used inlocations where temperatures commonly drop below the-20°F (-32°C) permitted for WCB and WCC. LCB and LCCcastings are processed in the same manner as WCB and WCCwhen required to meet NACE MR0175/ISO 15156.
For carbon and low-alloy steels NACE MR0175/ISO 15156imposes some changes in the requirements for the weld proce-dure qualification report (PQR). All new PQR’s will meet theserequirements; however, it will take several years for Fisher andour suppliers to complete this work. At this time, we will requireuser approval to use HRC.
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Welding Hardness Requirements
• HV-10, HV-5 or Rockwell 15N. • HRC testing is acceptable if the design stresses are less than67% of the minimum specified yield strength and the PQRincludes PWHT. • Other methods require user approval. • 250 HV or 70.6 HR15N max. • 22 HRC max if approved by user.
Figure 2. Schematic Showing the Generation of Hydrogen Producing SSC
H
H
H
H2
H
H
HH H+
H+
e-
e-
e-
H+
H+
H+
H+
M+
M+
M+ S-2
S-2
S-2
HHH
HH H
H
H
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Sulfide Stress Cracking--NACE MR0175-2002, MR0175/ISO 15156
Low-Alloy Steel Welding Hardness Requirements
• All of the above apply with the additional requirement ofstress relieve at 1150°F (620°C) minimum after welding
All new PQR’s at Fisher and our foundries will requirehardness testing with HV-10, HV-5 or Rockwell 15N and HRC.The acceptable maximum hardness values will be 250 HV or70.6 HR15N and 22 HRC. Hardness traverse locations arespecified in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 part 2 as a function ofthickness and weld configuration. The number and locationsof production hardness tests are still outside the scope of thestandard. The maximum allowable nickel content for carbonand low-alloy steels and their weld deposits is 1%.
Low alloy steels like WC6, WC9, and C5 are acceptable toNACE MR0175/ISO 15156 to a maximum hardness of 22HRC. These castings must all be stress relieved to FMS 20B52.
The compositions of C12, C12a, F9 and F91 materials do notfall within the definition of “low alloy steel” in NACEMR0175/ISO 15156, therefore, these materials are not accept-able.
A few of Fisher customers have specified a maximum carbonequivalent (CE) for carbon steel. The primary driver for thisrequirement is to improve the SSC resistance in the as-weldedcondition. Fisher’s practice of stress relieving all carbon steelnegates this need. Decreasing the CE reduces the hardenabilityof the steel and presumably improves resistance to sulfidestress cracking (SSC). Because reducing the CE decreases thestrength of the steel, there is a limit to how far the CE can bereduced.
Cast Iron
Gray, austenitic and white cast irons cannot be used for anypressure retaining parts, due to low ductility. Ferritic ductileiron to ASTM A395 is acceptable when permitted by ANSI,API or other industry standards.
Stainless Steel
400 Series Stainless Steel
UNS S41000 (410 SST), CA15 (cast 410), S42000 (420 SST)and several other martensitic grades must be double temperedto a maximum hardness of 22 HRC. PWHT is also required.
An environmental limit now applies to the martensitic grades;1.5 psi (10 kPa) H
2S partial pressure and pH greater than or
equal to 3.5 S41600 (416 SST) is similar to S41000 (410) withthe exception of a sulfur addition to produce free machiningcharacteristics. Use of 416 and other free machining steels isnot permitted by NACE MR0175/ISO 15156.
CA6NM is a modified version of the cast S41000 stainless steel.NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 allows its use, but specifies the exactheat treatment required. Generally, the carbon content must berestricted to 0.03% maximum to meet the 23 HRC maximumhardness. PWHT is required for CA6NM. The same environ-mental limit applies; 1.5 psi (10 kPa) H
2S partial pressure and
pH greater than or equal to 3.5.
300 Series Stainless Steel
Several changes have been made with the requirements of theaustenitic (300 series) stainless steels. Individual alloys are nolonger listed. All alloys with the following elemental ranges areacceptable: C 0.08% max., Cr 16% min., Ni 8% min., P 0.045%max., S 0.04% max., Mn 2.0% max., and Si 2.0% max. Otheralloying elements are permitted. The other requirementsremain; solution heat treated condition, 22 HRC maximum andfree of cold work designed to improve mechanical properties.The cast and wrought equivalents of S30200, S30400 (CF8),S30403 (CF3), S31000 (CK20), S31600 (CF8M), S31603(CF3M), S31700 (CG8M), S31703 (CG3M), S32100, S34700(CF8C) and N08020 (CN7M) are all acceptable per NACEMR0175/ISO 15156.
Environmental restrictions now apply to the 300 series SST.The limits are 15 psia (100 kPa) H
2S partial pressure, a maxi-
mum temperature of 140°F (60°C), and no elemental sulfur. Ifthe chloride content is less than 50 mg/L (50 ppm), the H
2S
partial pressure must be less than 50 psia (350 kPa) but there isno temperature limit.
There is less of a restriction on 300 series SST in oil and gasprocessing and injection facilities. If the chloride content inaqueous solutions is low (typically less than 50 mg/L or 50 ppmchloride) in operations after separation, there are no limits foraustenitic stainless steels, highly alloyed austenitic stainlesssteels, duplex stainless steels, or nickel-based alloys.
Post-weld heat treatment of the 300 series SST is not required.Although the corrosion resistance may be affected by poorlycontrolled welding, this can be minimized by using the lowcarbon filler material grades, low heat input levels and lowinterpass temperatures. Fisher imposes all these controls asstandard practice. NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 now requires the
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use of “L” grade consumables with 0.03% carbon maximum.
S20910
S20910 (Nitronic® 50) is acceptable in both the annealed andhigh strength conditions with environmental restrictions; H2Spartial pressure limit of 15 psia (100 kPa), a maximum tempera-ture of 150°F (66°C), and no elemental sulfur. This would applyto components such as bolting, plugs, cages, seat rings and otherinternal parts. Strain hardened (cold-worked) S20910 isacceptable for shafts, stems, and pins without any environmentalrestrictions. Because of the environmental restrictions and pooravailability on the high strength condition, use of S20910 willeventually be discontinued except for shafts, stems and pinswhere unrestricted application is acceptable for these compo-nents.
CK3MCuN
The cast equivalent of S31254 (Avesta 254SMO®), CK3MCuN(UNS J93254), is included in this category. The same elementallimits apply. It is acceptable in the cast, solution heat-treatedcondition at a hardness level of 100 HRB maximum in theabsence of elemental sulfur.
S17400
The use of S17400 (17-4PH) is now prohibited for pressureretaining components including bolting, shafts and stems. Priorto 2003, S17400 was listed as an acceptable material in the generalsection (Section 3) of NACE MR0175. Starting with the 2003revision, however, it is no longer listed in the general section. Itsuse is restricted to internal, non-pressure containing componentsin valves, pressure regulators and level controllers. This includescages and other trim parts. 17-4 bolting will no longer besupplied in any NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 construction. The17-4 and 15-5 must be heat-treated to the H1150 DBL conditionor the H1150M condition. The maximum hardness of 33 HRCis the same for both conditions.
CB7Cu-1 and CB7Cu-2 (cast 17-4PH and 15-5 respectively) inthe H1150 DBL condition are also acceptable for internal valveand regulator components. The maximum hardness is 30 HRCor 310 HB for both alloys.
Duplex Stainless Steel
Wrought and cast duplex SST alloys with 35-65% ferrite areacceptable based on the composition of the alloy, but there are
environmental restrictions. There is no differentiation betweencast and wrought, therefore, cast CD3MN is now acceptable.There are two categories of duplex SST. The “standard” alloyswith a 30≤PREN≤40 and ≥1.5% Mo, and the “super” duplexalloys with PREN>40. The PREN is calculated from the compo-sition of the material. The chromium, molybdenum, tungstenand nitrogen contents are used in the calculation. NACEMR0175/ISO 15156 uses this number for several classes ofmaterials.
PREN = Cr% + 3.3(Mo% + 0.5W%) + 16N%
The “standard” duplex SST grades have environmental limits of450°F (232°C) maximum and H
2S partial pressure of 1.5 psia (10
kPa) maximum. The acceptable alloys include S31803, CD3MN,S32550 and CD7MCuN (Ferralium® 255). The alloys must be inthe solution heat-treated and quenched condition. There are nohardness restrictions in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, however, 28HRC remains as the limit in the refinery document MR0103.
The “super” duplex SST with PREN>40 have environmentallimits of 450°F (232°C) maximum and H
2S partial pressure of 3
psia (20 kPa) maximum. The acceptable “super” duplex SST’sinclude S32760 and CD3MWCuN (Zeron® 100).
The cast duplex SST Z 6CNDU20.08M to the French NationalStandard NF A 320-55 is no longer acceptable for NACEMR0175/ISO 15156 applications. The composition fails to meetthe requirements set for either the duplex SST or the austeniticSST.
Highly Alloyed Austenitic Stainless Steels
There are two categories of highly alloyed austenitic SST’s thatare acceptable in the solution heat-treated condition. There aredifferent compositional and environmental requirements for thetwo categories. The first category includes alloys S31254 (Avesta254SMO®) and N08904 (904L); Ni% + 2Mo%>30 and Mo=2%minimum.
The second category of highly alloyed austenitic stainless steelsare those having a PREN >40. This includes S31654 (Avesta654SMO®), N08926 (Inco 25-6Mo), N08367 (AL-6XN), S31266
Alloy S31254 and N08904 Environmental Limits
MAXIMUMTEMPERATURE
MAXIMUM H2S PARTIALPRESSURE
MAXIMUMCHLORIDES
ELEMENTALSULFUR
140°F (60°C) 1.5 psia (100 kPa) No restriction No
140°F (60°C) 50 psia (350 kPa) 50 mg/L chloride No
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Monel® K500 and Inconel® X750
N05500 and N07750 are now prohibited for use in pressureretaining components including bolting, shafts and stems.They can still be used for internal parts such as cages, othertrim parts and torque tubes. There are no environmentalrestrictions, however, for either alloy. They must be in thesolution heat-treated condition with a maximum hardnessof 35 HRC. N07750 is still acceptable for springs to 50HRC maximum.
Cobalt-Base Alloys
Alloy 6 castings and hardfacing are still acceptable. Thereare no environmental limits with respect to partial pressuresof H
2S or elemental sulfur. All other cobalt-chromium-
tungsten, nickel-chromium-boron (Colmonoy) andtungsten-carbide castings are also acceptable withoutrestrictions.
Nonferrous Alloys
Nickel-Base Alloys
Nickel base alloys have very good resistance to cracking in sour,chloride containing environments. There are 2 different catego-ries of nickel base alloys in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156:
• solid-solution nickel-based alloys
• precipitation hardenable alloys
The solid solution alloys are the Hastelloy® C, Inconel® 625and Incoloy® 825 type alloys. Both the wrought and cast alloysare acceptable in the solution heat-treated condition with nohardness limits or environmental restrictions. The chemicalcomposition of these alloys is as follows:
• 19.0% Cr minimum, 29.5% Ni minimum, and 2.5% Mominimum. Includes N06625, CW6MC, N08825, CU5MCuC.
• 14.5% Cr minimum, 52% Ni minimum, and 12% Mo mini-mum. Includes N10276, N06022, CW2M.
N08020 and CN7M (alloy 20 Cb3) are not included in thiscategory. They must follow the restrictions placed on theaustenitic SST’s like 304, 316 and 317.
Although originally excluded from NACE MR0175/ISO 15156,N04400 (Monel® 400) in the wrought and cast forms are nowincluded in this category.
The precipitation hardenable alloys are Incoloy® 925, Inconel®718 and X750 type alloys. They are listed in the specification asindividual alloys. Each has specific hardness and environmentalrestrictions.
N07718 is acceptable in the solution heat-treated and precipita-tion hardened condition to 40 HRC maximum. N09925 is
(UR B66) and S34565. The environmental restrictions for thesealloys are as follows:
acceptable in the cold-worked condition to 35 HRC maximum,solution-annealed and aged to 38 HRC maximum and cold-worked and aged to 40 HRC maximum.
The restrictions are as follows:
Cast N07718 is acceptable in the solution heat-treated andprecipitation hardened condition to 35 HRC maximum. Therestrictions are as follows:
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All cobalt based, nickel based and tungsten-carbide weldoverlays are acceptable without environmental restrictions.This includes CoCr-A, NiCr-A (Colmonoy® 4), NiCr-C(Colmonoy® 6) and Haynes Ultimet® hardfacing.
Wrought UNS R31233 (Haynes Ultimet®) is acceptable in thesolution heat-treated condition to 22 HRC maximum, however,all production barstock exceeds this hardness limit. Therefore,Ultimet® barstock cannot be used for NACE MR0175/ISO15156 applications. Cast Ultimet is not listed in NACEMR0175/ISO 15156.
R30003 (Elgiloy®) springs are acceptable to 60 HRC in the coldworked and aged condition. There are no environmentalrestrictions.
Aluminum and Copper Alloys
Per NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, environmental limits have notbeen established for aluminum base and copper alloys. Thismeans that they could be used in sour applications per therequirements of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, however, theyshould not be used because severe corrosion attack will likelyoccur. They are seldom used in direct contact with H2S.
Titanium
Environmental limits have not been established for the wroughttitanium grades. Fisher has no experience in using titanium insour applications. The only common industrial alloy iswrought R50400 (grade 2). Cast titanium is not included inNACE MR0175/ISO 15156.
Zirconium
Zirconium is not listed in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156.
Springs
Springs in compliance with NACE represent a difficult prob-lem. To function properly, springs must have very highstrength (hardness) levels. Normal steel and stainless steelsprings would be very susceptible to SSC and fail to meetNACE MR0175/ISO 15156. In general, relatively soft, lowstrength materials must be used. Of course, these materialsproduce poor springs. The two exceptions allowed are thecobalt based alloys, such as R30003 (Elgiloy®), which may becold worked and hardened to a maximum hardness of 60 HRC
and alloy N07750 (alloy X750) which is permitted to 50 HRC.There are no environmental restrictions for these alloys.
Coatings
Coatings, platings and overlays may be used provided the basemetal is in a condition which is acceptable per NACE MR0175/ISO 15156. The coatings may not be used to protect a basematerial which is susceptible to SSC. Coatings commonly usedin sour service are chromium plating, electroless nickel (ENC)and nitriding. Overlays and castings commonly used includeCoCr-A (Stellite® or alloy 6), R30006 (alloy 6B), NiCr-A andNiCr-C (Colmonoy® 4 and 6) nickel-chromium-boron alloys.Tungsten carbide alloys are acceptable in the cast, cemented orthermally sprayed conditions. Ceramic coatings such as plasmasprayed chromium oxide are also acceptable. As is true with allmaterials in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, the general corrosionresistance in the intended application must always be consid-ered.
NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 permits the uses of weld overlaycladding to protect an unacceptable base material from cracking.Fisher does not recommend this practice, however, as hydrogencould diffuse through the cladding and produce cracking of asusceptible basemetal such as carbon or low alloy steel.
Sress Relieving
Many people have the misunderstanding that stress relievingfollowing machining is required by NACE MR0175/ISO 15156.Provided good machining practices are followed using sharptools and proper lubrication, the amount of cold work pro-duced is negligible. SSC and SCC resistance will not be affected.NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 actually permits the cold rolling ofthreads, provided the component will meet the heat treatconditions and hardness requirements specified for the givenparent material. Cold deformation processes such as burnish-ing are also acceptable.
Bolting
Bolting materials must meet the requirements of NACEMR0175/ISO 15156 when directly exposed to the processenvironment (“exposed” applications). Standard ASTM A193and ASME SA193 grade B7 bolts or ASTM A194 and ASMESA194 grade 2H nuts can and should be used provided they areoutside of the process environment (“non-exposed” applica-
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Sulfide Stress Cracking--NACE MR0175-2002, MR0175/ISO 15156
tions). If the bolting will be deprived atmospheric contact byburial, insulation or flange protectors and the customer specifiesthat the bolting will be “exposed”, then grades of bolting suchas B7 and 2H are unacceptable. The most commonly usedfasteners listed for “exposed” applications are grade B7M bolts(99 HRB maximum) and grade 2HM nuts (22 HRC maximum).If 300 series SST fasteners are needed, the bolting grades B8AClass 1A and B8MA Class 1A are acceptable. The correspond-ing nut grades are 8A and 8MA.
It must be remembered, however, that the use of lower strengthbolting materials such as B7M may require pressure vesselderating. The special S17400 double H1150 bolting previouslyoffered by Fisher on E body valves to maintain the full B7 ratingis no longer acceptable to NACE MR0175/ISO 15156. Prior tothe 2003, S17400 was listed as an acceptable material in thegeneral section (Section 3) of NACE MR0175. Following the2003 revision, it is no longer listed in the general section. Its useis now restricted to internal, non-pressure containing compo-nents in valves, pressure regulators and level controllers. Theuse of S17400 for bolting is specifically prohibited. N07718(alloy 718) bolting with 2HM nuts is one alternative.
Two different types of packing box studs and nuts are com-monly used by Fisher. The stainless steel type is B8M S31600class 2 (strain hardened) and 316 nuts per FMS 20B86. Thesteel type is B7 studs with 2H nuts. If the customer specifies thatthe packing box studs and nuts are “exposed” then grade B7Mstuds and grade 2HM nuts or B8MA Class 1A studs and 8MAnuts are commonly used.
Bolting Coatings
NFC (Non-Corroding Finish) and ENC (Electroless NickelCoating) coatings are acceptable on pressure-retaining and non-pressure-retaining fasteners. For some reason, there is oftenconfusion regarding the acceptability of zinc plated fasteners perNACE MR0175/ISO 15156. NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 doesnot preclude the use of any coating, provided it is not used in anattempt to prevent SSC or SCC of an otherwise unacceptablebase material. However, zinc plating of pressure-retainingbolting is not recommended by Fisher Controls due to liquidmetal induced embrittlement concerns.
Composition Materials
NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 does not address elastomer andpolymer materials although ISO/TC 67, Work Group 7 is nowworking on a Part 4 to address these materials. The importance
of these materials in critical sealing functions, however, cannot beoverlooked. User experience has been successful with elastomerssuch as nitrile, neoprene and the fluoroelastomers andperfluoroelastomers. In general, fluoropolymers such as PTFE,TCM Plus, TCM Ultra and TCM III can be applied withoutreservation within their normal temperature range.
Elastomer use is as follows:
1. If possible, use HNBR for sour natural gas, oil, or water attemperatures below 250°F (120°C). It covers the widest range ofsour applications at a lower cost than TFE/P or FKM. Unfortu-nately, the material is relatively new, and only a handful of partsare currently set up. Check availability before specifying.
2. Use TFE/P for sour natural gas, oil, or water applications attemperatures between 250°F (120°C) and 400°F (205°C).
3. FKM can be used for sour natural gas, oil, or water applica-tions with less than 10% H
2S and temperatures below 250°F
(120°C).
4. Conventional NBR can be used for sour natural gas, oil, orwater applications with less than 1% H
2S and temperatures
below 150°F (65°C).
5. CR can be used for sour natural gas or water applicationsinvolving temperatures below 150°F (65°C). Its resistance to oil isnot as good.
6. IIR and EPDM (or EPR) can be used for H2S applications
that don’t involve hydrocarbons (H2S gas, sour water, etc.).
Tubulars
A separate section has been established for downhole tubularsand couplings. This section contains provisions for usingmaterials in the cold-drawn condition to higher hardness levels(cold-worked to 35 HRC maximum). In some cases, the environ-mental limits are also different. This has no affect on Fisher aswe do not make products for these applications. Nickel-basedcomponents used for downhole casing, tubing, and the relatedequipment (hangers and downhole component bodies; compo-nents that are internal to the downhole component bodies) aresubject to the requirements.
Expanded Limits and Materials
With documented laboratory testing and/or field experience, it ispossible to expand the environmental limits of materials in
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Sulfide Stress Cracking--NACE MR0175-2002, MR0175/ISO 15156
NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 or use materials not listed in NACEMR0175/ISO 15156. This includes increasing the H
2S partial
pressure limit or temperature limitations. Supporting documenta-tion must be submitted to NACE International Headquarters,which will make the data available to the public. NACE Interna-tional will neither review nor approve this documentation. It isthe user’s responsibility to evaluate and determine the applicabilityof the documented data for the intended application.
It is the user’s responsibility to ensure that the testing cited isrelevant for the intended applications. Choice of appropriatetemperatures and environments for evaluating susceptibility toboth SCC and SSC is required. NACE Standard TM0177 andEFC Publication #1739 provide guidelines for laboratory testing.
Field-based documentation for expanded alloy use requiresexposure of a component for sufficient time to demonstrate itsresistance to SCC/SSC. Sufficient information on factors thataffect SCC/SSC (e.g., stress levels, fluid and gas composition,operating conditions, galvanic coupling, etc.) must be docu-mented.
Codes and Standards
Applicable ASTM, ANSI, ASME and API standards are usedalong with NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 as they would normallybe used for other applications. The NACE MR0175/ISO 15156requires that all weld procedures be qualified to these samestandards. Welders must be familiar with the procedures andcapable of making welds which comply.
Certification
Fisher Certification Form 7508 is worded as follows for NACEMR0175-2002 and MR0175/ISO 15156:
“NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 OR NACE MR0175-2002: Thisunit meets the metallurgical requirements of NACE MR0175 orISO 15156 (revision and materials of construction as specified bythe customer). Environmental restrictions may apply to wettedparts and/or bolting.”
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TECHNICAL
Introduction
Powder coating is the most exciting finishing method to beintroduced in the past one hundred years. Powder coating offerssignificant performance advantages, an excellent solution tomeeting current environmental regulations, a good balance ofmechanical properties, and excellent corrosion resistance.
Economic Advantages
Powder coating systems save energy and virtually eliminate airand water pollution because they are solvent-free. The need forair make-up and the high cost of heating is reduced, resulting inconsiderable energy savings. Costly anti-pollution equipmentand time and money spent dealing with state and federalregulatory agencies is also reduced. There is a major reductionin expensive and difficult disposal problems because there is noliquid paint sludge to send to a hazardous waste site. Becausepowder coatings do not require any flash-off time, conveyorracks can be more closely spaced; more parts coated per hourmeans a lower unit cost. In addition to the increased productionrate for a powder coating system, reject rates are much lowerthan in a wet system.
Environmental Advantages
The Clean Air Act of 1970 [U.S. Law] propelled powder coatingprocesses to the forefront of the industry. By eliminating volatileorganic compounds (VOCs), air pollution was reduced. Tomany major coating companies, The Clean Air Act signaled theend of solvent-based processes. Prior to that, the fluidized bedcoating process was well established and though the electrostaticpowder spray process had started to gain acceptance, powder
Figure 1. ANSI 49 Gray Powder Paint with AluminumOxide Coated Fasteners
Figure 2. Inside and Outside Surfaces Coated for Corrosion ProtectionEliminating the need for Chromate Conversion
coating processes in general were not widespread or commer-cially accepted. The powder coating method received more mediaattention between 1971 and 1975 than at any other time, beforeor after. Powder coating processes, especially electrostaticpowder spray processes, are now universally accepted andspecified as the Best Available Control Technology (BACT) toreduce air pollution. While powder coatings have many processand performance advantages over conventionally appliedcoatings, it is the ecological advantages that advance theirgrowth and acceptance. Consider:
Powder Coatings Contain No Solvents or VOCs
• No VOC emissions to the atmosphere.
• Compliance with most environmental regulations.
• Permits may not be required or are typically easier to obtainfor new booth installations.
• Administrative costs of inspections, permits, sample testing, and record keeping are significantly reduced.
• Coating booth exhaust air is returned to the coating room.
• Less oven air is exhausted to the outside.
• Inherently safer and cleaner than solvent-based paintsystems.
• No special transportation, storage, or handling techniquesrequired.
Powder Coatings Reduce Waste and Present Few Hazards
• In most systems, powder coatings are collected andrecycled.
• First pass transfer efficiency is high compared to conventional
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TECHNICAL
Figure 3. Standard Liquid Paint Coating after ASTM B117500 Hour Salt Spray Test
Figure 4. Dry Powder Paint and Aluminum Oxide Coated Fasteners after ASTMB117 500 Hour Salt Spray Test
liquid paint application.
• Almost all powder coatings are free of heavy metals.
• The Resources Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulations consider almost no powder coating a hazard-
ous waste.
• In most states, disposal methods for waste powder are thesame as
for non-hazardous industrial wastes.
Mechanical Properties
The general purpose powder coating formulations, now widelyused, have a long established reputation for providing anexcellent balance of mechanical properties including impact andabrasion resistance, and hardness. Resources now available allowfor an even broader range of film properties than ever before.Extra hardness, greater chemical resistance, improved exteriorgloss retention, and superior flexibility, though not necessarily ina single formulation, are all attainable. There are very few filmproperties available from liquid paint finishes that cannot beachieved with powder; however, some film properties easilyattainable with powder are difficult or impossible to achieve withconventional wet paints.
Corrosion Resistance
While proper metal pretreatment is important for optimumcorrosion resistance, a combination of pretreatment andpowder coatings can provide outstanding corrosion resistance.
Powder has achieved a good reputation due, in part, to itsconsistent delivery of high film builds and good edge coverage.Also, powders provide high crosslink density, good resistenceto hydrolysis, low moisture and oxygen transmission rates, andfilms free from trace residual solvents.
ASTM Test Results
Dry powder paint sucessfully passed the following ASTMspecified tests:
• Salt Spray Test (500 hours)• Humidity Test (500 hours)• QUV Test (500 hours)• Test Fence (17 months)(test for gloss retention)• Impact Test (140 inch pounds)• Cold and High Temperature Test• Adhesion Test• Hardness Test• Flexibility Test• Chemical Resistance Tests:
- Gasoline (unleaded, 24 hour immersion test)- Mineral Spirits (24 hour immersion test)- Nitric Acid (10% solution spot test for blistering)- Hydrochloric Acid (10% solution spot test for blistering)- Sulfuric Acid (10% solution spot test for blistering)- Sodium Hydroxide (10% solution spot test for blistering)- Liquid Propane Soak Test- Anhydrous Ammonia Reactivity Test
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TECHNICAL
1. All regulators should be installed and used inaccordance with federal, state, and local codes andregulations.
2. Adequate overpressure protection should be installedto protect the regulator from overpressure. Adequateoverpressure protection should also be installed toprotect all downstream equipment in the event ofregulator failure.
3. Downstream pressures significantly higher than theregulator's pressure setting may damage soft seats andother internal parts.
4. If two or more available springs have publishedpressure ranges that include the desired pressuresetting, use thespring with the lower range for better accuracy.
5. The recommended selection for orifice diameters is thesmallest orifice that will handle the flow.
6. Most regulators shown in this handbook are generallysuitable for temperatures to 180°F (82°C). With hightemperature fluoroelastomers (if available), theregulators can be used for temperatures to 300°F(149°C). Check the temperature capabilities todetermine materials and temperature ranges available.Use stainless steel diaphragms and seats for highertemperatures, such as steam service.
7. The full advertised range of a spring can be utilizedwithout sacrificing performance or spring life.
8. Regulator body size should not be larger than the pipesize. In many cases, the regulator body is one sizesmaller than the pipe size.
9. Do not oversize regulators. Pick the smallest orificesize or regulator that will work. Keep in mind whensizing a station that most restricted trims that do notreduce the main port size do not help with improvedlow flow control.
10. Speed of regulator response, in order:• Direct-operated
• Two-path pilot-operated• Unloading pilot-operated• Control valve
Note: Although direct-operated regulators give thefastest response, all types provide quick response.
11. When a regulator appears unable to pass thepublished flow rate, be sure to check the inletpressure measured at the regulator body inletconnection. Piping up to and away fromregulators can cause significant flowing pressurelosses.
12. When adjusting setpoint, the regulator should beflowing at least five percent of the normaloperating flow.
13. Direct-operated regulators generally have fasterresponse to quick flow changes than pilot-operated regulators.
14. Droop is the reduction of outlet pressureexperienced by pressure-reducing regulators as theflow rate increases. It is stated as a percent, ininches of water column (mbar) or in pounds persquare inch (bar) and indicates the differencebetween the outlet pressure setting made at lowflow rates and the actual outlet pressure at thepublished maximum flow rate. Droop is alsocalled offset or proportional band.
15. Downstream pressure always changes to someextent when inlet pressure changes.
16. Most soft-seated regulators will maintain thepressure within reasonable limits down to zeroflow. Therefore, a regulator sized for a high flowrate will usually have a turndown ratio sufficientto handle pilot-light loads during off cycles.
17. Do not undersize the monitor set. It is importantto realize that the monitor regulator, even thoughit is wide-open, will require pressure drop for flow.Using two identical regulators in a monitor set willyield approximately 70 percent of the capacity of asingle regulator.
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TECHNICAL
18. Diaphragms leak a small amount due to migration ofgas through the diaphragm material. To allow escapeof this gas, be sure casing vents (where provided)remain open.
19. Use control lines of equal or greater size than thecontrol tap on the regulator. If a long control line isrequired, make it bigger. A rule of thumb is to use thenext nominal pipe size for every 20 feet (6,1 meters) ofcontrol line. Small control lines cause a delayedresponse of the regulator, leading to increased chanceof instability. 3/8-Inch OD tubing is the minimumrecommended control line size.
20. For every 15 psid (1,0 bar, differential) pressuredifferential across the regulator, expect approximately aone degree drop in gas temperature due to the naturalrefrigeration effect. Freezing is often a problem whenthe ambient temperature is between 30° and 45°F (-1°and 7°C).
21. A disk with a cookie cut appearance probably meansyou had an overpressure situation. Thus, investigatefurther.
22. When using relief valves, be sure to remember that thereseat point is lower than the start-to-bubble point. Toavoid seepage, keep the relief valve setpoint far enoughabove the regulator setpoint.
23. Vents should be pointed down to help avoid theaccumulation of water condensation or other materialsin the spring case.
24. Make control line connections in a straight run of pipeabout 10 pipe diameters downstream of any area ofturbulence, such as elbows, pipe swages, or blockvalves.
25. When installing a working monitor station, get asmuch volume between the two regulators as possible.This will give the upstream regulator more room tocontrol intermediate pressure.
26. Cutting the supply pressure to a pilot-operatedregulator reduces the regulator gain or sensitivity and,
thus, may improve regulator stability. (This can only beused with two path control.)
27. Regulators with high flows and large pressure dropsgenerate noise. Noise can wear parts which can causefailure and/or inaccurate control. Keep regulator noisebelow 110 dBA.
28. Do not place control lines immediately downstream ofrotary or turbine meters.
29. Keep vents open. Do not use small diameter, long ventlines. Use the rule of thumb of the next nominal pipesize every 10 feet (6,1 meters) of vent line and 3 feet(0,91 meters) of vent line for every elbow in the line.
30. Fixed factor measurement (or PFM) requires theregulator to maintain outlet pressure within ±1% ofabsolute pressure. For example: Setpoint of 2 psig +14.7 psia = 16.7 psia x 0.01 = ±0.167 psi. (Setpoint of0,14 bar + 1,01 bar = 1,15 bar x 0,01 = ±0,0115 bar.)
31. Regulating Cg (coefficient of flow) can only be used forcalculating flow capacities on pilot-operated regulators.Use capacity tables or flow charts for determining adirect-operated regulator’s capacity.
32. Do not make the setpoints of the regulator/monitortoo close together. The monitor can try to take over ifthe setpoints are too close, causing instability andreduction of capacity. Set them at least oneproportional band apart.
33. Consider a butt-weld end regulator where available tolower costs and minimize flange leakages.
34. Do not use needle valves in control lines; use full-openvalves. Needle valves can cause instability.
35. Burying regulators is not recommended. However, ifyou must, the vent should be protected from groundmoisture and plugging.
16TechTips.pmd 2/14/2005, 7:49 AM520
Chemical Compatibility of Elastomers and Metals
521
TECHNICAL
Introduction
This section explains the uses and compatibilities of elastomerscommonly used by Fisher. The following tables provide thecompatibility of the most common elastomers and metals to avariety of chemicals and/or compounds.
Elastomers: Chemical Names and Uses
NBR - Nitrile Rubber, also called Buna-N, is a copolymer ofbutadiene and acrylonitrile. Nitrile is recommended for: generalpurpose sealing, petroleum oils and fluids, water, silicone greasesand oils, di-ester based lubricants (such as MIL-L-7808), andethylene glycol based fluids (Hydrolubes). It is not recom-mended for: halogenated hydrocarbons, nitro hydrocarbons(such as nitrobenzene and aniline), phosphate ester hydraulicfluids (Skydrol, Cellulube, Pydraul), ketones (MEK, acetone),strong acids, ozone, and automotive brake fluid. Its tempera-ture range is - 60° to +225°F (-51° to +107°C), although thiswould involve more than one compound.
EPDM, EPM - Ethylenepropylene rubber is an elastomer preparedfrom ethylene and propylene monomers. EPM is a copolymerof ethylene and propylene, while EPDM contains a smallamount of a third monomer(a diene) to aid in the curing process. EP is recommended for:phosphate ester based hydraulic fluids, steam to 400°F (204°C),water, silicone oils and greases, dilute acids, dilute alkalis,ketones, alcohols, and automotive brake fluids. It is notrecommended for: petroleum oils, and di-ester based lubricants.Its temperature range is -60° to +500°F (-51° to +260°C) (Thehigh limit would make use of a special high temperatureformulation developed for geothermal applications).
FKM - This is a fluoroelastomer of the polymethylene type havingsubstituent fluoro and perfluoroalkyl or perfluoroalkoxygroups on the polymer chain. Viton and Fluorel are the mostcommon trade names. FKM is recommended for: petroleumoils, di-ester based lubricants, silicate ester based lubricants(such as MLO 8200, MLO 8515, OS-45), silicone fluids andgreases, halogenated hydrocarbons, selected phosphate esterfluids, and some acids. It is not recommended for: ketones,Skydrol 500, amines (UDMH), anhydrous ammonia, lowmolecular weight esters and ethers, and hot hydrofluoric andchlorosulfonic acids. Its temperature range is -20° to +450°F (-29° to +232°C) (Limited use at each end of the temperaturerange).
CR - This is chloroprene, commonly know as neoprene, which isa homopolymer of chloroprene (chlorobutadiene). CR isrecommended for: refrigerants (Freons, ammonia), high anilinepoint petroleum oils, mild acids, and silicate ester fluids. It is notrecommended for: phosphate ester fluids and ketones. Its
temperature range is -60° to +200°F (-51° to +93°C), althoughthis would involve more than one compound.
NR - This is natural rubber which is a natural polyisoprene,primarily from the tree, Hevea Brasiliensis. The synthetics haveall but completely replaced natural rubber for seal use. NR isrecommended for automotive brake fluid, and it is not recom-mended for petroleum products. Its temperature range is -80°to +180°F (-62° to +82°C).
FXM - This is a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and propylene;hence, it is sometimes called TFE/P rubber. Common tradenames are Aflas (3M Co.) and Fluoraz (Greene, Tweed & Co.).It is generally used where resistance to both hydrocarbons andhot water are required. Its temperature range is +20° to +400°F(-7° to +204°C).
ECO - This is commonly called Hydrin rubber, although that is atrade name for a series of rubber materials by B.F. Goodrich.CO is the designation for the homopolymer of epichlorohydrin,ECO is the designation for a copolymer of ethylene oxide andchloromethyl oxirane (epichlorohydrin copolymer), and ETERis the designation for the terpolymer of epichlorohydrin,ethylene oxide, and an unsaturated monomer. All the epichloro-hydrin rubbers exhibit better heat resistance than nitrile rubbers,but corrosion with aluminum may limit applications. Typicaloperating temperature ranges are -20° to +325°F(-29° to +163°C) for the CO and -55° to +300°F (-48° to+149°C) for the ECO and ETER elastomers.
FFKM - This is a perfluoroelastomer generally better known asKalrez (DuPont) and Chemraz (Greene, Tweed). Perfluororubbers of the polymethylene type have all substituent groupson the polymer chain of fluoro, perfluoroalkyl, orperfluoroalkoxy groups. The resulting polymer has superiorchemical resistance and heat temperature resistance. Thiselastomer is extremely expensive and should be used only whenall else fails. Its temperature range is 0° to +500°F (-18° to+260°C). Some materials, such as Kalrez 4079 can be used to600°F (316°C).
FVMQ - This is fluorosilicone rubber which is an elastomer thatshould be used for static seals because it has poor mechanicalproperties. It has good low and high temperature resistance andis reasonably resistant to oils and fuels because of its fluorina-tion. Because of the cost, it only finds specialty use. Its tem-perature range is -80° to +350°F (-62° to +177°C).
VMQ - This is the most general term for silicone rubber. Siliconerubber can be designated MQ, PMQ, and PVMQ, where the Qdesignates any rubber with silicon and oxygen in the polymerchain, and M, P, and V represent methyl, phenyl, and vinylsubstituent groups on the polymer chain. This elastomer is usedonly for static seals due to its poor mechanical properties. Itstemperature range is -65° to +450°F (-54° to +232°C).
17TechChem.pmd 2/14/2005, 7:49 AM521
Chemical Compatibility of Elastomers and Metals
TECHNICAL
522
sremotsalEfoseitreporPlareneG
YTREPORPLARUTAN
REBBURS-ANUB ELIRTIN ENERPOEN LYTUB LOKOIHT ENOCILIS NOLAPYH NOTIV )2,1( -ERUYLOP
ENAHT )2(-YLOPCILYRCA )1(
-NELYHTE-LYPORPE
ENE )3(
elisneT,htgnertS)raB(isP
muGeruP )702(0003 )82(004 )14(006 )142(0053 )702(0003 )12(003054-002)13-41(
)672(0004 --- --- )7(001 ---
decrofnieR )013(0054 )702(0003 )672(0004 )142(0053 )702(0003 )301(0051 )67(0011 )303(0044 )951(0032 )844(0056 )421(0081 )271(0052
ecnatsiseRraeT tnellecxE riaF-rooP riaF dooG dooG riaF riaF-rooP tnellecxE dooG tnellecxE riaF rooP
ecnatsiseRnoisarbA tnellecxE dooG dooG tnellecxE riaF rooP rooP tnellecxE dooGyreV tnellecxE dooG dooG
thgilnuS:gnigAnoitadixO
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rooPriaF
tnellecxEdooG
tnellecxEdooG
dooGdooG
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)flehS(citatS dooG dooG dooG dooGyreV dooG riaF dooG dooG --- --- dooG dooG
gnikcarCxelFecnatsiseR
tnellecxE dooG dooG tnellecxE tnellecxE riaF riaF tnellecxE --- tnellecxE dooG ---
teSnoisserpmoCecnatsiseR
dooG dooG dooGyreV tnellecxE riaF rooP dooG rooP rooP dooG dooG riaF
:ecnatsiseRtnevloSnobracordyHcitahpilAnobracordyHcitamorA
tnevloSdetanegyxOtnevloSdetanegolaH
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rooPyreVrooPyreV
dooGrooPyreV
dooGriaFrooP
rooPyreV
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rooPyreV
rooProoPyreV
dooGrooP
tnellecxEdooGriaFrooP
rooProoPyreV
rooProoPyreV
riaFrooProoP
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dooG---
dooGyreVriaFrooP
---
dooGrooProoProoP
rooPriaF---rooP
:ecnatsiseRliOliOlareniMenilinAwoLliOlareniMenilinAhgiH
stnacirbuLcitehtnySsetahpsohPcinagrO
rooPyreVrooPyreVrooPyreVrooPyreV
rooPyreVrooPyreVrooPyreVrooPyreV
tnellecxEtnellecxE
riaFrooPyreV
riaFdooG
rooPyreVrooPyreV
rooPyreVrooPyreV
rooPdooG
tnellecxEtnellecxE
rooProoP
rooPdooGriaFrooP
riaFdooGrooProoP
tnellecxEtnellecxE
---rooP
---------rooP
tnellecxEtnellecxE
riaFrooP
rooProoProoP
dooGyreV
:ecnatsiseRenilosaGcitamorA
citamorA-noNrooPyreVrooPyreV
rooPyreVrooPyreV
dooGtnellecxE
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tnellecxEtnellecxE
rooPdooG
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riaFdooG
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:ecnatsiseRdicA)%01rednU(detuliD
detartnecnoC )4(dooGriaF
dooGrooP
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tnellecxEdooGyreV
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erutarepmeTwoL)mumixaM(ytilibixelF
F°56-)C°45-(
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F°04-)C°04-(
F°04-)C°04-(
F°04-)C°04-(
F°04-)C°04-(
F°001-)C°37-(
F°02-)C°92-(
F°03-)C°43-(
F°04-)C°04-(
F°01-)C°32-(
F°05-)C°54-(
sesaGotytilibaemreP riaF riaF riaF dooGyreV dooGyreV dooG riaF dooGyreV dooG dooG dooG dooG
ecnatsiseRretaW dooG dooGyreV dooGyreV riaF dooGyreV riaF riaF riaF tnellecxE riaF riaF dooGyreV
:ecnatsiseRilaklA)%01rednU(detuliD
detartnecnoCdooGriaF
dooGriaF
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dooGdooG
dooGyreVdooGyreV
rooProoP
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dooGdooG
tnellecxEdooGyreV
riaFrooP
rooProoP
tnellecxEdooG
ecneiliseR dooGyreV riaF riaF dooGyreV dooGyreV rooP dooG dooG dooG riaF rooPyreV dooGyreV
)mumixaM(noitagnolE %007 %005 %005 %005 %007 %004 %003 %003 %524 %526 %002 %005
maetshtiwesutonoD.1ainommahtiwesutonoD.2
.)C°941(F°003otsnoitacilppamaetserusserpwoldnasliociluardyhelbammalf-nondesabretsehtiwesU.sdiulfdesabmuelortephtiwesutonoD.3.dicaciruflusdnacirtinroftpecxE.4
17TechChem.pmd 2/14/2005, 7:49 AM522
Chemical Compatibility of Elastomers and Metals
523
TECHNICAL
sremotsalEfoytilibitapmoCdiulF
DIULFLAIRETAM
)RC(enerpoeN )RBN(elirtiN )MKF(remotsaleoroulF )MDPE(enelyporpenelyhtE )MKFF(remotsaleoroulfreP
)%03(dicAcitecAenotecA
tneibmA,riA))C°39(F°002(toH,riA
)lyhtE(lohoclA)lyhteM(lohoclA
)dloC()suordyhnA(ainommA
BCACAAA
CCABCAA
CCAACCC
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
)toH,saG(ainommAreeB
enezneB)edirolhCmuiclaC(enirB
saGeneidatuB)saG(enatuB
BACACA
CACACA
CABBBA
BACACC
AAAAAA
)diuqiL(enatuBedirolhcarteTnobraC
)yrD(enirolhC)teW(enirolhCsaGnevOekoC
CCCCC
ACCCC
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AAAAA
etatecAlyhtElocylGenelyhtE
11noerF21noerF22noerF
CACAA
CABAC
CAABC
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AAAAA
411noerF)evitomotuA(enilosaG
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A )1(
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)%001ot05(dicAcirtiNnegortiN)leuF(liO
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)%001ot05(dicAcirufluS)tneibmA(retaW
)C°39/F°002ta(retaW
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.serutarepmettohhtiwsnesrowecnamrofreP.1dednemmoceR-A
.noituachtiwdeecorP.tceffeetaredomotroniM-ByrotcafsitasnU-C
elbaliavatonnoitamrofnI-A/N
17TechChem.pmd 2/14/2005, 7:49 AM523
Chemical Compatibility of Elastomers and Metals
TECHNICAL
524
- continued -
slateMfoytilibitapmoCNOITAMROFNINOISORROC
diulF
lairetaM
nobraCleetS
tsaCnorI
00203Sro
00403SsselniatS
leetS
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leetSeznorB lenoM
yolletsaHB
yolletsaHC
temiruD02
muinatiT-tlaboC
esaB6yollA
00614SsselniatS
leetS
C044sselniatS
leetS
HP4-71sselniatS
leetS
edyhedlatecAeerFriA,dicAcitecAdetareA,dicAcitecA
sropaVdicAcitecAenotecA
ACCCA
ACCCA
ABAAA
ABAAA
ABABA
ABABA
LIAALIA
AAAAA
AAABA
LIAAAA
LIAAAA
ACCCA
ACCCA
ABBBA
enelytecAslohoclA
etafluSmunimulAainommA
edirolhCmuinommA
AACAC
AACAC
AAAAB
AAAAB
LIABCB
AABAB
AAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAA
LIAAAA
AALIAB
AACAC
AACAC
AALILILI
etartiNmuinommA)cisaBonoM(etahpsohPmuinommA
etafluSmuinommAetifluSmuinommA
enilinA
ACCCC
CCCCC
AABAA
AAAAA
CBBCC
CBACB
AAALIA
AAAAA
ABAAA
AAAAA
AAAAA
CBCBC
BBCBC
LILILILILI
tlahpsAreeB
)lozneB(enezneBdicAciozneB
dicAciroB
ABACC
ABACC
AAAAA
AAAAA
ABAAA
AAAAA
AAALIA
AAAAA
AAAAA
LIAAAA
AAALIA
ABAAB
ABAAB
AAAALI
enatuB)enilaklA(edirolhCmuiclaC
etirolhcopyHmuiclaCdicAcilobraC
yrD,edixoiDnobraC
ABCBA
ABCBA
ACBAA
ABBAA
ACBAA
AABAA
AACAA
AAAAA
AAAAA
LIAAAA
ALILIAA
ACCLIA
ACCLIA
ALILILIA
teW,edixoiDnobraCediflusiDnobraC
edirolhcarteTnobraCdicAcinobraC
yrD,saGenirolhC
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teW,saGenirolhCdiuqiL,enirolhC
dicAcimorhCdicAcirtiC
saGnevOekoC
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etosoerCenahtE
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locylGenelyhtEedirolhCcirreFedyhedlamroF
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dednemmoceR-A.noituachtiwdeecorP.tceffeetaredomotroniM-B
yrotcafsitasnU-CgnikcalnoitamrofnI-LI
17TechChem.pmd 2/14/2005, 7:49 AM524
Chemical Compatibility of Elastomers and Metals
525
TECHNICAL
)deunitnoc(slateMfoytilibitapmoCNOITAMROFNINOISORROC
diulF
lairetaM
nobraCleetS
tsaCnorI
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00613SsselniatS
leetSeznorB lenoM
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yolletsaHC
temiruD02
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esaB6yollA
00614SsselniatS
leetS
C044sselniatS
leetS
HP4-71sselniatS
leetS
esoculGdetareA,dicAcirolhcordyHeerfriA,dicAcirolhcordyHdetareA,dicAciroulfordyHeerfriA,dicAciroulfordyH
ACCBA
ACCCC
ACCCC
ACCBB
ACCCC
ACCCA
AAAAA
ABBAA
ACCBB
ACCCC
ABBBLI
ACCCC
ACCCC
ACCCLI
negordyHedixorePnegordyH
diuqiL,edifuSnegordyHedixordyHmuisengaM
yrucreM
ALICAA
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AAAAA
AAAAA
ACCBC
AACAB
ABAAA
ABAAA
AABAA
AAAAA
ALIAAA
ABCAA
ABCAA
ALILILIB
lonahteMenoteKlyhtElyhteM
kliMsaGlarutaN
dicAcirtiN
AACAC
AACAC
AAAAA
AAAAB
AAAAC
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AAAAB
AAAAA
ALIAAA
AAAAC
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dicAcielOdicAcilaxO
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detareA,dicAcirohpsohP
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ABAAC
AAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAA
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ABAAA
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edixordyHmuissatoP
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ABAAA
ABAAA
CCCBB
BCCBA
AAAAA
ALIAAA
AAAAA
BBLIAA
ACLILILI
CCBCB
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LILILILILI
enaporPnisoR
etartiNrevliSetatecAmuidoS
etanobraCmuidoS
ABCAA
ABCAA
AAABA
AAAAA
AACAA
AACAA
AAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAA
ALIAAA
AABAA
AABAB
AABAB
AALIAA
edirolhCmuidoSetamorhCmuidoSedixordyHmuidoS
edirolhcopyHmuidoSetaflusoihTmuidoS
CAACC
CAACC
BAACA
BAACA
AACC-B
C
AAAC-B
C
AAACA
AAAAA
AAABA
AAAAA
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BABCB
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BAALILI
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)kcalB(rouqiLetafluSrufluS
yrD,edixoiDrufluS
BAAAA
BCAAA
CAAAA
AAAAA
CBCCA
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AAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAA
LIBAAA
CBLIAB
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LILILIALI
yrD,edixoirTrufluS)detareA(dicAcirufuS)eerFriA(dicAcirufuS
dicAsuorufluSraT
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ACCCA
ACCBA
ACCBA
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LICCLIA
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dellitsiD,retaW
BBCBA
BBCCA
BAAAA
AAAAA
AABCA
ABAAA
AAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAA
AALIAA
AAAAA
BACBB
BACAB
LIAAALI
aeS,retaWseniWdnayeksihW
edirolhCcniZetafluScniZ
BCCC
BCCC
BACA
BACA
AACB
ABCA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AABA
CCCB
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ALILILI
dednemmoceR-A.noituachtiwdeecorP.tceffeetaredomotroniM-B
yrotcafsitasnU-CgnikcalnoitamrofnI-LI
17TechChem.pmd 2/14/2005, 7:49 AM525
526
TECHNICAL
*NOTE: To use this table, see the shaded example. 25 psig (20 from the left column plus five from the top row) = 1,724 bar
raBothcnIerauqSrepsdnuoP-noisrevnoCerusserP )1(
REPSDNUOPERAUQS
HCNI
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
RAB
0010203
000,0986,0973,1860,2
960,0857,0844,1731,2
831,0728,0715,1602,2
702,0698,0685,1572,2
672,0569,0556,1443,2
543,0430,1*427,1
314,2
414,0301,1397,1284,2
284,0271,1268,1155,2
255,0142,1139,1026,2
126,0013,1999,1986,2
04050607
857,2744,3731,4628,4
728,2615,3572,4469,4
698,2585,3572,4469,4
569,2456,3443,4330,5
430,3327,3314,4201,5
301,3297,3284,4171,5
271,3168,3155,4042,5
142,3039,3916,4903,5
903,3999,3886,4873,5
873,3860,4857,4744,5
0809001
615,5502,6598,6
585,5472,6469,6
456,5343,6330,7
327,5214,6201,7
297,5184,6171,7
168,5055,6932,7
929,5916,6803,7
899,5886,6773,7
760,6757,6644,7
631,6628,6515,7
monedivorpotstnioplamicedffodnuoR:etoN.tfelehtotnoitisopenotnioplamicedevom,slacsapageMottrevnocot;thgirehtotsnoitisopowttnioplamicedevom,slacsapolikottrevnocoT.1 ero.ycaruccafoeergedderisedehtnaht
stnelaviuqEerusserP
YLPITLUMREBMUN
FO
OTNIATBO
YBREPGKERAUQS
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REPSDNUOPHCNIERAUQS
EREHPSOMTA RABFOSEHCNIYRUCREM
SLACSAPOLIKFOSEHCNI
NMULOCRETAW
FOTEEFRETAWNMULOC
cerauqsrepgK m 1 22.41 8769.0 76089,0 69.82 760,89 50.493 48.23
hcnIerauqsrepsdnuoP 13070,0 1 40860.0 59860,0 630.2 598,6 7.72 903.2
erehpsomtA 2330,1 696.41 1 52310,1 29.92 523,101 41.704 39.33
raB 27910,1 8305.41 29689.0 1 35.92 001 651.204 315.33
yrucreMfosehcnI 35430,0 2194.0 24330.0 468330,0 1 4683,3 16.31 431.1
slacsapoliK 2791010,0 830541.0 6968900.0 10,0 3592.0 1 65120.4 31533.0
retaWfosehcnI 835200,0 1630.0 654200.0 94200,0 94370.0 942,0 1 3380.0
retaWfoteeF 5403,0 2334.0 74920.0 938920,0 9188.0 9389,2 21 1
5260.0=hcnierauqsrepecnuo1 hcnierauqsrepsdnuop
stnelaviuqEemuloV
YLPITLUMREBMUN
FO
OTNIATBO
YB
CIBUCSRETEMICED
)SRETIL(SEHCNICIBUC TEEFCIBUC TRAUQ.S.U NOLLAG.S.U NOLLAGLAIREPMI
LERRAB.S.U)MUELORTEP(
)sretiL(sretemiceDcibuC 1 4320.16 13530.0 86650.1 871462.0 380022,0 92600.0
sehcnIcibuC 93610,0 1 01x787.5 4- 23710.1 923400.0 606300,0 301000.0
teeFcibuC 713,82 8271 1 1229.92 55084.7 88822,6 1871.0
trauQ.S.U 63649,0 57.75 24330.0 1 52.0 2802,0 59500.0
nollaG.S.U 34587,3 132 86331.0 4 1 338,0 18320.0
nollaGlairepmI 47345,4 472.772 45061.0 82108.4 23002.1 1 77820.0
)muelorteP(lerraB.S.U 89,851 2079 6416.5 861 24 379,43 1
sretemitneccibuc000,000,1=retemcibuc1sretemitneccibuc0001=sretilillim0001=retil1
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM526
527
TECHNICAL
stnelaviuqEetaRemuloV
YLPITLUMFOREBMUN
OTNIATBO
YBSRETIL
ETUNIMREPSRETEMCIBUC
RUOHREPTEEFCIBUC
RUOHREPSRETIL
RUOHREPSNOLLAG.S.U
ETUNIMREPSLERRAB.S.U
YADREP
etuniMrepsretiL 1 60,0 9811.2 06 871462.0 750.9
ruoHrepsreteMcibuC 766,61 1 413.53 0001 304.4 151
ruoHrepteeFcibuC 9174,0 713820,0 1 713.82 7421.0 6472.4
ruoHrepsretiL 766610,0 100,0 413530.0 1 304400.0 151.0
etuniMrepsnollaG.S.U 587,3 3722,0 8020.8 3.722 1 82.43
yaDrepslerraB.S.U 4011,0 426600,0 49332.0 426.6 71920.0 1
salumroFnoisrevnoCytisocsiV-citameniK
ELACSYTISOCSIV FOEGNAR t, CES,YTISOCSIVCITAMENIK
SEKORTS
lasrevinUtlobyaS <23 <t 001 t 001>62200.0 t /59.1- t02200.0 t /53.1- t
loruFtlobyaS <52 <t 04 t 04>4220.0 t /48.1- t6120.0 t /06.0- t
1.oNdoowdeR <43 <t 001 t 001>62200.0 t /97.1- t74200.0 t /05.0- t
ytlarimdAdoowdeR --- 720.0 t /02- t
relgnE --- 74100.0 t /47.3- t
stnelaviuqEaerA
YLPITLUMREBMUN
FO
OTNIATBO
YB
ERAUQSSRETEM
ERAUQSSEHCNI
ERAUQSTEEF
ERAUQSSELIM
ERAUQSSRETEMOLIK
sreteMerauqS 1 99.9451 9367.01 01x168.3 7- 01x1 6-
sehcnIerauqS 2546000,0 1 01x449.6 3- 01x194.2 01- 01x254,6 01-
teeFerauqS 9290,0 441 1 01x785.3 8- 01x92,9 8-
seliMerauqS 9999852 --- 004,878,72 1 95,2
sretemoliKerauqS 0000001 --- 768,367,01 1683.0 1
sretemitnecerauqs00001=retemerauqs1sehcnierauqs55100.0=retemitnecerauqs10,0=retemillimerauqs1
salumroFnoisrevnoCerutarepmeT
MORFTREVNOCOT OT ALUMROFNIETUTITSBUS
suisleCseergeD tiehnerhaFseergeD 23+)5/9xC°(
suisleCseergeD nivleK )61.372+C°(
tiehnerhaFseergeD suisleCseergeD 9/5x)23-F°(
tiehnerhaFseergeD niknaRseergeD )96.954+F°(
* NOTE: To use this table, see the shaded example. 25 pounds (20 from the left column plus five from the top row) = 11,34 kilograms
smargoliKotsdnuoP-noisrevnoCssaM
SBL0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
smargoliK
0
01
02
03
00,0
45,4
70,9
16,31
54,0
99,4
35,9
60,41
19,0
44,5
89,9
25,41
63,1
09,5
34,01
79,41
18,1
53,6
98,01
24,51
72,2
08,6
*43,11
88,51
27,2
62,7
97,11
33,61
81,3
17,7
52,21
87,61
36,3
61,8
07,21
42,71
80,4
26,8
51,31
96,71
04
05
06
07
41,81
86,22
22,72
57,13
06,81
31,32
76,72
12,23
50,91
95,32
21,82
66,23
05,91
40,42
85,82
11,33
69,91
94,42
30,92
75,33
14,02
59,42
84,92
20,43
78,02
04,52
49,92
74,43
23,12
68,52
93,03
39,43
77,12
13,62
48,03
83,53
32,22
67,62
03,13
38,53
08
09
92,63
28,04
47,63
82,14
02,73
37,14
56,73
81,24
01,83
46,24
65,83
90,34
10,93
55,34
64,93
00,44
29,93
54,44
73,04
19,44
smargolik6354,0=dnuop1
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM527
528
TECHNICAL
stinUnoisrevnoCYLPITLUM YB NIATBOOT
emuloVretemitneccibuC 30160.0 sehcnicibuC
teefcibuC 5084.7 )SU(snollaGteefcibuC 613.82 sretiLteefcibuC 8271 sehcnicibuC
)SU(snollaG 7331.0 teefcibuC)SU(snollaG 587.3 sretiL)SU(snollaG 132 sehcnicibuC
sretiL 750.1 )SU(strauQsretiL 311.2 )SU(stniP
suoenallecsiMUTB 252.0 seirolaC
mrehticeD 000,01 UTBmargoliK 502.2 sdnuoP
ruoHttawoliK 2143 UTBsecnuO 53.82 smarGsdnuoP 6354.0 smargoliKsdnuoP 4295.354 smarGsdnuoP 195,12 UTBGPL
mrehT 000,001 UTBslbBIPA 24 )SU(snollaG
enaporPfosnollaG 9.62 HWKPH 647 HWK
)maetS(PH 814,24 UTBerusserP
retemitnecerauqsrepsmarG 2410.0 hcnierauqsrepsdnuoPyrucremfosehcnI 2194.0 hcnierauqsrepsdnuoPyrucremfosehcnI 331.1 retawfoteeF
retawfosehcnI 1630.0 hcnierauqsrepsdnuoPretawfosehcnI 5370.0 yrucremfosehcnIretawfosehcnI 1875.0 hcnierauqsrepsecnuOretawfosehcnI 402.5 toofrepsdnuoP
APK 001 RABretemitnecerauqsrepsmargoliK 22.41 hcnierauqsrepsdnuoP
retemerauqsrepsmargoliK 8402.0 tooferauqsrepsdnuoPhcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 40860.0 serehpsomtA
hcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 13070.0erauqsrepsmargoliK
retemitnechcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 541. APKhcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 630.2 yrucremfosehcnIhcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 703.2 retawfoteeFhcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 5.41 RABhcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 76.72 retawfosehcnI
htgneLsretemitneC 7393.0 sehcnI
teeF 8403.0 sreteMteeF 84.03 sretemitneCteeF 8.403 sretemilliMsehcnI 045.2 sretemitneCsehcnI 04.52 sretemilliM
retemoliK 4126.0 seliMsreteM 490.1 sdraYsreteM 182.3 teeFsreteM 73.93 sehcnI
)lacituan(seliM 0.3581 sreteM)etutats(seliM 0.9061 sreteM
sdraY 4419.0 sreteMsdraY 44.19 sretemitneC
saGfosemuloVgnitrevnoCMFCOTMFCROHFCOTHFC
:fowolFylpitluM yB :fowolFniatbOoT
riA
707.0 enatuB
092.1 saGlarutaN
808.0 enaporP
enatuB
414.1 riA
628.1 saGlarutaN
041.1 enaporP
saGlarutaN
577.0 riA
745.0 enatuB
526.0 enaporP
enaporP
732.1 riA
478.0 enatuB
895.1 saGlarutaN
snoisrevnoClufesUrehtOMORFTREVNOCOT OT YBYLPITLUM
enahteMfoteeFcibuC .U.T.B ).xorppa(0001
retaWfoteeFcibuC retaWfosdnuoP 4.26
seergeD snaidaR 54710,0
snollaG retaWfosdnuoP 633.8
smarG secnuO 2530.0
).hcem(rewopesroH etuniMrepsdnuoPtooF 000,33
).cele(rewopesroH sttaW 647
gK sdnuoP 502.2
reteMcibuCrepgK teeFcibuCrepsdnuoP 34260.0
sttawoliK rewopesroH 143.1
sdnuoP gK 6354,0
riAfosdnuoP)F°06&aisp7.41(
riAfoteeFcibuC 1.31
teeFcibuCrepsdnuoP reteMcibuCrepgK 4810,61
)saG(ruoHrepsdnuoP HFCS ytivarGcificepS÷1.31
)retaW(ruoHrepsdnuoP etuniMrepsnollaG 200.0
)saG(dnoceSrepsdnuoP HFCS ytivarGcificepS÷061,64
snaidaR seergeD 3.75
riAhfcS enaporPhfcS 18.0
riAhfcS enatuBhfcS 17.0
riAhfcS saGlarutaN6.0hfcS 92.1
hfcS .rHrepsreteM.uC 713820.0
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM528
529
TECHNICAL
sretemilliMotsehcnIlanoitcarF
HCNI0 61/1 8/1 61/3 4/1 61/5 8/3 61/7 2/1 61/9 8/5 61/11 4/3 61/31 8/7 61/51
mm
0123
0,04,528,052,67
6,10,724,258,77
2,36,820,454,97
8,42,036,550,18
4,68,132,756,28
9,73,337,851,48
5,99,433,067,58
1,115,639,163,78
7,211,835,369,88
3,417,931,565,09
9,513,147,661,29
5,719,243,867,39
1,915,449,963,59
6,020,644,178,69
2,226,740,374,89
8,322,946,470,001
4567
6,1010,7214,2518,771
2,3016,8210,4514,971
8,4012,0316,5510,181
4,6018,1312,7516,281
0,8014,3318,8512,481
5,9019,4313,0617,581
1,1115,6319,1613,781
7,2111,8315,3619,881
3,4117,9311,5615,091
9,5113,1417,6611,291
5,7119,2413,8617,391
1,9115,4419,9613,591
7,0211,6415,1719,691
2,2216,7410,3714,891
8,3212,9416,4710,002
4,5218,0512,6716,102
8901
2,3026,8220,452
8,4022,0326,552
4,6028,1322,752
0,8024,3328,852
6,9020,5324,062
1,1125,6329,162
7,2121,8325,362
3,4127,9321,562
9,5123,1427,662
5,7129,2423,862
1,9125,4429,962
7,0221,6425,172
3,2227,7421,372
8,3222,9426,472
4,5228,0522,672
0,7224,2528,772
sretemillim4,52=hcni1
* NOTE: To use this table, see the shaded example. 2-1/2 inches (2 from the left column plus 1/2 from the top row) = 63,5 millimeters
tebahplAkeerG
SPACREWOL
ESACKEERGEMAN
SPACREWOL
ESACKEERGEMAN
SPACREWOL
ESACKEERGEMAN
Α α ahplA Ι ι atoI Ρ ρ ohR
Β β ateB Κ κ appaK Σ σ amgiS
Γ γ ammaG Λ λ adbmaL Τ τ uaT
∆ δ atleD Μ µ uM Υ υ nolispU
Ε ε nolispE Ν ν uN Φ φ ihP
Ζ ζ ateZ Ξ ξ iX Χ χ ihC
Η η atE Ο ο norcimO Ψ ψ isP
Θ θ atehT Π π iP Ω ω agemO
slobmySdnasexiferPcirteMROTCAFNOITACILPITLUM XIFERP LOBMYS
01=0000000000000000001 81
01=0000000000000001 51
01=0000000000001 21
01=0000000001 9
01=0000001 6
01=0001 3
01=001 2
01=01 1
axeateparetagigagem
olikotcehaked
EPTGMkhad
01=1.0 1-
01=10.0 2-
01=100.0 3-
01=100000.0 6-
01=100000000.0 9-
01=100000000000.0 21-
01=100000000000000.0 51-
01=100000000000000000.0 81-
iceditnecillimorcimonanocipotmef
otta
dcmmnpfa
stnelaviuqEhtgneL
YLPITLUMREBMUN
FO
OTNIATBO
YB
sreteM sehcnI teeF sretemilliM seliM sretemoliK
sreteM 1 73.93 8082.3 0001 4126000.0 100,0
sehcnI 4520,0 1 3380.0 4,52 87510000.0 4520000,0
teeF 8403,0 21 1 8,403 4981000.0 8403000,0
sretemilliM 100,0 73930.0 8082300.0 1 4126000000.0 100000,0
seliM 53,9061 063,36 082,5 0539061 1 53906,1
sretemoliK 0001 073,93 38.0823 0000001 73126.0 1
sretemorcim000,000,1=mk100,0=mm0001=mc001=retem1
stnelaviuqEretemilliM-hcnIelohW
HCNI0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
mm
0 00,0 4,52 8,05 2,67 6,101 0,721 4,251 8,771 2,302 6,822
01 0,452 4,972 8,403 2,033 6,553 0,183 4,604 8,134 2,754 6,284
02 0,805 4,335 8,855 2,485 6,906 0,536 4,066 8,586 2,117 6,637
03 0,267 4,787 8,218 2,838 6,368 0,988 4,419 8,939 2,569 6,099
04 0,6101 4,1401 8,6601 2,2901 6,7111 0,3411 4,8611 8,3911 2,9121 6,4421
05 0,0721 4,5921 8,0231 2,6431 6,1731 0,7931 4,2241 8,7441 2,3741 6,8941
06 0,4251 4,9451 8,4751 2,0061 6,5261 0,1561 4,6761 8,1071 2,7271 6,2571
07 0,8771 4,3081 8,8281 2,4581 6,9781 0,5091 4,0391 8,5591 2,1891 6,6002
08 0,2302 4,7502 8,2802 2,8012 6,3312 0,9512 4,4812 8,9022 2,5322 6,0622
09 0,6822 4,1132 8,6332 2,2632 6,7832 0,3142 4,8342 8,3642 2,9842 6,4152
001 0,0452 4,5652 8,0952 2,6162 6,1462 0,7662 4,2962 8,7172 2,3472 6,8672
.mm4,52=hcni1noitalerehtnodesab,tcaxeeraelbatsihtniseulavllA:etoN
* NOTE: To use this table, see the shaded example. 25 inches (20 from the left column plus five from the top row) = 635 millimeters
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM529
530
TECHNICAL
sretemilliMotsehcnIlamiceDdnalanoitcarF-stnelaviuqEhtgneLSEHCNI
mmSEHCNI
mmSEHCNI
mmSEHCNI
mmsnoitcarF slamiceD snoitcarF slamiceD snoitcarF slamiceD snoitcarF slamiceD
49300. 1. 32. 248.5 2/1 05. 7.21 77. 855.91
78700. 2. 46/51 573432. 1359.5 15. 459.21 87. 218.91
10. 452. 22632. 0.6 18115. 0.31 23/52 52187. 8348.91
18110. 3. 42. 690.6 46/33 526515. 9690.31 04787. 0.02
46/1 526510. 9693. 4/1 52. 53.6 25. 802.31 97. 660.02
57510. 4. 62. 406.6 35. 264.31 46/15 578697. 6042.02
96910. 5. 46/71 526562. 9647.6 23/71 52135. 8394.31 08. 023.02
20. 805. 72. 858.6 45. 617.31 18. 475.02
26320. 6. 95572. 0.7 46/53 578645. 6098.31 61/31 5218. 5736.02
65720. 7. 82. 211.7 55. 079.31 28. 828.02
30. 267. 23/9 52182. 8341.7 81155. 0.41 77628. 0.12
23/1 52130. 8397. 92. 663.7 65. 422.41 46/35 521828. 4430.12
5130. 8. 46/91 578692. 6045.7 61/9 5265. 5782.41 38. 280.12
34531. 9. 03. 26.7 75. 874.41 48. 633.12
73930. 0.1 13. 478.7 46/73 521875. 4486.41 23/72 57348. 2134.12
40. 610.1 61/5 5213. 5739.7 85. 237.41 58. 095.12
46/3 578640. 6091.1 69413. 0.8 95. 689.41 46/55 573958. 1828.12
50. 72.1 23. 821.8 5095. 0.51 68. 448.12
60. 425.1 46/12 521823. 4433.8 23/91 57395. 2180.51 41668. 0.22
61/1 5260. 5785.1 33. 283.8 06. 42.51 78. 890.22
70. 877.1 43. 636.8 46/93 573906. 1874.51 8/7 578. 522.22
46/5 521870. 4489.1 23/11 57343. 2137.8 16. 494.51 88. 253.22
47870. 0.2 53. 98.8 26. 847.51 98. 606.22
80. 230.2 33453. 0.9 8/5 526. 578.51 46/75 526098. 9126.22
90. 682.2 46/32 573953. 1821.9 29926. 0.61 09. 068.22
23/3 57390. 2183.2 63. 441.9 36. 200.61 15509. 0.32
1. 45.2 73. 893.9 46. 652.61 23/92 52609. 8810.32
46/7 573901. 1877.2 8/3 573. 525.9 46/14 526046. 9172.61 19. 411.32
11. 497.2 83. 256.9 56. 015.61 29. 863.32
11811. 0.3 93. 609.9 23/12 52656. 8866.61 46/95 578129. 6541.32
21. 840.3 46/52 526093. 9129.9 66. 467.61 39. 226.32
8/1 521. 571.3 07393. 0.01 92966. 0.71 61/51 5739. 5218.32
31. 203.3 04. 61.01 76. 810.71 49. 678.32
41. 655.3 23/31 52604. 8813.01 46/34 578176. 6560.71 88449. 0.42
46/9 526041. 9175.3 14. 414.01 86. 272.71 59. 031.42
51. 018.3 24. 866.01 61/11 5786. 5264.71 46/16 521359. 4902.42
23/5 52651. 8869.3 46/72 578124. 6517.01 96. 625.71 69. 483.42
84751. 0.4 34. 229.01 07. 87.71 23/13 57869. 2606.42
61. 460.4 70334. 0.11 46/54 521307. 4958.71 79. 836.42
71. 813.4 61/7 5734. 5211.11 66807. 0.81 89. 298.42
46/11 578171. 6563.4 44. 671.11 17. 430.81 52489. 0.52
81. 275.4 54. 034.11 23/32 57817. 2652.81 46/36 573489. 1300.52
61/3 5781. 5267.4 46/92 521354. 4905.11 27. 882.81 99. 641.52
91. 628.4 64. 486.11 37. 245.81 1 00000.1 0004.52
58691. 0.5 23/51 57864. 2609.11 46/74 573437. 1356.81
2. 80.5 74. 839.11 47. 697.81
46/31 521302. 4951.5 44274. 0.21 30847. 0.91
12. 433.5 84. 291.21 4/3 57. 050.91
23/7 57812. 2655.5 46/13 573484. 1303.21 67. 403.91
22. 885.5 94. 644.21 46/94 526567. 9644.91
.ycaruccafoeergedderisedehtnahteromonedivorpotstnioplamicedffodnuoR:etoN
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM530
531
TECHNICAL
- continued -
snoisrevnoCerutarepmeT
C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC
F° C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC
F° C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC
F° C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC
F°
61,372- 96,954- 00,09- 031- 0.202- 8,71- 0 0.23 1,12 07 0.851
87,762- 054- 44,48- 021- 0.481- 7,61- 2 6.53 2,22 27 6.161
22,262- 044- 98,87- 011- 0.661- 6,51- 4 2.93 3,32 47 2.561
76,652- 034- 33,37- 001- 0.841- 4,41- 6 8.24 4,42 67 8.861
11,152- 024- 65,07- 59- 0.931- 3,31- 8 4.64 6,52 87 4.271
65,542- 014- 87,76- 09- 0.031- 2,21- 01 0.05 7,62 08 0.671
00,042- 004- 00,56- 58- 0.121- 1,11- 21 6.35 8,72 28 6.971
44,432- 093- 22,25- 08- 0.211- 0,01- 41 2.75 9,82 48 2.381
98,822- 083- 54,95- 57- 0.301- 98,8- 61 8.06 0,03 68 8.681
33,322- 073- 76,65- 07- 0.49- 87,7- 81 4.46 1,13 88 4.091
87,712- 063- 98,35- 56- 58- 76,6- 02 0.86 2,23 09 0.491
22,212- 053- 11,15- 06- 0.67- 65,5- 22 6.17 3,33 29 6.791
76,602- 043- 43,84- 55- 0.76- 44,4- 42 2.57 4,43 49 2.102
11,102- 033- 65,54- 05- 0.85- 33,3- 62 8.87 6,53 69 8.402
65,591- 023- 87,24- 54- 0.94- 22,2- 82 4.28 7,63 89 4.802
00,091- 013- 00,04- 04- 0.04- 11,1- 03 0.68 8,73 001 0.212
44,481- 003- 98,83- 83- 4.63- 0 23 6.98 3,34 011 0.032
98,871- 092- 87,73- 63- 8.23- 11,1 43 2.39 9,84 021 0.842
33,371- 082- 76,63- 43- 2.92- 22,2 63 8.69 4,45 031 0.662
35,961- 61,372- 96.954- 65,53- 23- 6.52- 33,3 83 4.001 0,06 041 0.482
98,861- 272- 6.754- 44,43- 03- 0.22- 44,4 04 0.401 6,56 051 0.203
87,761- 072- 0.454- 33,33- 82- 4.81- 65,5 24 6.701 1,17 061 0.023
22,261- 062- 0.634- 22,23- 62- 8.41- 76,6 44 2.111 7,67 071 0.833
76,651- 052- 0.814- 11,13- 42- 2.11- 87,7 64 8.411 2,28 081 0.653
11,151- 042- 0.004- 00,03- 22- 6.7- 98,8 84 4.811 8,78 091 0.473
65,541- 032- 0.283- 98,82- 02- 0.4- 0,01 05 0.221 3,39 002 0.293
00,041- 022- 0.463- 87,72- 81- 4.0- 1,11 25 6.521 9,89 012 0.014
44,431- 012- 0.653- 76,62- 61- 2.3 2,21 45 2.921 4,401 022 0.824
98,821- 002- 0.823- 65,52- 41- 8.6 3,31 65 8.231 0,011 032 0.644
33,321- 091- 0.013- 44,42- 21- 4.01 4,41 85 4.631 6,511 042 0.464
87,711- 081- 0.292- 33,32- 01- 0.41 6,51 06 0.041 1,121 052 0.284
22,211- 071- 0.472- 22,22- 8- 6.71 7,61 26 6.341 7,621 062 0.005
76,601- 061- 0.652- 11,12- 6- 2.12 8,71 46 2.741 2,231 072 0.815
11,101- 051- 0.832- 00,02- 4- 8.42 9,81 66 8.051 8,731 082 0.635
65,59- 041- 0.022- 98,81- 2- 4.82 0,02 86 4.451 3,341 092 0.566
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM531
532
TECHNICAL
- continued -
)deunitnoc(snoisrevnoCerutarepmeT
C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC
F° C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC
F° C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC
F°
1,12 07 0.851 4,402 004 0.257 4,454 058 0.2651
2,22 27 6.161 0,012 014 0.077 0,064 068 0.0851
3,32 47 2.561 6,512 024 0.887 6,564 078 0.8951
4,42 67 8.861 1,122 034 0.608 1,174 088 0.6161
6,52 87 4.271 7,622 044 0.428 7,674 098 0.4361
7,62 08 0.671 2,232 054 0.248 2,284 009 0.2561
8,72 28 6.971 8,732 064 0.068 8,784 019 0.0761
9,82 48 2.381 3,342 074 0.878 3,394 029 0.8861
0,03 68 8.681 9,842 084 0.698 9,894 039 0.6071
1,13 88 4.091 4,452 094 419 4,405 049 0.4271
2,23 09 0.491 0,062 005 0.239 0,015 059 0.2471
3,33 29 6.791 6,562 015 0.059 6,515 069 0.0671
4,43 49 2.102 1,172 025 0.869 1,125 079 0.8771
6,53 69 8.402 7,672 035 0.689 7,625 089 0.6971
7,63 89 4.802 2,282 045 0.4001 2,235 099 0.4181
8,73 001 0.212 8,782 055 0.2201 8,735 0001 0.2381
3,34 011 0.032 3,392 065 0.0401 3,345 0101 0581
9,84 021 0.842 9,892 075 0.8501 9,845 0201 0.8681
4,45 031 0.662 4,403 085 0.6701 4,455 0301 0.6881
0,06 041 0.482 0,013 095 0.4901 0,065 0401 0.4091
6,56 051 0.203 6,513 006 0.2111 6,565 0501 0.2291
1,17 061 0.023 1,123 016 0.0311 1,175 0601 0.0491
7,67 071 0.833 7,623 026 0.8411 7,675 0701 0.8591
2,28 081 0.653 2,233 036 0.6611 2,285 0801 0.6791
8,78 091 0.473 8,733 046 0.4811 8,785 0901 0.4991
3,39 002 0.293 3,343 056 0.2021 3,395 0011 0.2102
9,89 012 0.014 9,843 066 0.0221 9,895 0111 0.0302
4,401 022 0.824 4,453 076 0.8321 4,406 0211 0.8402
0,011 032 0.644 0,063 086 0.6521 0,016 0311 0.6602
6,511 042 0.464 6,563 096 0.4721 6,516 0411 4802
1,121 052 0.284 1,173 007 0.2921 1,126 0511 0.2012
7,621 062 0.005 7,673 017 0.0131 7,626 0611 0.0212
2,231 072 0.815 2,283 027 0.8231 2,236 0711 0.8312
8,731 082 0.635 8,782 037 0.6431 8,736 0811 0.6512
3,341 092 0.566 3,393 047 0.4631 3,346 0911 0.4712
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM532
533
TECHNICAL
)deunitnoc(snoisrevnoCerutarepmeT
C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC
F° C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC
F° C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC
F° C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC
F°
9,841 003 0.275 6,513 006 0.2111 2,284 009 0.2561 9,846 0021 0.2912
4,451 013 0.095 1,123 016 0.0311 8,784 019 0.0761 4,456 0121 0.0122
0,061 023 0.806 7,623 026 0.8411 3,394 029 0.8861 0,066 0221 0.8222
6,561 033 0.626 2,233 036 0.6611 9,894 039 0.6071 6,566 0321 0.6422
1,171 043 0.446 8,733 046 0.4811 4,405 049 0.4271 1,176 0421 0.4622
7,671 053 0.266 3,343 056 0.2021 0,015 059 0.2471 7,676 0521 0.2822
2,281 063 0.086 9,843 066 0.0221 6,515 069 0.0671 2,286 0621 0.0032
8,781 073 0.896 4,453 076 0.8321 1,125 079 0.8771 8,786 0721 0.8132
9,981 083 0.617 0,063 086 0.6521 7,625 089 0.6971 3,396 0821 0.6332
3,391 093 0.437 6,563 096 0.4721 2,235 099 0.4181 9,896 0921 0.4532
4,402 004 0.257 1,173 007 0.2921 8,735 0001 0.2381 4,407 0031 0.2732
0,012 014 0.077 7,673 017 0.0131 3,345 0101 0581 0,017 0131 0.0932
6,512 024 0.887 2,283 027 0.8231 9,845 0201 0.8681 6,517 0231 0.8042
1,122 034 0.608 8,782 037 0.6431 4,455 0301 0.6881 1,127 0331 0.6242
7,622 044 0.428 3,393 047 0.4631 0,065 0401 0.4091 7,627 0431 0.4442
2,232 054 0.248 9,893 057 0.2831 6,565 0501 0.2291 2,237 0531 0.2642
8,732 064 0.068 4,404 067 0.0041 1,175 0601 0.0491 8,737 0631 0.0842
3,342 074 0.878 0,014 077 0.8141 7,675 0701 0.8591 3,347 0731 0.8942
9,842 084 0.698 6,514 087 0.6341 2,285 0801 0.6791 9,847 0831 0.6152
4,452 094 419 1,124 097 0.4541 8,785 0901 0.4991 4,457 0931 0.4352
0,062 005 0.239 7,624 008 0.2741 3,395 0011 0.2102 0,067 0041 0.2552
6,562 015 0.059 2,234 018 0.0941 9,895 0111 0.0302 6,567 0141 0.0752
1,172 025 0.869 8,734 028 0.8051 4,406 0211 0.8402 1,177 0241 0.8852
7,672 035 0.689 3,344 038 0.6251 0,016 0311 0.6602 7,677 0341 0.4262
2,282 045 0.4001 9,844 048 0.4451 6,516 0411 4802 2,287 0441 0.4262
8,782 055 0.2201 4,454 058 0.2651 1,126 0511 0.2012 0,787 0541 0.2462
3,392 065 0.0401 0,064 068 0.0851 7,626 0611 0.0212 3,397 0541 0.2462
9,892 075 0.8501 6,564 078 0.8951 2,236 0711 0.8312 9,897 0741 0.8762
4,403 085 0.6701 1,174 088 0.6161 8,736 0811 0.6512 4,408 0841 0.6962
0,013 095 0.4901 7,674 098 0.4361 3,346 0911 0.4712 0,018 0941 0.4172
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM533
534
TECHNICAL
srotcaFthgieWdnaselbaTytivarGémuaBdna.I.P.A
.I.P.AytivarG
émuaBytivarG
cificepSytivarG
.S.U/sbLsnollaG
.S.U-snollaG
bL/
.I.P.AytivarG
émuaBytivarG
cificepSytivarG
.S.U/sbLsnollaG
.S.U-snollaG
bL/
.I.P.AytivarG
émuaBytivarG
cificepSytivarG
.S.U/sbLsnollaG
.S.U-snollaG
bL/
.I.P.AytivarG
émuaBytivarG
cificepSytivarG
.S.U/sbLsnollaG
.S.U-snollaG
bL/
0 742.01 0670.1 269.8 6111.0
1 322.9 9760.1 598.8 4211.0 13 87.03 8089.0 152.7 9731.0 16 64.06 1537.0 911.6 4361.0 18 52.08 9566.0 245.5 4081.0
2 891.8 9950.1 828.8 3311.0 23 77.13 4568.0 602.7 8831.0 26 54.16 3137.0 780.6 3461.0 28 42.18 8266.0 615.5 3181.0
3 371.7 0250.1 267.8 1411.0 33 67.233 2068.0 361.7 6931.0 36 44.26 5727.0 650.6 1561.0 38 32.28 7956.0 194.5 1281.0
4 841.6 3440.1 896.8 0511.0 43 57.33 0558.0 911.7 5041.0 46 34.36 8327.0 520.6 0661.0 48 22.38 6656.0 564.5 0381.0
5 421.5 6630.1 436.8 8511.0 53 37.43 8948.0 570.7 3141.0 56 24.46 1027.0 499.6 8661.0 58 02.48 6356.0 044.5 8381.0
6 990.4 1920.1 175.8 7611.0 63 27.53 8448.0 430.7 2241.0 66 14.56 5617.0 469.5 7761.0 68 91.58 6056.0 514.5 7481.0
7 470.3 7120.1 905.8 5711.0 73 17.63 8938.0 399.6 0341.0 76 04.66 8217.0 439.5 5861.0 78 81.68 6746.0 093.5 5581.0
8 940.2 3410.1 844.8 4811.0 83 07.73 8438.0 159.6 9341.0 86 93.76 3907.0 409.5 4961.0 88 71.78 6446.0 563.5 4681.0
9 520.1 1700.1 883.8 2911.0 93 96.83 9928.0 019.6 7441.0 96 73.86 7507.0 478.5 2071.0 98 61.88 7146.0 143.5 2781.0
01 00.01 0000.1 823.8 1021.0 04 86.93 1528.0 078.6 6541.0 07 63.96 2207.0 548.5 1171.0 09 51.98 8836.0 613.5 1881.0
11 99.01 0399.0 072.8 9021.0 14 76.04 3028.0 038.6 4641.0 17 53.07 8896.0 718.5 9171.0 19 41.09 0636.0 392.5 9881.0
21 89.11 1689.0 212.8 8121.0 24 66.14 5518.0 097.6 3741.0 27 43.17 3596.0 887.5 8271.0 29 31.19 1336.0 962.5 8981.0
31 79.21 2979.0 551.8 6221.0 34 56.24 9018.0 257.6 1841.0 37 33.27 9196.0 957.5 6371.0 39 21.29 3036.0 642.5 6091.0
41 69.31 5279.0 990.8 5321.0 44 46.34 3608.0 317.6 0941.0 47 23.37 6886.0 137.5 5471.0 49 11.39 5726.0 222.5 5191.0
51 59.41 9569.0 440.8 3421.0 54 36.44 7108.0 576.6 8941.0 57 13.47 2586.0 307.5 3571.0 59 01.49 7426.0 991.5 4291.0
61 49.51 3959.0 989.7 2521.0 64 26.54 2797.0 736.6 7051.0 67 03.57 9186.0 676.5 2671.0 69 90.59 0226.0 671.5 2391.0
71 39.61 9259.0 539.7 0621.0 74 16.05 7297.0 006.6 5151.0 77 92.67 7876.0 946.5 0771.0 79 80.69 3916.0 451.5 0491.0
81 29.71 5649.0 288.7 9621.0 84 06.05 3887.0 365.6 4251.0 87 82.77 4576.0 226.5 9771.0 89 70.79 6616.0 131.5 9491.0
91 09.81 2049.0 039.7 7721.0 94 95.05 9387.0 625.6 2351.0 97 72.87 2276.0 595.5 7871.0 99 60.89 9316.0 901.5 7591.0
02 98.91 0439.0 877.7 6821.0 05 85.05 6977.0 094.6 1451.0 08 62.97 0966.0 865.5 6971.0 001 50.99 2116.0 680.5 6691.0
12 88.02 9729.0 727.7 4921.0 15 75.05 3577.0 554.6 9451.0
22 78.12 8129.0 676.7 3031.0 25 55.15 1177.0 024.6 8551.0
32 68.22 9519.0 726.7 1131.0 35 45.25 9667.0 583.6 6651.0
42 58.32 0019.0 875.7 0231.0 45 35.35 8267.0 053.6 5751.0
52 48.42 2409.0 925.7 8231.0 55 25.45 7857.0 631.6 3851.0
62 38.52 4898.0 184.7 7331.0 65 15.55 7457.0 382.6 2951.0
72 28.62 7298.0 434.7 5431.0 75 05.65 7057.0 942.6 0061.0
82 18.72 1788.0 783.7 4531.0 85 94.75 7647.0 612.6 9061.0
92 08.82 6188.0 143.7 2631.0 95 84.85 8247.0 481.6 7161.0
03 97.92 2678.0 692.7 1731.0 06 74.95 9837.0 151.6 6261.0
The relation of Degrees Baume or A.P.I. to Specific Gravity is expressed by these formulas:
For liquids lighter than water: For liquids heavier than water:
Degrees Baume = 140
130140
130GG=
+Degrees Baume− Degrees Baume = 145
145 145145
−−G
G=Degrees Baume
Degrees A.P.I. =1415
13151415
1315− .
.. . . .
G=+Degrees A P I
G = Specific Gravity = ratio of weight of a given volume of oil at 60°F to the weight of the same volume ofwater at 60°F.
The above tables are based on the weight of 1 gallon (U.S.) of oil with a volume of 231 cubicinches at 60°F in air at 760 mm pressure and 50% relative humidity. Assumed weight of 1 gallon ofwater at 60°F in air is 8.32828 pounds.
To determine the resulting gravity by mixing oils of different gravities:
D=md nd
m n1 2++
D = Density or Specific Gravity of mixturem = Proportion of oil of d1 densityn = Proportion of oil of d2 densityd1 = Specific gravity of m oild2 = Specific Gravity of n oil
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM534
535
TECHNICAL
stnemelEehtfoscitsiretcarahC
tnemelE lobmyScimotArebmuN
ssaMrebmuN )1(
tnioPgnitleM)C°(
tnioPgnilioB)C°(
tnemelE lobmyScimotArebmuN
ssaMrebmuN )1(
tnioPgnitleM)C°(
tnioPgnilioB)C°(
muinitcamunimulamuciremaynomitna
)muibits(nogra
cAlA
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98315915
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noenmuinutpen
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01398214
7
02)732(
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76.842-
554105±0052
68.902-
9.542-
00920073
8.591-
cinesraenitatsa
muirabmuilekreb
muillyreb
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htumsibnorob
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muiclac
iBBrBdCaC
385538402
9021197411
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2.7-9.0238±248
5±0651055287.852±7670421
munitalpmuinotulpmuinolop
muissatopmuimydoesarp
tPuPoP
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8749489195
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fCCeCsClC
896855571
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7846132397
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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM535
536
TECHNICAL
slairetaMevlaVrofsnoitacificepSdradnatSdednemmoceR sgnitsaCgniniatnoC-erusserP1 leetSnobraC
BCWedarG612AMTSA
F°0001otF°02-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
2 leetSnobraCBCLedarG253AMTSA
F°056otF°05-=egnar.pmeT612AMTSAsaemas:noitisopmoC
BCWedarG
11 norItsaCBssalC621AMTSA
F°054otF°051-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
21 norItsaCCssalC621AMTSA
F°054otF°051-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
CnM
PS
iS
xam03.0xam00.1xam50.0xam60.0xam06.0
PS
xam57.0xam21.0
PS
xam57.0xam21.0
3 leetSyloMemorhC5CedarG712AMTSA
F°0011otF°02-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
4 leetSyloMnobraC1CWedarG712AMTSA
F°058otF°02-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
31 norIelitcuD51-54-06epyT593AMTSA
F°056otF°02-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
41 norI*tsiseR-iNelitcuDB2-DepyT934AMTSA
F°057otF°02-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
CnM
PS
iSrCoM
xam02.007.0ot04.0
xam50.0xam60.0xam57.0
05.6ot00.456.0ot54.0
CnM
PS
iSoM
52.008.0ot05.0
xam50.0xam60.0xam06.0
56.0ot54.0
CiS
P
nim00.3xam57.2xam80.0
CiSnM
PiNrC
xam00.300.3ot05.152.1ot07.0
xam80.000.22ot00.81
00.4ot57.2
5 leetSyloMemorhC6CWedarG712AMTSA
F°0001otF°02-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
6 leetSyloMemorhC9CWedarG712AMTSA
F°0501otF°02-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
51 eznorBevlaVdradnatS26BMTSA
F°054otF°523-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
61 eznorBniTA1yollA341BMTSA
F°004otF°523-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
CnM
PS
iSrCoM
xam02.008.0ot05.0
xam50.0xam60.0xam06.0
05.1ot00.156.0ot54.0
CnM
PiSrCoM
xam81.007.0ot04.0
xam50.0xam06.0
57.2ot00.202.1ot09.0
uCnSbPnZiNeF
P
00.68ot00.4800.6ot00.400.6ot00.400.6ot00.4
xam00.1xam03.0xam50.0
uCnSbPnZiNeF
P
00.98ot00.6800.11ot00.9
xam03.000.3ot00.1
xam00.1xam51.0xam50.0
7 31/2 leetSlekciN%3CLedarG253AMTSA
F°056otF°051-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
8 leetSyloMemorhC21CedarG712AMTSA
F°0011otF°02-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
71 eznorBesenagnaMA8yollA741BMTSA
F°053otF°523-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
81 eznorBmunimulAC9yollA841BMTSA
F°005otF°523-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
CnM
PS
iSiN
xam51.008.0ot05.0
xam50.0xam50.0xam06.0
00.4ot00.3
CiSnMrCoM
PS
xam02.0xam00.1
56.0ot53.000.01ot00.8
02.1ot09.0xam50.0xam60.0
uCnSbPiNeFlAnMnZ
00.06ot00.55xam00.1xam04.0xam05.0
00.2ot04.005.1ot05.0
xam05.1redniameR
uClAeFnMiN
nim00.3805.11ot00.01
00.5ot00.305.0
xam05.2demanlatot.niM5.99=stnemele
9 leetSsselniatS403epyT8-FCedarG153AMTSA
F°0051otF°524-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
01 leetSsselniatS613epyTM8-FCedarG153AMTSA
F°0051otF°524-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
91 114yollA*lednoM)edarGelbadleW(
F°009otF°523-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
02 "B"yollAyloM-lekciN"B"yolletsaH(494AMTSA †)
F°007otF°523-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
CnMiS
SP
rCiN
xam80.0xam05.1xam00.2xam40.0xam40.0
00.12ot00.8100.11ot00.8
CnMiS
PS
rCiNoM
xam80.0xam05.1xam00.2xam40.0xam40.0
00.12ot00.8100.21ot00.9
00.3ot00.2
iNuC
CnMeF
SiSbN
nim00.0600.33ot00.62
xam03.0xam05.1xam05.3
xam510.000.2ot00.100.3ot00.1
rCeF
CiSoCnM
VoM
PS
iN
xam00.100.6ot00.4
xam21.0xam00.1xam05.2xam00.1
06.0ot02.000.03ot00.62
xam40.0xam30.0
redniameR
- continued -
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM536
537
TECHNICAL
slairetaMevlaVrofsnoitacificepSdradnatSdednemmoceR )deunitnoc(sgnitsaCgniniatnoC-erusserP12 "C"yollAemorhC-yloM-lekciN
"C"yolletsaH(494AMTSA † )
F°0001otF°523-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
22 6.oNyollAdesab-tlaboCetilletS † 6.oN
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
13 leetSsselniatS613epyT613epyT672AMTSA
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
23 leetSsselniatSL613epyTL613epyT672AMTSA
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
rCeF
WC
iSoCnM
VoM
PS
iN
05.71ot05.5105.7ot05.452.5ot57.3
xam21.0xam00.1xam05.2xam00.1
04.0ot02.000.81ot00.61
40.030.0
redniameR
CnM
WiNrCoMeFeSoC
04.1ot09.000.1
00.6ot00.300.3
00.23ot00.6200.100.3
00.2ot04.0redniameR
CnM
PS
iSrCiNoM
xam80.0xam00.2
xam540.0xam030.0
xam00.100.81ot00.6100.41ot00.01
00.3ot00.2
CnM
PS
iSrCiNoM
xam30.0xam00.2
xam540.0xam030.0
xam00.100.81ot00.6100.41ot00.01
00.3ot00.2
32 raBmunimulA3T-11902yollA112BMTSA
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
42 raBssarBwolleY61BMTSA 1/2 draH
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
33 leetSsselniatS014epyT014epyT672AMTSA
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
43 leetSsselniatSHP4-71epyT036edarG164AMTSA
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
iSeFuCnZiBbP
lA
xam04.0xam07.0
00.6ot00.5xam03.0
06.0ot02.006.0ot02.0
xam51.0stnemelErehtOredniameR
uCbPeFnZ
00.36ot00.0607.3ot05.2
xam53.0redniameR
CnM
PS
iSrClA
xam51.0xam00.1
xam040.0xam030.0
xam00.105.31ot05.11
03.0ot01.0
CnMiS
PS
rCbNuCiNeF
xam70.0xam00.1xam00.1xam40.0xam30.0
05.71ot05.5154.0ot50.000.5ot00.300.5ot00.3redniameR
52 raBssarBlavaN464wollA12BMTSA
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
62 raBleetSdedaeL41L21ISIA
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
53 raByollAreppoC-lekciN)*lenoMK(005KyollA
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
63 raB"B"yollAyloM-lekciN"B"yolletsaH(533BMTSA †)
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
uCnSbPnZ
00.26ot00.9500.1ot05.0
xam02.0redniameR
CnM
PS
bP
xam51.002.1ot08.090.0ot40.053.0ot52.053.0ot51.0
iNeFnMiS
CS
lAiTuC
00.07ot00.36xam00.2xam05.1xam00.1xam52.0xam10.0
00.4ot00.200.1ot52.0redniameR
rCeF
CiSoCnM
VoM
PS
iN
xam00.100.6ot00.4
xam40.0xam00.1xam05.2xam00.1
04.0ot02.000.03ot00.62
xam520.0xam030.0redniameR
72 raBleetSnobraC8101edarG801AMTSA
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
82 leetSyloM-emorhC0414ISIAtlob7BedarG391AMTSArofelbatiuS(
)lairetam
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
73 raB"C"yollAemorhC-yloM-lekciN"C"yolletsaH(633BMTSA †)
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
CnM
PS
02.0ot51.009.0ot06.0
xam40.0xam50.0
CnM
PS
iSrCoMeF
34.0ot83.000.1ot57.0
xam530.0xam40.0
53.0ot02.001.1ot08.052.0ot51.0redniameR
rCeF
WC
iSoCnMaVoM
PS
iN
05.61ot05.4100.7ot00.405.4ot00.3
xam80.0xam00.1xam05.2xam00.1xam53.0
00.71ot00.5140.030.0
redniameR
92 leetSsselniatS203epyT203epyT672AMTSA
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
03 leetSsselniatS403epyT403epyT672AMTSA
)tnecreP(noitisopmoC
CnM
PS
iSrCiN
xam51.0xam00.2
xam540.0xam030.0
xam00.100.91ot00.71
00.01ot00.8
CnM
PS
iSrCiN
xam80.0xam00.2
xam540.0xam030.0
xam00.100.02ot00.81
00.21ot00.8
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM537
538
TECHNICAL
sgnitsaCgniniatnoC-erusserPslairetaMevlaVrofsnoitacificepSdradnatSdednemmoceR
EDOCLAIRETAMNOITPIRCSEDDNA
SEITREPORPLACISYHPMUMINIM FOSULUDOMYTICITSALE
F°07TAISP( x 01 6)
ETAMIXORPPALLENIRB
SSENDRAHelisneT
)isP(
dleiYtnioP)isP(
.gnolE)%("2ni
noitcudeR)%(aerAfo
1 leetSnobraC BCWedarG612AMTSA 000,07 000,63 22 53 9.72 781-731
2 leetSnobraC BCLedarG253AMTSA 000,56 000,53 42 53 9.72 781-731
3 leetSyloMemorhC 5CedarG712AMTSA 000,09 000,06 81 53 4.72 .xaM142
4 leetSyloMnobraC 1CWedarG712AMTSA 000,56 000,53 42 53 9.92 .xaM512
5 leetSyloMemorhC 6CWedarG712AMTSA 000,07 000,04 02 53 9.92 .xaM512
6 leetSyloMemorhC 9CWedarG712AMTSA 000,07 000,04 02 53 9.92 .xaM142
7 leetSlekciN%2/13 3CLedarG253AMTSA 000,56 000,04 42 53 9.72 731
8 leetSyloMemorhC 21CedarG712AMTSA 000,09 000,06 81 53 4.72 042-081
9 leetSsselniatS403epyT 8-FCedarG153AMTSA 000,56 000,82 53 --- 0.82 041
01 leetSsselniatS613epyT M8-FCedarG153AMTSA 000,07 000,03 03 --- 3.82 071-651
11 norItsaC BssalC621AMTSA 000,13 --- --- --- --- 022-061
21 norItsaC CssalC621AMTSA 000,14 --- --- --- --- 022-061
31 norIelitcuD 51-54-06epyT593AMTSA 000,06 000,54 51 --- 62-32 702-341
41 norItsiseR-iNelitcuD )1( B2-DepyT934AMTSA 000,85 000,03 7 --- --- 112-841
51 eznorBevlaVdradnatS 26BMTSA 000,03 000,41 02 71 5.31 *56-55
61 eznorBniT A1yollA341BMTSA 000,04 000,81 02 02 51 *58-57
71 eznorBesenagnaM A8yollA741BMTSA 000,56 000,52 02 02 4.51 *89
81 eznorBmunimulA C9yollA841BMTSA 000,57 000,03 .nim21 21 71 051
91 114yollAlednoM )edarGelbadleW( 000,56 005,23 52 --- 32 071-021
02 "B"yollAyloM-lekciN )"B"yolletsaH(494AMTSA 000,27 000,64 6 --- --- ---
12 "C"yollAemorhC-yloM-lekciN )"C"yolletsaH(494AMTSA 000,27 000,64 4 --- --- ---
22 6.oNyollAesab-tlaboC 6.oNetilletS 000,121 000,46 2-1 --- 4.03 ---
32 raBmunimulA 3T-11902yollA112BMTSA 000,44 000,63 51 --- 2.01 59
42 raBssarBwolleY draH2/1-61BMTSA 000,54 000,51 7 05 41 ---
52 raBssarBlavaN 464yollA12BMTSA 000,06 000,72 22 55 --- ---
62 raBleetSdedaeL 41L21ISIA 000,97 000,17 61 25 --- 361
72 raBleetSnobraC 8101edarG801AMTSA 000,96 000,84 83 26 --- 341
82 leetSyloM-emorhC0414ISIA )lairetamtlob7BedarG391AMTSArofelbatiuS( 000,531 000,511 22 36 9.92 552
92 leetSsselniatS203epyT 203epyT672AMTSA 000,58 000,53 06 07 82 051
03 leetSsselniatS403epyT 403epyT672AMTSA 000,58 000,53 06 07 --- 941
13 leetSsselniatS613epyT 613epyT672AMTSA 000,08 000,03 06 07 82 941
23 leetSsselniatSL613epyT L613epyT672AMTSA 000,18 000,43 55 --- --- 641
33 leetSsselniatS014epyT 014epyT672AMTSA 000,57 000,04 53 07 92 551
43 leetSsselniatSHP4-71epyT 036edarG164AMTSA 000,531 000,501 61 05 92 543-572
53 raByollAreppoC-lekciN )lenoMK(005KyollA 000,001 000,07 53 --- 62 062-571
63 raB"B"yollAyloM-lekciN )"B"yolletsaH(533BMTSA 000,001 000,64 03 --- --- ---
73 raB"C"yollAyloM-lekciN )"C"yolletsaH(633BMTSA 00,001 000,64 02 --- --- ---
.daolgk005.1
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM538
539
TECHNICAL
snobracordyHfostnatsnoClacisyhP
.ON DNUOPMOC ALUMROFRALUCELOM
THGIEW
GNILIOBTATNIOPAISP696.41
)F°(
ROPAVTAERUSSERP
)AISP(F°001
GNIZEERFTATNIOPAISP696.41
)F°(
STNATSNOCLACITIRCYTIVARGCIFICEPS
AISP696.41TA
lacitirCerutarepmeT
)F°(
lacitirC)aisp(erusserP
,diuqiL )4,3(
F°06/F°06F°06tasaG
)1=riA( )1(
12345
enahteMenahtE
enaporPenatuB-nenatubosI
HC 4C2H6C3H8C4H 01C4H 01
340.61070.03790.44421.85421.85
96.852-84.721-
76.34-01.1309.01
)0005( )2(
)008( )2(
0916.152.27
64.692- )5(
98.792- )5(
48.503- )5(
50.712-92.552-
36.611-90.0910.60256.50389.472
8.7668.7073.6167.0551.925
3.0 )8(
4653.0 )7(
7705.0 )7(
4485.0 )7(
1365.0 )7(
9355.02830.15225.18600.28600.2
678
enatneP-nenatneposI
enatnepoeN
C5H 21C5H 21C5H 21
151.27151.27151.27
29.6921.2801.94
075.5144.02
9.53
15.102-38.552-
71.2
7.58301.96331.123
6.8844.0940.464
0136.07426.0
7695.0 )7(
1194.21194.21194.2
901112131
enaxeH-nenatneplyhteM-2enatneplyhteM-3
enaxehoeNenatublyhtemiD-3,2
C6H 41C6H 41C6H 41C6H 41C6H 41
871.68871.68871.68871.68871.68
27.55174.04198.54125.12163.631
659.4767.6890.6658.9404.7
85.931-36.442-
---27.741-83.991-
7.35438.534
3.84431.02492.044
9.6346.6341.3548.6445.354
0466.09756.09866.00456.04666.0
3579.23579.23579.23579.23579.2
4151617181910212
enatpeH-nenaxehlyhteM-2enaxehlyhteM-3
enatneplyhtE-3enatneplyhtnemiD-2,2
enatneplyhtemiD-4,2enatneplyhtemiD-3,3
enatpirT
C7H 61C7H 61C7H 61C7H 61C7H 61C7H 61C7H 61C7H 61
502.001502.001502.001502.001502.001502.001502.001502.001
71.90290.49123.79152.00245.47198.67119.68185.771
026.1172.2031.2210.2294.3292.3377.2473.3
50.131-98.081-
---84.181-68.091-36.281-10.012-
28.21-
8.21500.59487.30584.31532.77459.57458.50544.694
8.6935.6931.8043.9142.2049.6932.7244.824
2886.00386.07196.08207.02876.03776.06796.06496.0
6954.36954.36954.36954.36954.36954.36954.36954.3
223242526272829203
enatcO-nlytubosiDenatcoosIenanoN-nenaceD-n
enatnepolcyCenatnepolcyclyhteM
enaxeholcyCenaxeholcyclyhteM
C8H 81C8H 81C8H 81C9H 02C 01 H 22C5H 01C6H 21C6H 21C7H 41
232.411232.411232.411952.821682.241
531.07261.48261.48981.89
22.85293.82236.01274.30384.54356.02152.16192.77186.312
735.0101.1807.1971.07950.0
419.9305.4462.3906.1
81.07-70.231-72.161-
82.46-63.12-19.631-44.422-
77.3489.591-
22.46544.03564.91586.0161.2565.16453.9947.63572.075
6.0636.0634.273
2334038.3569.845
1955.305
8607.09796.02696.07127.02437.04057.06357.04387.00477.0
9349.39349.39349.32824.45219.45124.27509.27509.20093.3
13233343536373839304
enelyhtEeneporPenetuB-1
enetuB-2-siCenetuB-2-snarT
enetubosIenetneP-1
eneidatuB-2,1eneidatuB-3,1
enerposI
C2H4C3H6C4H8C4H8C4H8C4H8C5H 01C4H6C4H6C5H8
450.82180.24801.65801.65801.65801.65531.07290.45290.45911.86
26.451-09.35-57.0296.8385.3395.9139.5865.1560.4203.39
---4.62250.3645.5408.9404.36511.91
)02( )2(
)06( )2(
276.61
54.272- )5(
54.103- )5(
36.103- )5(
60.812-69.751-16.022-93.562-61.312-20.461-47.032-
85.849.6916.59273.42368.11355.29239.673
)933( )2(
603)214( )2(
8.927966385016595085095)356( )2(
826)4.855( )2(
---0225.0 )7(
3106.0 )7(
1726.0 )7(
0016.0 )7(
4006.0 )7(
546.0 )7(
856.0 )7(
2726.0 )7(
1686.0
6869.09254.12739.12739.12739.12739.15124.26768.16768.19153.2
142434445464748494
enelytecAenezneB
eneuloTenezneblyhtE
enelyX-oenelyX-menelyX-p
enerytSenazneblyporposI
C2H2C6H6C7H8C8H 01C8H 01C8H 01C8H 01C8H8C9H 21
830.62411.87141.29861.601861.601861.601861.601251.401591.021
911- )6(
71.67131.13261.77279.19214.28250.18292.39243.603
---422.3230.1173.0462.0623.0243.0)42.0( )2(
881.0
411- )5(
69.1449.831-19.831-
03.31-21.45-68.5501.32-28.041-
13.5922.25555.50642.156
0.57620.156
6.9460.6074.676
4.0984.0179.5955.3254.1456.3152.905
0854.564
516.0 )9(
4488.08178.08178.08488.07868.07568.00119.03668.0
0998.09696.22181.35566.35566.35566.35566.39595.38941.4
.seulavdetaluclaC.1.seulavdetamitsE-)(.2
.snobracordyhdetarutasriA.3.muucavnisthgiewmorfseulavetulosbA.4
.)tniopelpirt(erusserpnoitarutastA.5.tniopnoitamilbuS.6
taerusserpnoitarutaS.7 .F°06taenahtemrofeulavtnerappA.8 .F°06
.)tniopnoitamilbus(F°06/F°911,ytivargcificepS.9
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM539
540
TECHNICAL
- continued -
sdiulFsuoiraVfostnatsnoClacisyhP
DIULF ALUMROFRALUCELOM
THGIEW
TNIOPGNILIOB696.41TAF°(
)AISP
ROPAVERUSSERP
)GISP(F°07TA
LACITIRCERUTAREPMET
)F°(
LACITIRCERUSSERP
)AISP(
YTIVARGCIFICEPS
F°06/F°06diuqiL saG
dicAcitecA CH 2H3 3O 60.06 542 50.1
enotecA C3H6O 80.85 331 554 196 97.0 10.2
riA N2O2 79.82 713- 122- 745 ‡68.0 0.1
lyhtE,lohoclA C2H6O 70.64 371 3.2 )2( 074 529 497.0 95.1
lyhteM,lohoclA HC 4O 40.23 841 36.4 )2( 364 4711 697.0 11.1
ainommA HN 3 30.71 82- 411 072 6361 26.0 95.0
muinommAedirolhC )1( HN 4 lC 70.1
muinommAedixordyH )1( HN 4 HO 19.0
muinommAetafluS )1( HN( 4)2 OS 4 51.1
enilinA C6H7N 21.39 563 897 077 20.1
nogrA A 49.93 203- 881- 507 56.1 83.1
enimorB rB 2 48.951 831 575 39.2 25.5
muiclaCedirolhC )1( lCaC 2 32.1
edixoiDnobraC OC 2 10.44 901- 938 88 2701 108.0 )3( 25.1
ediflusiDnobraC SC 2 1.67 511 92.1 36.2
edixonoMnobraC OC 10.82 413- 022- 705 08.0 79.0
nobraCedirolhcarteT
lCC 4 48.351 071 245 166 95.1 13.5
enirolhC lC 2 19.07 03- 58 192 9111 24.1 54.2
dicAcimorhC H2 OrC 4 30.811 12.1
dicAcirtiC C6H8O7 21.291 45.1
etafluSreppoC )1( OSuC 4 71.1
rehtE C( 2H5)2O 21.47 43 47.0 55.2
edirolhCcirreF )1( lCeF 3 32.1
eniroulF F2 00.83 503- 003 002- 908 11.1 13.1
edyhedlamroF H2 OC 30.03 6- 28.0 80.1
dicAcimroF OCH 2H 30.64 412 32.1
larufruF C5H4O2 80.69 423 61.1
enirecylG C3H8O3 90.29 455 62.1
locylG C2H6O2 70.26 783 11.1
muileH eH 300.4 454- 054- 33 81.0 41.0
dicAcirolhcordyH lCH 74.63 511- 46.1
dicAciroulfordyH FH 10.02 66 9.0 644 29.0
negordyH H2 610.2 224- 004- 881 70.0 )3( 70.0
negordyHedirolhC
lCH 74.63 511- 316 521 8911 68.0 62.1
edifluSnegordyH H2S 70.43 67- 252 312 7031 97.0 71.1
lohoclAlyporposI C3H8O 90.06 081 87.0 80.2
liOdeesniL 835 39.0
dnuopmocfothgiewyb%52-noituloSsuoeuqA.1.2 001taaispnierusserpropaV oF.3 .tniopgnilioblamrontalm/mg,diuqilfoytisneD
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM540
541
TECHNICAL
)deunitnoc(sdiulFsuoiraVfostnatsnoClacisyhP
DIULF ALUMROFRALUCELOM
THGIEW
TNIOPGNILIOB696.41TAF°(
)AISP
ROPAVERUSSERP
)GISP(F°07TA
LACITIRCERUTAREPMET
)F°(
LACITIRCERUSSERP
)AISP(
YTIVARGCIFICEPS
F°06/F°06diuqiL saG
muisengaMedirolhC )1( lCgM 2 22.1
yrucreM gH 16.002 076 6.31 39.6
edimorBlyhteM HC 3 rB 59.49 83 31 673 37.1 72.3
edirolhClyhteM HC 3 lC 94.05 11- 95 092 969 99.0 47.1
enelahthpaN C 01 H8 61.821 424 41.1 34.4
dicAcirtiN ONH 3 20.36 781 5.1
negortiN N2 20.82 023- 332- 394 18.0 )3( 79.0
elbategeV,liO 49.0-19.0
negyxO O2 23 792- 181- 737 41.1 )3( 501.1
enegsohP lCOC 2 29.89 74 7.01 063 328 93.1 24.3
dicAcirohpsohP H3 OP 4 00.89 514 38.1
muissatoPetanobraC )1(
K2 OC 3 42.1
muissatoPedirolhC )1(
lCK 61.1
muissatoPedixordyH )1(
HOK 42.1
11tnaregirfeR lCC 3F 83.731 57 4.31 883 536 40.5
21tnaregirfeR lCC 2F2 39.021 22- 2.07 432 795 2.4
31tnaregirfeR FlCC 3 74.401 511- 7.854 48 165
12tnaregirfeR lCHC 2F 39.201 84 4.8 353 057 28.3
22tnaregirfeR FlCHC 2 84.68 14- 5.221 502 617
32tnaregirfeR FHC 3 20.07 911- 536 19 196
muidoSedirolhC )1(
lCaN 91.1
muidoSedixordyH )1(
HOaN 72.1
etafluSmuidoS )1( aN 2 OS 4 42.1
muidoSetaflusoihT )1(
aN 2 OS 3 32.1
hcratS C( 6H 01 O5 x) 05.1
snoituloSraguS )1( C 21 H 22 O 11 01.1
dicAcirufluS H2 OS 4 80.89 626 38.1
edixoiDrefluS OS 2 6.46 41 4.43 613 5411 93.1 12.2
enitnepruT 023 78.0
retaW H2O 610.81 212 2949.0 )2( 607 8023 00.1 26.0
edirolhCcniZ )1( lCnZ 2 42.1
etafluScniZ )1( OSnZ 4 13.1
dnuopmocfothgiewyb%52-noituloSsuoeuqA.1.2 001taaispnierusserpropaV oF.3 .tniopgnilioblamrontalm/mg,diuqilfoytisneD
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:44 AM541
542
TECHNICAL
retaWfoseitreporP
erutarepmeT)F°(retaWfo
noitarutaSsdnuoP(erusserP
hcnIerauqSrep)etulosbA
thgieWrepsdnuoP(
)nollaG
ytivarGcificepSF°06/F°06
noisrevnoC,rotcaF )1(
MPGot.rH/.sbL
23 5880.0 543.8 3100.1 99100.0
04 7121.0 543.8 3100.1 99100.0
05 1871.0 043.8 7000.1 99100.0
06 3562.0 433.8 0000.1 99100.0
07 1363.0 523.8 9899.0 00200.0
08 9605.0 413.8 6799.0 00200.0
09 2896.0 303.8 3699.0 00200.0
001 2949.0 982.8 6499.0 10200.0
011 8472.1 762.8 9199.0 10200.0
021 4296.1 352.8 1099.0 10200.0
031 5222.2 722.8 2789.0 20200.0
041 6888.2 702.8 8489.0 30200.0
051 817.3 281.8 8189.0 30200.0
061 147.4 651.8 6879.0 40200.0
071 299.5 721.8 2579.0 50200.0
081 015.7 890.8 7179.0 50200.0
091 933.9 860.8 1869.0 60200.0
002 625.11 930.8 6469.0 70200.0
012 321.41 500.8 5069.0 80200.0
212 696.41 699.7 4959.0 80200.0
022 681.71 279.7 6659.0 90200.0
042 969.42 109.7 0849.0 01200.0
062 924.53 228.7 6839.0 11200.0
082 302.94 647.7 4929.0 51200.0
003 310.76 266.7 4919.0 71200.0
053 36.431 234.7 8198.0 42200.0
004 13.742 271.7 6068.0 23200.0
054 6.224 298.6 0728.0 14200.0
005 8.086 355.6 3687.0 45200.0
055 2.5401 231.6 8537.0 17200.0
006 9.2451 466.5 6976.0 49200.0
007 7.3903 326.3 7434.0 06400.0
repsnollagniwolftnelaviuqetegotrotcafehtybruohrepsdnuopniwolfylpitluM.1.toofcibucrepsnollag84.7nodesabsinollagrepthgieW.etunim
- continued -
Properties of Saturated Steam
Absolute Pressure Vacuum(Inchesof Hg)
Temp.t
(oF)
Heatof theLiquid
(BTU/Lb.)
Latent Heatof
Evaporation(BTU/Lb.)
Total Heatof
Steam Hg(BTU/Lb.)
SpecificVolume
∇ (CubicFt./Lb.)PSIA
Inchesof Hg
0.200.250.300.350.400.45
0.410.510.610.710.810.92
29.5129.4129.3129.2129.1129.00
53.1459.3064.4768.9372.8676.38
21.2127.3632.5236.9740.8944.41
1063.81060.31057.41054.91052.71050.7
1085.01087.71090.01091.91093.61095.1
1526.01235.31039.5898.5791.9708.5
0.500.600.700.800.90
1.021.221.431.631.83
28.9028.7028.4928.2928.09
79.5885.2190.0894.3898.24
47.6053.2158.0762.3666.21
1048.81045.71042.91040.41038.3
1096.41098.91101.01102.81104.5
641.4540.0466.9411.7368.4
1.01.21.41.61.8
2.042.442.853.263.66
27.8827.4827.0726.6626.26
101.74107.92113.26117.99122.23
69.7075.8781.2085.9190.14
1036.31032.71029.61026.91024.5
1106.01108.61110.81112.81114.6
333.6280.9243.0214.3191.8
2.02.22.42.62.8
4.074.484.895.295.70
25.8525.4425.0324.6324.22
126.08129.62132.89135.94138.79
93.9997.52100.79103.83106.68
1022.21020.21018.31016.51014.8
1116.21117.71119.11120.31121.5
173.73158.85146.38135.78126.65
3.03.54.04.55.0
6.117.138.149.1610.18
23.8122.7921.7820.7619.74
141.48147.57152.97157.83162.24
109.37115.46120.86125.71130.13
1013.21009.61006.41003.61001.0
1122.61125.11127.31129.31131.1
118.71102.7290.6381.1673.52
5.56.06.57.07.5
11.2012.2213.2314.2515.27
18.7217.7016.6915.6714.65
166.30170.06173.56176.85179.94
134.19137.96141.47144.76147.86
998.5996.2994.1992.1990.2
1132.71134.21135.61136.91138.1
67.2461.9857.5053.6450.29
8.08.59.09.510.0
16.2917.3118.3219.3420.36
13.6312.6111.6010.589.56
182.86185.64188.28190.80193.21
150.79153.57156.22158.75161.17
988.5986.8985.2983.6982.1
1139.31140.41141.41142.31143.3
47.3444.7342.4040.3138.42
11.012.013.014.0
22.4024.4326.4728.50
7.525.493.451.42
197.75201.96205.88209.56
165.73169.96173.91177.61
979.3976.6974.2971.9
1145.01146.61148.11149.5
35.1432.4030.0628.04
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:45 AM542
543
TECHNICAL
- continued -
)deunitnoc(maetSdetarutaSfoseitreporPerusserP
)ISP( .pmeTt
)F°(
ehtfotaeHdiuqiL
).bL/UTB(
taeHtnetaLfo
noitaropavE).bL/UTB(
taeHlatoTHmaetSfo g).bL/UTB(
cificepSemuloV
∇∇∇∇∇).bL/.tF.uC(
erusserP)ISP( .pmeT
t)F°(
ehtfotaeHdiuqiL
).bL/UTB(
taeHtnetaLfo
noitaropavE).bL/UTB(
taeHlatoTHmaetSfo g).bL/UTB(
cificepSemuloV
∇∇∇∇∇).bL/.tF.uC(
etulosbAP
eguaGP
etulosbA'P
eguaGP
696.410.510.610.710.810.91
0.03.03.13.23.33.4
00.21230.31223.61244.91214.22242.522
70.08111.18124.48165.78165.09124.391
3.0797.9696.7695.5696.3699.169
4.05118.05110.25111.35112.45113.5511
08.6292.6227.4293.3271.2280.12
0.570.670.770.870.97
3.063.163.263.363.46
06.70305.80304.90392.01361.113
34.77273.87203.97212.08221.182
5.4097.3091.3094.2097.109
9.18111.28114.28116.28118.2811
618.5347.5376.5406.5735.5
0.020.120.220.320.42
3.53.63.73.83.9
69.72275.03270.33294.53228.732
61.69197.89133.10287.30241.602
1.0694.8598.6592.5597.359
3.65112.75111.85110.95118.9511
980.02291.91573.81726.71839.61
0.080.180.280.380.48
3.563.663.763.863.96
30.21398.21347.31395.41324.513
20.28219.28297.38266.48235.582
1.1094.0097.9981.9985.898
1.38113.38115.38118.38110.4811
274.5804.5643.5582.5622.5
0.520.620.720.820.92
3.013.113.213.313.41
70.04252.24263.44214.64204.842
24.80226.01257.21238.41268.612
1.2597.0593.9499.7495.649
6.06113.16110.26117.26114.3611
303.61517.51071.51366.41981.41
0.580.680.780.880.98
3.073.173.273.373.47
52.61370.71388.71386.81384.913
93.68242.78280.88219.88247.982
8.7982.7985.6989.5983.598
2.48114.48116.48118.48111.5811
861.5111.5550.5100.5849.4
0.030.130.230.330.43
3.513.613.713.813.91
33.05222.25250.45248.55285.752
28.81237.02295.22214.42281.622
3.5490.4498.2496.1493.049
1.46117.46114.56110.66115.6611
647.31033.31049.21275.21622.21
0.090.190.290.390.49
3.573.673.773.873.97
72.02360.12338.12306.22363.323
65.09283.19281.29289.29287.392
7.4981.4985.3989.2983.298
3.58115.58117.58119.58111.6811
698.4548.4697.4747.4996.4
0.530.630.730.830.93
3.023.123.223.323.42
82.95259.06275.26261.46227.562
19.72206.92262.13298.23284.432
2.9390.8399.6398.5397.439
1.76116.76112.86117.86112.9611
898.11885.11492.11051.11057.01
0.590.690.790.890.99
3.083.183.283.383.48
21.42378.42316.52353.62380.723
65.49243.59221.69298.69256.792
7.1981.1985.0989.9884.988
2.68114.68116.68118.68110.7811
256.4606.4165.4715.4474.4
0.040.140.240.340.44
3.523.623.723.823.92
52.76247.86212.07246.17250.372
30.63255.73240.93215.04259.142
7.3396.2396.1396.0396.929
7.96112.07117.07111.17116.1711
894.01852.01920.01
018.9106.9
0.0010.1010.2010.3010.401
3.583.683.783.883.98
18.72335.82352.92369.92366.033
04.89251.99209.99246.00373.103
8.8882.8886.7881.7885.688
2.78114.78115.78117.78119.7811
234.4193.4053.4013.4172.4
0.540.640.740.840.94
3.033.133.233.333.43
44.47208.57231.77254.87247.972
63.34257.44221.64274.74297.842
6.8297.7297.6298.5299.429
0.27114.27119.27113.37117.3711
104.9902.9520.9848.8876.8
0.5010.6010.7010.8010.901
3.093.193.293.393.49
63.13350.23347.23324.33301.433
01.20328.20345.30362.40379.403
0.6884.5889.4883.4887.388
1.88112.88114.88116.88117.8811
232.4491.4751.4021.4480.4
0.050.150.250.350.45
3.533.633.733.833.93
10.18262.28294.38207.48209.582
90.05273.15236.25278.35290.552
0.4290.3292.2293.1295.029
1.47114.47118.47112.57116.5711
515.8953.8802.8260.8229.7
0.0110.1110.2110.3110.411
3.593.693.793.893.99
77.43344.53311.63377.63324.733
66.50373.60360.70357.70334.803
2.3886.2881.2886.1881.188
9.88110.98112.98114.98115.9811
940.4510.4189.3749.3419.3
0.550.650.750.850.95
3.043.143.243.343.44
70.78282.88273.98205.09216.192
03.65205.75276.85228.95269.062
6.9198.8199.7191.7193.619
9.57113.67116.67119.67113.7711
787.7656.7925.7704.7982.7
0.5110.6110.7110.8110.911
3.0013.1013.2013.3013.401
70.83327.83363.93399.93326.043
11.90397.90364.01321.11387.113
6.0880.0885.9780.9784.878
7.98118.98110.09111.09112.0911
288.3058.3918.3887.3857.3
0.060.160.260.360.46
3.543.643.743.843.94
17.29297.39258.49209.59249.692
90.26202.36203.46283.56254.662
5.5197.4199.3191.3193.219
6.77119.77112.87115.87118.8711
571.7460.7759.6358.6257.6
0.0210.1210.2210.3210.421
3.5013.6013.7013.8013.901
52.14388.14305.24311.34327.343
44.21301.31357.31304.41340.513
9.7784.7789.6784.6789.578
4.09115.09117.09118.09119.0911
827.3996.3076.3246.3416.3
0.560.660.760.860.96
3.053.153.253.353.45
79.79299.89299.99289.00369.103
05.76255.86285.96206.07216.192
6.1198.0191.0194.9097.809
1.97114.97117.97110.08113.0811
556.6065.6864.6873.6192.6
0.5210.6210.7210.8210.921
3.0113.1113.2113.3113.411
33.44349.44345.54331.64337.643
86.51313.61349.61375.71391.813
4.5789.4784.4789.3784.378
1.19112.19113.19115.19116.1911
785.3065.3335.3705.3184.3
0.070.170.270.370.47
3.553.653.753.853.95
29.20388.30338.40367.50386.603
16.27206.37275.47245.57294.672
9.7092.7095.6098.5091.509
6.08118.08111.18113.18116.1811
602.6421.6440.6669.5098.5
0.0310.1310.2310.3310.431
3.5113.6113.7113.8113.911
23.74309.74384.84360.94346.943
18.81334.91340.02356.02352.123
9.2785.2780.2785.1780.178
7.19119.19110.29111.29112.2911
554.3034.3504.3183.3753.3
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:45 AM543
544
TECHNICAL
Properties of Saturated Steam (continued)Pressure
(PSI) Temp.t
(°F)
Heat of theLiquid
(BTU/Lb.)
Latent Heatof
Evaporation(BTU/Lb.)
Total Heatof Steam Hg
(BTU/Lb.)
SpecificVolume
∇(Cu. Ft./Lb.)
Pressure(PSI) Temp.
t(°F)
Heat of theLiquid
(BTU/Lb.)
Latent Heatof
Evaporation(BTU/Lb.)
Total Heatof Steam Hg
(BTU/Lb.)
SpecificVolume
∇(Cu. Ft./Lb.)
AbsoluteP
GaugeP
AbsoluteP'
GaugeP
135.0136.0137.0138.0139.0
120.3121.3122.3123.3124.3
350.21350.78351.35351.91352.47
321.85322.45323.05323.64324.23
870.6870.1869.6869.1868.7
1192.41192.51192.61192.71192.9
3.3333.3103.2873.2643.242
400.0420.0440.0460.0480.0
385.3405.3425.3445.3465.3
444.59449.39454.02458.50462.82
424.0429.4434.6439.7444.6
780.5775.2770.0764.9759.9
1204.51204.61204.61204.61204.5
1.16131.10611.05561.00940.9670
140.0141.0142.0143.0144.0
125.3126.3127.3128.3129.3
353.02353.57354.12354.67355.21
324.82325.40325.98326.56327.13
868.2867.7867.2866.7866.3
1193.01193.11193.21193.31193.4
3.2203.1983.1773.1553.134
500.0520.0540.0560.0580.0
485.3505.3525.3545.3565.3
467.01471.07475.01478.85482.58
449.4454.1458.6463.0467.4
755.0750.1745.4740.8736.1
1204.41204.21204.01203.81203.5
0.92780.78150.85780.82650.7973
145.0146.0147.0148.0149.0
130.3131.3132.3133.3134.3
355.76356.29356.83357.36357.89
327.70328.27328.83329.39329.95
865.8865.3864.9864.5864.0
1193.51193.61193.81193.91194.0
3.1143.0943.0743.0543.034
600.0620.0640.0660.0680.0
585.3605.3625.3645.3665.3
486.21489.75493.21496.58499.88
471.6475.7479.8483.8487.7
731.6727.2722.7718.3714.0
1203.21202.91202.51202.11201.7
0.76980.74400.71980.69710.6757
150.0152.0154.0156.0158.0
135.3137.3139.3141.3143.3
358.42359.46360.49361.52362.53
330.51331.61332.70333.79334.86
863.6862.7851.8860.9860.0
1194.11194.31194.51194.71194.9
3.0152.9772.9402.9042.869
700.0720.0740.0760.0780.0
685.3705.3725.3745.3765.3
503.10506.25509.34512.36505.33
491.5495.3499.0502.6506.2
709.7705.4701.2697.1692.9
1201.21200.71200.21199.71199.1
0.65540.63620.61800.60070.5843
160.0162.0164.0166.0168.0
145.3147.3149.3151.3153.3
363.53364.53365.51366.48367.45
335.93336.98338.02339.05340.07
859.2858.3857.5856.6855.7
1195.11195.31195.51195.71195.8
2.8342.8012.7682.7362.705
800.0820.0840.0860.0880.0
785.3805.3825.3845.3865.3
518.23521.08523.88526.63529.33
509.7513.2516.6520.0523.3
688.9684.8680.8676.8672.8
1198.61198.01197.41196.81196.1
0.56870.55380.53960.52600.5130
170.0172.0174.0176.0178.0
155.3157.3159.3161.3163.3
368.41369.35370.29371.22372.14
341.09342.10343.10344.09345.06
854.9854.1853.3852.4851.6
1196.01196.21196.41196.51196.7
2.6752.6452.6162.5872.559
900.0920.0940.0960.0980.0
885.3905.3925.3945.3965.3
531.98534.59537.16539.68542.17
526.6529.8533.0536.2539.3
668.8664.9661.0657.1653.3
1195.41194.71194.01193.31192.6
0.50060.48860.47720.46630.4557
180.0182.0184.0186.0188.0
165.3167.3169.3171.3173.3
373.06373.96374.86375.75376.64
346.03347.00347.96348.92349.86
850.8850.0849.2848.4847.6
1196.91197.01197.21197.31197.5
2.5322.5052.4792.4542.429
1000.01050.01100.01150.01200.0
985.31035.31085.31135.31185.3
544.61550.57556.31561.86567.22
542.4550.0557.45654.6571.7
649.4639.9630.4621.0611.7
1191.81189.91187.81185.61183.4
0.44560.42180.40010.38020.619
190.0192.0194.0196.0198.0
175.3177.3179.3181.3183.3
377.51378.38379.24380.10380.95
350.79351.72352.64353.55354.46
846.8846.1845.3844.5843.7
1197.61197.81197.91198.11198.2
2.4042.3802.3562.3332.310
1250.01300.01350.01400.01450.0
1235.31285.31335.31385.31435.3
572.42577.46582.35587.10591.73
578.6585.4592.1598.7605.2
602.4593.2584.0574.7565.5
1181.01178.61176.11173.41170.7
0.34500.32930.31480.30120.2884
200.0205.0210.0215.0220.0
185.3190.3195.3200.3205.3
381.79383.86385.90387.89389.86
355.36357.58359.77361.91364.02
843.0841.0839.2837.4835.6
1198.41198.71199.01199.31199.6
2.2882.2342.1832.1342.087
1500.01600.01700.01800.01900.0
1485.31585.31685.31785.31885.3
596.23604.90613.15621.03628.58
611.6624.1636.3648.3660.1
556.3538.0519.6501.1482.4
1167.91162.11155.91149.41142.4
0.27650.25480.23540.21790.2021
225.0230.0235.0240.0245.0
210.3215.3220.3225.3230.3
391.79393.68395.54397.37399.18
366.09368.13370.14372.12374.08
833.8832.0830.3828.5826.8
1199.91200.11200.41200.61200.9
2.04221.99921.95791.91831.8803
2000.02100.02200.02300.02400.0
1985.32085.32185.32285.32385.3
635.82642.77649.46655.91662.12
671.7683.3694.8706.5718.4
463.4444.1424.4403.9382.7
1135.11127.41119.21110.41101.1
0.18780.17460.16250.15130.1407
250.0255.0260.0265.0270.0
235.3240.3245.3250.3255.3
400.95402.70404.42406.11407.78
376.00377.89379.76381.60383.42
825.1823.4821.8820.1818.5
1201.11201.31201.51201.71201.9
1.84381.80861.77481.74221.7107
2500.02600.02700.02800.02900.0
2485.32585.32685.32785.32885.3
668.13673.94679.55684.99690.26
730.6743.0756.2770.1785.4
360.5337.2312.1284.7253.6
1091.11080.21068.31054.81039.0
0.13070.12130.11230.10350.0947
275.0280.0285.0290.0295.0
260.3265.3270.3275.3280.3
409.43411.05412.65414.23415.79
385.21386.98388.73390.46392.16
816.9815.3813.7812.1810.5
1202.11202.31202.41202.61202.7
1.68041.65111.62281.59541.5689
3000.03100.03200.03206.2
2985.33085.33185.33191.5
695.36700.31705.11705.40
802.5825.0872.4902.7
217.8168.162.00.0
1020.3993.1934.4902.7
0.08580.07530.05800.0503
300.0320.0340.0360.0380.0
285.3305.3325.3345.3365.3
417.33423.29428.97434.40439.60
393.84400.39406.66412.67418.45
809.0803.0797.1797.4785.8
1202.81203.41203.71204.11204.3
1.54331.44851.36451.28951.2222
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:46 AM544
545
TECHNICAL
)cirteM(maetSdetarutaSfoseitreporP
K,ERUTAREPMET RAB,ERUSSERPm,EMULOV 3 gk/ gk/Jk,YPLAHTNE )Kxgk(/Jk,YPORTNE
desnednoC ropaV desnednoC ropaV desnednoC ropaV
051 11-03.6 3-370.1 9+55.9 6.935- 3722 781.2- 45.61
061071081091002
01-27.79-92.78-83.57-32.36-26.1
3-470.13-670.13-770.13-870.13-970.1
8+26.98+80.17+55.16+27.25+96.5
7.525-7.115-8.794-8.384-5.764-
19220132823274326632
601.2-620.2-749.1-868.1-987.1-
94.5175.4167.3130.6183.21
012022032042052
6-10.75-56.25-19.84-27.34-95.7
3-180.13-280.13-480.13-580.13-780.1
5+93.14+38.34+81.13+70.43+25.1
2.154-0.534-3.614-1.004-5.813-
48323042124204429542
117.1-336.1-555.1-874.1-004.1-
97.1102.1197.0153.01459.9
552062562072
51.372
3-32.13-69.13-60.33-96.43-11.6
3-780.13-880.13-980.13-090.13-190.1
4.6592.2164.0044.5623.602
8.963-5.063-2.153-6.933-5.333-
86427742684269422052
163.1-323.1-182.1-692.1-122.1-
867.9095.9164.9552.9851.9
51.372572082582092
11600.079600.009900.078310.071910.0
3-000.13-000.13-000.13-000.13-100.1
3.6027.1814.031
4.997.96
0.08.78.828.947.07
20525052415232522352
000.0820.0401.0871.0152.0
851.9901.9098.8758.8047.8
592003503013513
71620.013530.021740.012260.023180.0
3-200.13-300.13-500.13-700.13-900.1
49.1531.9309.7239.2228.71
6.195.2114.3313.4512.571
14520552955286527752
323.0393.0264.0035.0795.0
726.8025.8714.8813.8422.8
023523033533043
35010.015310.091710.076120.031720.0
3-110.13-310.13-610.13-810.13-120.1
89.3160.11
28.890.747.5
1.6910.7129.7328.8528.972
68525952406231622262
946.0727.0197.0458.0619.0
151.8640.8269.7188.7408.7
543053553063563
2733.03614.00015.09026.04157.0
3-420.13-720.13-030.13-430.13-830.1
386.4648.3081.3546.2212.2
7.0037.1237.2437.3637.483
03629362746255623662
779.0830.1790.1651.1412.1
927.7756.7885.7125.7654.7
07351.373
573083583
0409.03310.15180.19682.13325.1
3-140.13-440.13-540.13-940.13-350.1
168.1976.1475.1733.1241.1
8.5041.9148.6240.8442.964
17626762976278624962
172.1703.1823.1483.1934.1
493.7653.7333.7572.7812.7
093004014024034
497.1554.2203.3073.4996.5
3-850.13-760.13-770.13-880.13-990.1
089.0137.0355.0524.0133.0
4.0949.2356.5756.8168.166
20726172927224723572
494.1506.1807.1018.1119.1
361.7850.7959.6568.6577.6
044054064074084
333.7913.917.1155.4109.71
3-011.13-321.13-731.13-251.13-761.1
162.0802.0761.0631.0111.0
3.5072.9475.3972.8384.388
46723772287298725972
110.2901.2502.2103.2593.2
986.6706.6825.6154.6773.6
094005015025035
38.1204.6266.1307.7385.44
3-481.13-302.13-222.13-442.13-862.1
2290.06770.01360.05250.05440.0
1.9296.579320117019111
99721082208210828972
974.2185.2376.2567.2658.2
213.6332.6361.6390.6320.6
045055065075085
83.2591.1680.1761.2815.49
3-492.13-323.13-553.13-293.13-334.1
5730.07130.09620.08220.03910.0
07110221372182314831
29724872277275727372
849.2930.3231.3522.3123.3
359.5288.5808.5337.5456.5
095006016026526
3.8015.3213.7311.9511.961
3-284.13-145.13-216.13-507.13-877.1
3610.07310.05110.04900.05800.0
34416051375174617961
71722862146288525552
914.3025.3726.3147.3508.3
965.5084.5813.5952.5191.5
036536046546
13.746
1.9719.0917.2022.5122.122
3-658.13-539.13-570.23-153.23-071.3
5700.06600.07500.05400.02300.0
43713871148113917012
51526642104229227012
578.3059.3730.4322.4344.4
511.5520.5219.4237.4344.4
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM545
546
TECHNICAL
- continued -
maetSdetaehrepuSfoseitreporPERUSSERP
)ISP( .TAS.PMET
t
(F°—ERUTAREPMETLATOT t)
etulosbA'P
eguaGP
°063 °004 °044 °084 °005 °006 °007 °008 °009 °0001 °0021
696.41 0.0 00.212 ∇hg
30.331.1221
86.439.9321
23.638.8521
69.736.7721
87.831.7821
68.248.4331
49.642.3831
00.153.2341
70.553.2841
31.951.3351
52.765.7361
0.02 3.5 69.722 ∇hg
12.423.0221
34.522.9321
56.622.8521
68.721.7721
64.826.6821
74.134.4331
74.439.2831
64.731.2341
54.041.2841
44.340.3351
14.944.7361
0.03 3.51 33.052 ∇hg
270.616.8121
798.619.7321
417.710.7521
825.812.6721
339.817.5821
59.028.3331
69.224.2831
69.4271.1341
59.628.1841
59.827.2351
39.232.7361
0.04 3.52 52.762 ∇hg
100.219.6121
826.215.6321
742.319.5521
269.312.5721
861.418.4821
886.511.3331
891.719.1831
207.813.1341
02.024.1841
07.124.2351
96.420.7361
0.05 3.53 10.182 ∇hg
755.92.5121
560.011.5321
765.017.4521
260.112.4721
903.119.3821
235.215.2331
447.314.1831
059.419.0341
251.611.1841
253.711.2351
747.918.6361
0.06 3.54 17.292 ∇hg
729.74.3121
753.86.3321
977.85.3521
691.92.3721
304.90.3821
724.018.1331
144.119.0831
944.215.0341
254.318.0841
454.419.1351
154.616.6361
0.07 3.55 29.203 ∇hg
267.65.1121
631.71.2321
205.73.2521
368.72.2721
140.80.2821
429.81.1331
697.94.0831
266.011.0341
425.115.0841
383.216.1351
790.413.6361
0.08 3.56 30.213 ∇hg
888.57.9021
022.67.0321
445.61.1521
268.61.1721
020.71.1821
797.75.0331
265.89.9731
223.97.9241
770.011.0841
038.013.1351
233.212.6361
0.09 3.57 72.023 ∇hg
802.57.7021
805.51.9221
997.58.9421
480.61.0721
522.61.0821
029.68.9231
306.74.9731
972.83.9241
259.88.9741
326.90.1351
959.019.5361
0.001 3.58 18.723 ∇hg
366.47.5021
739.46.7221
202.56.8421
264.50.9621
985.51.9721
812.61.9231
538.69.8731
644.79.8241
250.85.9741
656.88.0351
068.97.5361
0.021 3.501 52.143 ∇hg
448.36.1021
180.44.4221
703.40.6421
725.49.6621
636.42.7721
561.57.7231
386.58.7731
591.61.8241
207.68.8741
702.72.0351
212.83.5361
0.041 3.521 20.353 ∇hg
852.33.7911
864.31.1221
766.33.3421
068.37.4621
459.32.5721
314.44.6231
168.48.6731
103.52.7241
837.52.8741
271.67.9251
530.79.4361
0.061 3.541 35.363 ∇hg
------
800.36.7121
781.36.0421
953.34.2621
344.31.3721
948.30.5231
442.47.5731
136.44.6241
510.55.7741
693.51.9251
251.65.4361
0.081 3.561 60.373 ∇hg
------
946.20.4121
318.28.7321
969.22.0621
440.30.1721
114.35.3231
469.37.4731
011.46.5241
254.48.6741
297.46.8251
664.51.4361
0.002 3.581 97.183 ∇hg
------
163.23.0121
315.29.4321
656.28.7521
627.29.8621
060.31.2231
083.36.3731
396.38.4241
200.42.6741
903.40.8251
719.47.3361
0.022 3.502 68.983 ∇hg
------
521.25.6021
762.29.1321
004.24.5521
564.27.6621
277.27.0231
660.36.2731
253.30.4241
436.35.5741
319.35.7251
764.43.3361
0.042 3.522 73.793 ∇hg
------
6729.15.2021
260.28.8221
781.20.3521
742.25.4621
335.22.9131
408.25.1731
860.32.2341
723.38.4741
485.39.6251
390.49.2361
0.062 3.542 24.404 ∇hg
------
------
2888.17.5221
600.25.0521
360.23.2621
033.27.7131
285.24.0731
728.23.2241
760.32.4741
503.33.6251
677.35.2361
0.082 3.562 50.114 ∇hg
------
------
8837.14.2221
2158.19.7421
7409.10.0621
651.22.6131
293.24.9631
126.25.1241
548.25.3741
660.38.5251
405.31.2361
0.003 3.582 33.714 ∇hg
------
------
0906.11.9121
5617.13.5421
5767.16.7521
500.27.4131
722.23.8631
244.26.0241
256.28.2741
958.22.5251
962.37.1361
0.023 3.503 92.324 ∇hg
------
------
0594.16.5121
5895.16.2421
2746.12.5521
4378.12.3131
380.22.7631
582.28.9141
384.21.2741
876.27.4251
360.33.1361
0.043 3.523 79.824 ∇hg
------
------
1493.11.2121
1494.19.9321
0145.18.2521
9657.16.1131
2659.11.6631
741.20.9141
433.25.1741
815.21.4251
188.29.0361
0.063 3.543 04.343 ∇hg
------
------
1403.14.8021
2104.11.7321
4644.13.0521
3356.11.0131
1348.10.5631
520.21.8141
202.28.0741
673.25.3251
917.25.0361
∇ dnuoprepteefcibuc,emulovcificeps=hg dnuoprepUTB,maetsfotaehlatot=
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM546
547
TECHNICAL
- continued -
)deunitnoc(maetSdetaehrepuSfoseitreporPERUSSERP
)ISP( .TAS.PMET
t
(F°—ERUTAREPMETLATOT t)
etulosbA'P
eguaGP
°005 °045 °006 °046 °066 °007 °047 °008 °009 °0001 °0021
0.083 3.563 06.934∇γη
6163.17.7421
4444.11.3721
5065.15.8031
5436.10.1331
7076.10.2431
9147.18.3631
8118.13.5831
9419.13.7141
380.21.0741
942.20.3251
575.20.0361
0.004 3.583 95.444 ∇hg
1582.11.5421
2563.10.1721
0774.19.6031
0845.16.9231
7285.18.0431
8056.17.2631
7717.13.4831
1618.14.6141
7679.14.9641
431.24.2251
544.26.9261
0.024 3.504 93.944 ∇hg
8512.15.2421
5392.19.8621
4104.13.5031
7964.13.8231
0305.15.9331
4865.16.1631
4236.13.3831
7627.15.5141
2088.17.8641
130.29.1251
723.22.9261
0.044 3.524 20.454 ∇hg
6251.18.9321
2822.17.6621
7233.16.3031
4893.19.6231
6034.12.8331
4394.14.0631
9455.13.2831
4546.17.4141
5297.11.8641
8639.13.1251
022.28.8261
0.064 3.544 5.854 ∇hg
8490.10.7321
5861.15.4621
8962.10.2031
4333.14.5231
4463.19.6331
0524.13.9531
2484.13.1831
1175.18.3141
4217.14.7641
8058.17.0251
221.24.8261
0.084 3.564 28.264 ∇hg
7140.12.4321
8311.13.2621
2212.13.0031
7372.10.4231
8303.16.5331
2263.12.8531
3914.13.0831
1305.19.2141
0936.17.6641
0277.12.0251
330.20.8261
0.005 3.584 10.764 ∇hg
7299.03.1321
3360.10.0621
1951.16.8921
8812.16.2231
8742.12.4331
4403.10.7531
6953.13.9731
5044.11.2141
5175.10.6641
6996.16.9151
4059.16.7261
0.025 3.505 70.174 ∇hg
3749.03.8221
6610.17.7521
1011.19.6921
1861.11.1231
2691.19.2331
1152.18.5531
5403.12.8731
6283.12.1141
1905.13.5641
636.10.9151
3478.12.7261
0.045 3.525 10.574 ∇hg
2509.03.5221
3379.04.5521
6460.12.5921
1121.17.9131
5841.15.1331
7102.16.4531
5352.12.7731
1923.13.0141
4154.16.4641
7075.15.8151
9308.18.6261
0.065 3.545 58.874 ∇hg
9568.02.2221
0339.00.3521
4220.14.3921
5770.12.8131
1401.12.0331
8551.15.3531
0602.11.6731
4972.14.9041
8793.19.3641
2315.19.7151
5837.14.6261
0.085 3.565 85.284 ∇hg
1928.00.9121
4598.05.0521
0389.07.1921
8630.17.6131
7260.18.8231
1331.13.2531
9161.11.5731
1332.16.8041
9743.12.3641
6954.13.7151
6776.10.6261
0.006 3.585 12.684 ∇hg
7497.07.5121
2068.01.8421
3649.09.9821
8899.02.5131
1420.14.7231
2370.11.1531
7021.10.4731
9981.17.7041
3103.15.2641
6904.17.6151
8026.15.5261
0.026 0.506 57.984 ∇hg
4267.04.2121
2728.05.5421
8119.01.8821
3369.07.3131
0889.00.6231
8530.19.9431
1280.10.3731
4941.18.6041
7752.18.1641
8263.12.6151
6765.11.5261
0.046 3.526 12.394 ∇hg
9137.00.9021
3697.00.3421
5978.02.6921
9929.02.2131
1459.06.4231
8000.16.8431
9540.19.1731
5111.19.5041
8612.11.1641
0913.16.5151
8715.17.4261
0.066 3.546 85.694 ∇hg
2307.04.5021
0767.04.0421
1948.04.4821
5898.06.0131
2229.02.3231
9769.04.7431
9110.18.0731
9570.10.5041
4871.14.0641
8772.10.5151
9074.13.4261
0.086 3.566 88.994 ∇hg
9576.08.1021
5937.07.7321
5028.05.2821
0968.01.9031
2298.07.1231
9639.02.6431
0089.08.9631
4240.11.4041
3241.17.9541
0932.15.4151
9624.19.3261
0.007 3.586 01.305 ∇hg
------
4317.00.5321
4397.06.0821
1148.05.7031
9368.03.0231
7709.00.5431
8949.07.8631
8010.12.3041
2801.10.9541
4202.19.3151
3583.15.3261
0.057 3.537 68.015 ∇hg
------
0456.09.7221
9137.07.5721
8777.05.3031
6997.06.6131
4148.08.1431
3188.00.6631
1939.09.0041
0130.12.7541
6911.14.2151
2192.14.2261
0.008 3.587 32.815 ∇hg
------
5106.05.0221
9776.07.0721
3227.04.9921
3347.09.2131
3387.06.8331
5128.02.3631
3678.06.8931
3369.04.5541
0740.10.1151
8802.14.1261
0.058 3.538 62.525 ∇hg
------
6455.07.2121
1036.05.5621
2376.02.5921
4396.00.9031
0237.04.5331
5867.04.0631
9028.03.6931
7309.06.3541
0389.05.9051
0631.14.0261
0.009 3.588 89.135 ∇hg
------
4215.04.4021
3785.01.0621
4926.09.0921
1946.01.5031
3686.01.2331
5127.05.7531
6177.09.3931
6058.08.1541
2629.01.8051
4170.13.9161
0.059 3.539 24.835 ∇hg
------
0474.05.5911
9845.06.4521
1095.04.6821
2906.01.1031
3546.07.8231
3976.07.4531
5727.06.1931
1308.00.0541
3578.06.6051
6310.13.8161
0.0001 3.589 16.445 ∇hg
------
------
0415.08.8421
6455.09.1821
3375.00.7921
4806.03.5231
3146.07.1531
8786.02.9831
4067.02.8441
4928.01.5051
5169.03.7161
∇ dnuoprepteefcibuc,emulovcificeps=hg dnuoprepUTB,maetsfotaehlatot=
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM547
548
TECHNICAL
)deunitnoc(maetSdetaehrepuSfoseitreporPERUSSERP
)ISP( .TAS.PMET
t
(F°--ERUTAREPMETLATOT t)
etulosbA'P
eguaGP
°066 °007 °047 °067 °087 °008 °068 °009 °0001 °0011 °0021
0.0011 3.5801 13.655 ∇hg
0115.05.8821
5445.03.8131
5575.08.5431
4095.09.8531
9406.07.1731
1916.03.4831
1066.08.0241
6686.05.4441
3057.02.2051
7118.08.8551
6178.02.5161
0.0021 3.5811 22.765 ∇hg
6854.06.9721
9094.00.1131
6025.06.9331
7435.02.3531
4845.04.6631
7165.03.9731
3006.07.6141
0526.07.0441
3486.02.9941
2147.04.6551
7697.01.3161
0.0031 3.5821 64.775 ∇hg
9314.02.0721
4544.04.3031
9374.03.3331
4784.03.7431
4005.00.1631
1315.03.4731
6945.05.2141
8275.00.7341
4826.02.6941
6186.09.3551
3337.00.1161
0.0041 3.5831 01.785 ∇hg
3573.03.0621
2604.05.5921
8334.07.6231
8644.03.1431
3954.04.5531
4174.01.9631
1605.02.8041
1825.01.3341
5085.02.3941
5036.04.1551
9876.09.8061
0.0051 3.5841 32.695 ∇hg
3143.08.9421
9173.02.7821
9893.00.0231
4114.02.5331
5324.07.9431
2534.08.3631
4864.09.3041
3984.03.9241
0935.01.0941
2685.09.8451
8136.08.6061
0.0061 3.5851 09.406 ∇hg
2113.07.8321
7143.07.8721
2863.00.3131
4083.08.8231
1293.09.3431
4304.04.8531
3534.05.9931
3554.03.5241
7205.00.7841
4745.04.6451
6095.06.4061
0.0071 3.5861 51.316 ∇hg
2482.08.6221
8413.07.9621
0143.08.5031
9253.03.2231
3463.09.7331
3573.09.2531
1604.00.5931
3524.04.1241
6074.00.4841
2315.08.3451
2455.05.2061
0.0081 3.5871 30.126 ∇hg
7952.00.4121
7092.03.0621
6613.04.8921
4823.05.5131
5933.08.1331
2053.02.7431
1083.04.0931
6893.04.7141
1244.08.0841
8284.03.1451
8125.04.0061
0.0091 3.5881 85.826 ∇hg
1732.02.0021
8862.04.0521
7492.06.0921
3603.06.8031
1713.04.5231
7723.05.1431
8653.08.5831
7473.03.3141
5614.07.7741
6554.08.8351
9294.02.8951
0.0002 3.5891 28.536 ∇hg
1612.09.4811
9842.00.0421
8472.06.2821
3682.04.1031
2792.00.9131
4703.05.5331
8533.02.1831
2353.02.9041
5393.05.4741
1134.02.6351
8664.01.6951
0.0012 3.5802 77.246 ∇hg
2691.07.7611
6032.00.9221
7652.03.4721
2862.00.4921
9872.03.2131
0982.05.9231
7613.04.6731
7333.00.5041
7273.04.1741
9804.06.3351
3344.09.3951
0.0022 3.5812 64.946 ∇hg
8671.08.7411
5312.04.7121
0042.07.5621
4152.03.6821
1262.04.5031
1272.03.3231
4992.05.1731
9513.08.0041
8353.02.8641
7883.01.1351
8124.08.1951
0.0032 3.5822 19.556 ∇hg
5751.08.3211
8791.09.4021
7422.07.6521
2632.04.8721
8642.04.8921
7652.09.6131
5382.06.6631
7992.05.6931
5633.09.4641
3073.05.8251
3204.06.9851
0.0042 3.5832 21.266 ∇hg
------
8281.05.1911
5012.03.7421
1222.02.0721
7232.01.1921
5242.03.0131
9862.06.1631
8482.02.2931
7023.07.1641
4353.09.5251
3483.04.7851
0.0052 3.5842 31.866 ∇hg
------
6861.08.6711
3791.06.7021
0902.08.1621
6912.06.3821
4922.06.3031
5552.05.6531
0172.08.7831
1603.04.8541
9733.02.3251
8763.03.5851
0.0062 3.5852 49.376 ∇hg
------
9451.06.0611
9481.03.7221
7691.09.2521
4702.08.5721
2712.08.6921
1342.04.1531
4852.04.3831
6292.01.5541
6323.06.0251
6253.01.3851
0.0072 3.5862 55.976 ∇hg
------
5141.05.2411
2371.05.6121
3581.08.3421
0691.09.7621
9502.07.9821
5132.01.6431
6642.09.8731
1082.08.1541
3013.00.8151
5833.09.0851
0.0082 3.5872 99.486 ∇hg
------
1821.04.1211
2261.01.5021
5471.02.4321
4581.06.9521
3591.04.2821
8022.08.0431
6532.03.4731
5862.05.8441
9792.04.5151
4523.07.8751
0.0092 3.5882 62.096 ∇hg
------
3411.09.5901
7151.00.3911
4461.03.4221
4571.01.1521
3581.09.4721
8012.03.5331
4522.07.9631
7752.01.5441
4682.07.2151
2313.05.6751
0.0003 3.5892 63.596 ∇hg
------
4890.07.0601
6141.01.0811
8451.08.3121
0661.02.2421
0671.02.7621
4102.07.9231
9512.00.5631
6742.08.1441
7572.00.0151
8103.03.4751
0.0013 3.5803 13.007 ∇hg
------
------
0231.02.6611
6541.09.2021
1751.00.3321
2761.03.9521
6291.01.4231
0702.03.0631
2832.04.8341
7562.04.7051
1192.01.2751
0.0023 3.5813 11.507 ∇hg
------
------
6221.01.1511
9631.04.1911
6841.05.3221
9851.01.1521
3481.03.8131
6891.05.5531
3922.09.4341
3652.07.4051
1182.09.9651
2.6023 5.1913 04.507 ∇hg
------
------
0221.02.0511
3631.06.0911
0841.09.2221
3851.05.0521
8381.09.7131
1891.02.5531
8822.07.4341
7552.05.4051
6082.08.9651
∇ dnuoprepteefcibuc,emulovcificeps=hg dnuoprepUTB,maetsfotaehlatot=
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM548
549
TECHNICAL
Determine Velocity of Steam in Pipes:
Where: A = Nominal pipe section area =d = DiameterV = Specific volume from steam tablesin ft3/lb (m3/kg)
Velocity (ft/s) =(25)(A)
(V)π(d)2
4
Note: Specific volume changes with steam pressure and tempera-ture. Make sure to calculate velocities of inlet and outlet piping of theregulator.
seiticoleVeniLepiPmaetSdednemmoceRNOITIDNOCMAETS )DNOCES/SRETEM(DNOCES/TEEF,YTICOLEV
,)rab0,1ot0(gisp51ot0detarutasdnayrD
)5,03(001
,)rab0,1(gisp51pudnadetarutasdnayrD
)3,35(571
,)rab8,31(gisp002pudnadetaehrepuS
)2,67(052
sepiPmaetSdetalusnInIsetaRnoitasnednoClacipyT
,ERUSSERP)RAB(GISP
NOITALUSNIFOSEHCNI2HTIWEPIPFOTOOFREP)RUOH/GK(RUOH/SDNUOPNISETAR
sehcnIniretemaiDepiP
4/3 1 2/1-1 2 3 4
)960,0(1 )900,0(20.0 )410,0(30.0 )410,0(30.0 )810,0(40.0 )320,0(50.0 )720,0(60.0
)43,0(5 )410,0(30.0 )410,0(30.0 )810,0(40.0 )810,0(40.0 )320,0(50.0 )720,0(60.0
)96,0(01 )410,0(30.0 )410,0(30.0 )810,0(40.0 )810,0(40.0 )320,0(50.0 )230,0(70.0
)7,1(52 )410,0(30.0 )810,0(40.0 )320,0(50.0 )320,0(50.0 )720,0(60.0 )630,0(80.0
)4,3(05 )810,0(40.0 )810,0(40.0 )320,0(50.0 )720,0(60.0 )140,0(90.0 )50,0(11.0
)2,5(57 )810,0(40.0 )320,0(50.0 )720,0(60.0 )230,0(70.0 )50,0(11.0 )460,0(41.0
)9,6(001 )320,0(50.0 )320,0(50.0 )230,0(70.0 )630,0(80.0 )450,0(21.0 )860,0(51.0
)6,8(521 )320,0(50.0 )720,0(60.0 )230,0(70.0 )630,0(80.0 )950,0(31.0 )370,0(61.0
)3,01(051 )720,0(60.0 )720,0(60.0 )630,0(80.0 )140,0(90.0 )460,0(41.0 )770,0(71.0
)8,31(002 )720,0(60.0 )230,0(70.0 )630,0(80.0 )140,0(90.0 )860,0(51.0 )680,0(91.0
noitalusnItuohtiWsepiPmaetSnIsetaRnoitasnednoClacipyT
,ERUSSERP)RAB(GISP
RIATNEIBMA)C°22(F°27TAEPIPERABFOTOOFREP)RUOH/GK(RUOH/SDNUOPNISETAR
sehcnIniretemaiDepiP
4/3 1 2/1-1 2 3 4
)960,0(1 )50,0(11.0 )860,0(51.0 )590,0(12.0 )311,0(52.0 )2710(83.0 )902,0(64.0
)43,0(5 )460,0(41.0 )370,0(61.0 )1,0(22.0 )811,0(62.0 )6810(14.0 )722,0(05.0
)96,0(01 )860,0(51.0 )280,0(81.0 )901,0(42.0 )231,0(92.0 )20(44.0 )42,0(35.0
)7,1(52 )770,0(71.0 )1,0(22.0 )141,0(13.0 )361,0(63.0 )420(35.0 )592,0(56.0
)4,3(05 )1,0(22.0 )221,0(72.0 )771,0(93.0 )902,0(64.0 )9920(66.0 )673,0(38.0
)2,5(57 )811,0(62.0 )141,0(13.0 )402,0(54.0 )542,0(45.0 )9430(77.0 )274,0(40.1
)9,6(001 )231,0(92.0 )951,0(53.0 )722,0(05.0 )772,0(16.0 )930(68.0 )305,0(11.1
)6,8(521 )541,0(23.0 )771,0(93.0 )942,0(55.0 )803,0(86.0 )6240(49.0 )855,0(32.1
)3,01(051 )951,0(53.0 )191,0(24.0 )272,0(06.0 )633,0(47.0 )7640(30.1 )306,0(33.1
)8,31(002 )181,0(04.0 )222,0(94.0 )313,0(96.0 )763,0(18.0 )450(91.1 )86,0(05.1
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM549
550
TECHNICAL
- continued -
sepiPleetS04eludehcShguorhTretaWfowolFEGRAHCSID F°06TARETAWROFEPIP04ELUDEHCSNIYTICOLEVDNATEEF001REPPORDERUSSERP
snollaGrep
etuniM
.tFcibuCrep
dnoceS
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
"8/1 "4/12.0 644000.0 31.1 68.1 616.0 953.0 "8/3 "2/13.0 866000.0 96.1 22.4 429.0 309.0 405.0 951.0 713.0 160.0
"4/34.0 198000.0 62.2 89.6 32.1 16.1 276.0 543.0 224.0 680.05.0 11100.0 28.2 5.01 45.1 93.2 048.0 935.0 825.0 761.0 103.0 330.06.0 43100.0 93.3 7.41 58.1 92.3 10.1 157.0 336.0 042.0 163.0 140.08.0 87100.0 25.4 0.52 64.2 44.5 43.1 52.1 448.0 804.0 184.0 201.0 "1
1 32200.0 56.5 2.73 80.3 82.8 86.1 58.1 60.1 006.0 206.0 551.0 173.0 840.0 "4/1-12 64400.0 92.11 4.431 61.6 1.03 63.3 85.6 11.2 01.2 02.1 625.0 347.0 461.0 924.0 440.0 "2/1-13 86600.0 52.9 1.46 40.5 9.31 71.3 33.4 18.1 90.1 411.1 633.0 446.0 090.0 374.0 340.04 19800.0 33.21 2.111 27.6 9.32 22.4 24.7 14.2 38.1 94.1 565.0 858.0 051.0 036.0 170.05 41110.0 "2 04.8 7.63 82.5 2.11 10.3 57.2 68.1 538.0 370.1 322.0 887.0 401.06 73310.0 475.0 440.0
"2/1-280.01 9.15 33.6 8.51 16.3 48.3 32.2 71.1 92.1 903.0 349.0 541.0
8 28710.0 567.0 370.0 44.31 1.19 54.8 7.72 18.4 06.6 79.2 99.1 27.1 815.0 62.1 142.001 82220.0 659.0 801.0 076.0 640.0
"365.01 4.24 20.6 99.9 17.3 99.2 51.2 477.0 85.1 163.0
51 24330.0 34.1 422.0 10.1 490.0 30.9 6.12 75.5 63.6 22.3 36.1 73.2 557.002 65440.0 19.1 573.3 43.1 851.0 868.0 650.0 "2/1-3 30.21 8.73 34.7 9.01 92.4 87.2 61.3 82.152 07550.0 93.2 165.0 86.1 432.0 90.1 380.0 218.0 140.0
"482.9 7.61 73.5 22.4 49.3 39.1
03 48660.0 78.2 687.0 10.2 723.0 03.1 411.0 479.0 650.0 41.11 8.32 44.6 29.5 37.4 27.253 89770.0 53.3 50.1 53.2 634.0 25.1 151.0 41.1 170.0 288.0 140.0 99.21 2.23 15.7 09.7 25.5 46.304 21980.0 38.3 53.1 86.2 655.0 47.1 291.0 03.1 590.0 10.1 250.0 58.41 5.14 95.8 42.01 03.6 56.454 3001.0 03.4 76.1 20.3 866.0 59.1 932.0 64.1 711.0 31.1 460.0 76.9 08.21 90.7 58.505 4111.0 87.4 30.2 53.3 938.0 71.2 882.0 26.1 241.0 62.1 670.0 47.01 66.51 88.7 51.706 7331.0 47.5 78.2 20.4 81.1 06.2 64.0 59.1 402.0 15.1 701.0 "5 98.21 2.22 74.9 12.0107 0651.0 07.6 48.3 96.4 95.1 40.3 045.0 72.2 162.0 67.1 341.0 21.1 740.0 50.11 17.3108 2871.0 56.7 79.4 63.5 30.2 74.3 786.0 06.2 433.0 20.2 081.0 82.1 060.0 26.21 95.7109 5002.0 06.8 02.6 30.6 35.2 19.3 168.0 29.2 614.0 72.2 422.0 44.1 470.0 "6 02.41 0.22001 8222.0 65.9 95.7 07.6 90.3 43.4 50.1 52.3 905.0 25.2 272.0 06.1 090.0 11.1 630.0 877.51 9.62521 5872.0 79.11 67.11 83.8 17.4 34.5 16.1 60.4 967.0 51.3 514.0 10.2 531.0 93.1 550.0 27.91 4.14051 2433.0 63.41 07.61 50.01 96.6 15.6 42.2 78.4 80.1 87.3 085.0 14.2 091.0 76.1 770.0571 9983.0 57.61 3.22 37.11 79.8 06.7 00.3 86.5 44.1 14.4 477.0 18.2 352.0 49.1 201.0002 6544.0 41.91 8.82 24.31 86.11 86.8 78.3 94.6 58.1 40.5 589.0 12.3 323.0 22.2 031.0 "8522 3105.0 --- --- 90.51 36.41 77.9 38.4 03.7 23.2 76.5 32.1 16.3 104.0 05.2 261.0 44.1 340.0052 755.0 --- --- --- --- 58.01 39.5 21.8 48.2 03.6 64.1 10.4 594.0 87.2 591.0 06.1 150.0572 7216.0 --- --- --- --- 49.11 41.7 39.8 04.3 39.6 97.1 14.4 385.0 50.3 432.0 67.1 160.0003 4866.0 --- --- --- --- 00.31 63.8 47.9 20.4 65.7 11.2 18.4 386.0 33.3 572.0 29.1 270.0523 1427.0 --- --- --- --- 21.41 98.9 35.01 90.4 91.8 74.2 12.5 797.0 16.3 023.0 80.2 380.0
053 8977.0 --- --- --- --- 63.11 15.5 28.8 48.2 26.5 919.0 98.3 763.0 42.2 590.0573 5538.0 --- --- --- --- 71.21 81.6 54.9 52.3 20.6 5.01 61.4 614.0 04.2 801.0004 2198.0 --- --- --- --- 89.21 30.7 80.01 86.3 24.6 91.1 44.4 174.0 65.2 121.0524 9649.0 --- --- --- --- 08.31 98.7 17.01 21.4 28.6 33.1 27.4 925.0 37.2 631.0054 300.1 "01 --- --- --- --- 16.41 08.8 43.11 06.4 22.7 84.1 00.5 095.0 98.2 151.0574 950.1 39.1 450.0 --- --- --- --- 79.11 21.5 26.7 46.1 72.5 356.0 40.3 661.0005 411.1 30.2 950.0 --- --- --- --- 06.21 56.5 20.8 18.1 55.5 027.0 12.3 281.0055 522.1 42.2 170.0 --- --- --- --- 58.31 97.6 28.8 71.2 11.6 168.0 35.3 912.0006 733.1 44.2 380.0 --- --- --- --- 21.51 40.8 36.9 55.2 66.6 20.1 58.3 852.0056 844.1 46.2 790.0 --- --- --- --- --- --- 34.01 89.2 22.7 81.1 71.4 103.0
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM550
551
TECHNICAL
)deunitnoc(sepiPleetS04eludehcShguorhTretaWfowolFEGRAHCSID F°06TARETAWROFEPIP04ELUDEHCSNIYTICOLEVDNATEEF001REPPORDERUSSERP
snollaGrep
etuniM
.tFcibuCrep
dnoceS
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
erusserPporD)ISP(
yticoleVrep.tF(
).ceS
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"01 "21 "5 "6 "8007 065.1 58.2 211.0 10.2 740.0 --- --- --- --- 32.11 34.3 87.7 53.1 94.4 343.0057 176.1 50.3 721.0 51.2 450.0
"41--- --- --- --- 30.21 29.3 33.8 55.1 18.4 293.0
008 287.1 52.3 341.0 92.2 160.0 --- --- --- --- 38.21 34.4 88.8 57.1 31.5 344.0058 498.1 64.3 061.0 44.2 860.0 20.2 240.0 --- --- --- --- 46.31 00.5 44.9 69.1 54.5 794.0009 500.2 66.3 971.0 85.2 570.0 31.2 740.0 --- --- --- --- 44.41 85.5 99.9 81.2 77.5 455.0059 711.2 68.3 891.0 27.2 380.0 52.2 250.0 --- --- 42.51 12.6 55.01 24.2 90.6 316.00001 822.2 70.4 812.0 78.2 190.0 73.2 750.0
"61--- --- 40.61 48.6 01.11 86.2 14.6 576.0
0011 154.2 84.4 062.0 51.3 011.0 16.2 860.0 --- --- 56.71 32.8 22.21 22.3 50.7 708.00021 476.2 88.4 603.0 44.3 821.0 58.2 008.0 81.2 240.0 --- --- --- --- 33.31 18.3 07.7 849.00031 698.2 92.5 553.0 37.3 051.0 80.3 390.0 63.2 840.0 --- --- --- --- 34.41 54.4 33.8 11.10041 911.3 07.5 904.0 10.4 171.0 23.3 701.0 45.2 550.0 55.51 31.5 89.8 82.10051 243.3 01.6 664.0 03.4 591.0 65.3 221.0 27.2 360.0
"8166.61 58.5 26.9 64.1
0061 565.3 15.6 725.0 95.4 912.0 97.3 831.0 09.2 170.0 77.71 16.6 62.01 56.10081 010.4 23.7 366.0 61.5 672.0 72.4 271.0 72.3 880.0 85.2 050.0 99.91 73.8 45.11 80.20002 654.4 41.8 808.0 37.5 933.0 47.4 902.0 36.3 701.0 78.2 060.0
"0212.22 3.01 28.21 55.2
0052 075.5 71.01 42.1 71.7 515.0 39.5 123.0 45.4 361.0 95.3 190.0 30.61 49.30003 486.6 02.21 67.1 06.8 137.0 11.7 154.0 54.5 232.0 03.4 921.0 64.3 570.0
"4242.91 95.5
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.oCenarCfonoissimrephtiw,sdiulFfowolF,014.oNrepaPlacinhceTmorfdetcartxE
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM551
552
TECHNICAL
- continued -
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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM552
553
TECHNICAL
)deunitnoc(sepiPleetS04eludehcShguorhTriAfowolF
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.oCenarCfonoissimrephtiw,sdiulFfowolF,014.oNrepaPlacinhceTmorfdetcartxE
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM553
554
TECHNICAL
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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM554
555
TECHNICAL
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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM555
556
TECHNICAL
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331741251961481
251861471391112
271981691812732
012232932662092
842472382513343
9484
"46/57464
0370.00670.01870.05870.00180.0
91400.045400.097400.048400.051500.0
1.740.158.354.459.75
4.669.179.576.676.18
8.085.783.293.392.99
7.29101601701411
301211811911721
311221921031931
121231431041941
921041841941951
631841651851861
341551461561671
651961871081191
661081091291402
871291302502812
981502612812232
102712922232642
922942262562282
852082592892713
613243163563883
473504724234954
54443424
"23/3
0280.00680.00980.05390.07390.0
82500.028500.022600.078600.009600.0
3.953.569.962.775.77
6.381.295.89901011
201311021331331
711921831251351
031341351961071
141751761581681
351961081991002
361971291212212
271981202322422
081991212432532
691612132552652
902032642272372
422642362192292
832262082013113
352872892923053
982913043673873
523953383324524
893934964815025
174915555216516
1404938373
0690.00890.05990.05101.00401.0
42700.045700.087700.090800.094800.0
3.187.484.789.094.59
511021421821531
041641051651461
161761271971881
871681291991902
591302902812822
012812522432642
322232932942162
532542352362672
742752562672092
962082982003513
782892803023633
603913923243953
623043153563383
643163273783604
693314624344464
644464974894325
645865585016046
546276396127757
- continued -
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM556
557
TECHNICAL
)deunitnoc(secifirOdnasdupSfoseiticapaC
LLIRDNOITANGISED
,RETEMAIDSEHCNI
,AERAERAUQSSEHCNI
0.1FOTNEICIFFEOCECIFIRONADNASAGLARUTANERUSSERPHGIHYTIVARG6.0FOHFCNISEITICAPAC
eguaGisP,erusserPmaertspU
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 01 21 41 61 81 02 52 03 04 05
63"46/7
534333
5601.04901.00011.00111.00311.0
19800.004900.005900.086900.030010.0
001601701901311
141941151451951
271281381781491
791802012412222
912132432832742
042352552062072
852272572082092
472982292892903
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403123423033243
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773893204014424
204424824634254
624944454364084
784415025035945
945975585695816
176807617927657
497838748368498
2313"8/1
0392
0611.00021.00521.05821.00631.0
75010.013110.072210.069210.033410.0
911721831641461
861971591602032
402812732052082
432052272782223
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482403033843093
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343763993124274
063683814244594
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814744584215575
744874915845516
674015355485556
505145785026596
875916176907597
156696657897398
6972584296790011
2490101001106110031
82"46/9
726252
5041.0604100441.00741.05941.0
94510.035510.092610.079610.055710.0
471571381191791
642642852962872
992003413723933
343443163673883
183283104714234
614714834654274
844944174194705
674874105225045
305405925155075
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575675506036156
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896007437467097
047247977118938
748948198829069
459659010105010801
07110711032108210331
08310931064102510751
4232
"23/52212
0251.00451.02651.00751.00951.0
51810.036810.071910.063910.068910.0
402012612812322
882592403703513
053953073373383
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525935455065475
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476196117317737
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768098619529949
2990201050106010901
02110511081100210321
07310141054106410051
02610661017103710771
029181
"46/1171
0161.00661.05961.09171.00371.0
63020.046120.065220.002320.015320.0
922342452162462
323343853863373
393714534744354
154974994315025
105235555175875
745185606326236
985526256176086
626566496317327
166307337357367
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168519459189499
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3790401080101110311
02110911042107210921
06210431093103410541
04510361007105710771
02810391010207020012
61514131
0771.00081.00281.00581.0
16420.054320.020620.088620.0
772682392203
093304214624
574194205815
545365675595
506626046166
166486996227
117637257777
657287008628
997628548378
938868788619
319449569799
379010103010601
0401080100110411
0111051108110121
0811022105210921
0531004103410741
0251075101610661
0681029106910302
0022072202320042
"61/3211101
9
5781.00981.00191.00391.00691.0
16720.060820.056820.004920.071030.0
013513223133933
734544454664874
235145255765285
116126436056766
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247457077097018
897118828058278
948268188409729
698119039559089
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03010501070109010211
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07110911022105210721
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02310431073101410541
01510451075101610561
00710371077101810681
08020212061202220822
06420052065202620962
87
"46/3165
0991.00102.01302.00402.05502.0
01130.037130.014230.096230.071330.0
053753463763373
394305315815525
006216526036936
886207717327437
567087797408618
538258078878198
998719739549959
65957969901010201
01010301060107010801
06010901011102110311
06110811012102210321
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02310531073109310141
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09410251055107510951
00710471087109710281
02910691000202020502
05320932054207420052
07720382098202920692
43
"23/721
0902.00312.07812.00122.00822.0
13430.036530.085730.063830.038040.0
683004224134954
345465595806746
166786427937787
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4486784293490101
129959010103010011
1990301090101110811
06010011061108110621
02110611022105210331
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05410151095103610371
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04610171008104810591
08810591060200120422
02120022023207320252
09520962038209820803
07720382098202920692
A"46/51
BCD
0432.04432.00832.00242.00642.0
10340.041340.094440.000640.033740.0
384584005715435
186386507527337
928138758619
15945948902010601
06010601001103110711
06110611002104210821
05210521092103310731
03310331073102410641
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04910591010208020412
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06320632044202520062
05620662047204820392
04230523053307430853
06030813053302430463
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"46/71H
0052.00752.00162.06562.00662.0
90940.078150.005350.024550.075550.0
255385106326426
777128748878088
6490001040107010701
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05320842065205620662
09620482039203030403
03030023003301430243
00730193030408140914
08340264077404940594
- continued -
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM557
558
TECHNICAL
)deunitnoc(secifirOdnasdupSfoseiticapaC
LLIRD-GISED
NOITAN
,RETEMAIDSEHCNI
,AERAERAUQSSEHCNI
0.1FOTNEICIFFEOCECIFIRONADNASAGLARUTANERUSSERPHGIHYTIVARG6.0FOHFCNISEITICAPAC
eguaGisP,erusserPmaertspU
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 01 21 41 61 81 02 52 03 04 05
IJK
"23/9L
0272.00772.00182.02182.00092.0
118500.0620600.0201600.0311600.0506600.0
356776796896247
6197593894890501
02110711002100210821
09210431083108310641
03410941035103510361
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08610571008100810191
09710681019101910302
09810691020202020512
08910602021202120522
06120422003201320542
00320932054206420162
06420552036203620082
02620272008200820892
08720882079207920613
08130033093300430163
08530173028303830704
08340454086408640894
08150735035504550985
M"46/91
N"61/5
O
0392.09692.00203.05213.00613.0
538600.0229600.0361700.0076700.0348700.0
867877508268188
09010011041102210521
02310431083108410251
02510351095100710471
08610171067109810391
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03320632044202620662
04520752066205820192
01720472038203030013
09820392030305230233
08030213032306430453
07230133034307630573
04730973029300240924
01240624014402740384
05150225004508750195
09060716093604860996
P"46/12
QR
"23/11
0323.01823.00233.00933.07343.0
491800.0654800.0756800.0620900.0182900.0
02905927902010501
00310431073103410741
08510361076104710971
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00220722033203420052
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02930404041402340444
08440364047404940805
05050125033506550275
08160736025600860996
00370457027704080728
ST
"46/32U
"8/3
0843.00853.04953.00863.00573.0
11590.06001.04101.05601.05011.0
07010311041100210421
01510061016109610571
04810491069105020312
01120322052206320542
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05540184058405050825
00250055055502850406
06850026042605560086
07170857046702080338
08480798040908490589
VW
"46/52XY
0773.00683.00693.00793.00404.0
6111.00711.08911.08321.02821.0
06210231053109310441
07710681009106910302
05120622013209320742
07420952056204720482
05720092059205030513
00030023022303330543
03230833064308530173
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04350955037502950316
00160536055607760107
07860027083702670987
01480288030903390669
0599004,01007,01001,11005,11
"23/31Z
"46/72"61/7"46/92
2604.00314.09124.05734.01354.0
5921.00431.08931.03051.03161.0
06410151075109610281
06020312022208320652
00520952007200920113
07820792001303330753
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006,11000,21005,21004,31004,41
"23/51"46/13
"2/1"46/33"23/71
7864.04484.00005.06515.03135.0
6271.03481.04691.08802.07122.0
04910702012205320942
04720823011301330153
03330553097303040824
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04640594082501650695
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07770038058800490899
003800880049000,01006,01
0449001,01008,01005,11002,21
007,01004,11001,21009,21007,31
003100931008410085100761
004,51004,61005,71006,81008,91
"46/53"61/9"46/73"23/91"46/93
9645.05265.01875.08395.04906.0
9432.05842.05262.09672.07192.0
04620972059201130823
02730493061409340264
03540774060504350265
00250055018503160546
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09290289073,01049,01006,11
0399005,01001,11007,11004,21
006,01002,11009,11005,21002,31
003,11009,11006,21003,31000,41
009,21006,31004,41002,51000,61
005,41003,51002,61001,71000,81
0077100881008910090200022
000,12000,22004,32007,42000,62
"8/5"46/14"23/12"46/34"61/11
0526.06046.02656.09176.05786.0
8603.03223.02833.05453.02173.0
05430263008308930714
06840115063502650885
01950126025603860517
09760317084704870128
04570297023802780319
04280668080902590799
078801390779003,01006,01
03490199004,01009,01005,11
0699005,01000,11005,11001,21
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004,11000,21006,21002,31008,31
002,21008,21004,31000,41007,41
007,21007,31003,41000,5100751
009,31006,41003,51000,61008,61
007,41004,51002,61000,71008,71
008,61007,71005,81004,91003,02
009,81009,91009,02009,12009,22
0013200342005520076200082
004,72008,82002,03006,13001,33
"23/32"4/3
"23/52"61/31"23/72
8817.00057.02187.05218.08348.0
7504.08144.04974.05815.01955.0
06540694093503850826
03460007095701280588
0287015804290999008,01
07980779006,01005,11004,21
0799009,01008,11008,21008,31
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008,11008,21009,31000,51002,61
005,21006,31008,41000,61002,71
002,31004,41006,51009,61002,81
009,31001,51004,61007,71001,91
001,51004,61008,71003,91008,02
001,61005,71000,91005,02001,22
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003,81009,91006,12004,32002,52
004,91002,12009,22008,42007,62
002,22002,42002,62004,82006,03
000,52002,72005,92000,23004,43
0060300333001630019300124
002,63004,93008,24002,64008,94
"8/7"23/92"61/51"23/13
"0.1
0578.02609.05739.08869.00000.1
3106.00546.03096.01737.04587.0
06760527057708280288
0259002,01009,01007,11004,21
006,11004,21003,31002,41001,51
003,31003,41003,51003,61004,71
008,41009,51000,71002,81003,91
002,61004,71006,81008,91001,12
004,71007,81000,02003,12007,22
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006,91000,12004,22000,42005,52
005,02000,22006,32001,52008,62
003,22000,42006,52004,72002,92
008,32005,52005,72002,92001,13
005,52004,62002,92002,13002,33
001,72001,92001,13002,33004,53
008,82009,03000,33003,53006,73
009,23003,53008,73003,04000,34
000,73007,93005,24004,54004,84
0035400684000250065500295
006,35005,75005,16007,56000,07
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM558
559
TECHNICAL
SIL
ICO
NE
FL
UID
200
CS
SIL
ICO
NE
FL
UID
1000
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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM559
560
TECHNICAL
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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM560
561
TECHNICAL
Effect of Inlet Swage On Critical
Flow Cg Requirements
Valve Cg/Valve Inlet Area
Sw
ag
ed
Cg
/Lin
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Cg
1
0
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100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
0.95
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0.85
0.8
0.75
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM561
562
TECHNICAL
srotalugeRdegnalFrofsnoisnemiDecaF-oT-ecaFISNA
,EZISYDOBSEHCNI
)7991-1.10.4SASIHTIWECNADROCCANIERASNOISNEMIDHCNI(SNOITCENNOCDNEDNASSALCISNA
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)mm(sehcnI
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)481(52.7)002(88.7)322(57.8
)791(57.7)312(83.8)532(52.9
)791(57.7)312(83.8)532(52.9
)012(52.8)522(88.8)842(57.9
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)762(05.01)292(05.11)813(05.21
)762(05.01)982(83.11)113(52.21
)382(21.11)803(21.21)333(21.31
)682(52.11)113(52.21)733(52.31
)982(83.11)413(83.21)043(83.31
468
)253(88.31)154(57.71)345(83.12
)863(05.41)374(26.81)865(83.22
)563(83.41)464(52.81)655(88.12
)483(21.51)984(52.91)485(00.32
)493(05.51)805(00.02)016(00.42
)793(26.51)115(21.02)316(21.42
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)807(88.72)577(05.03)7501(26.14
)686(00.72)947(05.92)9201(05.04
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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM562
563
TECHNICAL
seidoBevlaV051ssalCISNArofsgnitaRerutarepmeT-erusserPdradnatS )1(
ECIVRESERUTAREPMET
)C°(F°
)RAB(GISP,ERUSSERPGNIKROW
BCL CCL BCW CCW 6CW 9CW 8FC ro 403 M8FC ro 613 M3FC ro L613 M8GC ro 713 C8FC ro 743
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)7.91(582)9.71(062
)0,02(092)9.71(062
)0,02(092)9.71(062
)0,02(092)9.71(062
)0,91(572)8,31(032
)0,91(572)2.61(532
)0,91(572)2.61(532
)0,91(572)2.61(532
)0,91(572)6,71(552
)941(003)402(004
)9,51(032)8,31(002
)9,51(032)8,31(002
)9,51(032)8,31(002
)9,51(032)8,31(002
)9,51(032)8,31(002
)9,51(032)8,31(002
)1,41(502)1,31(091
)8,41(512)4,31(591
)8,41(512)4,31(591
)8,41(512)4,31(591
)9,51(032)8,31(002
)062(005)613(006
)7,11(071)56,9(041
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)7,11(071)56,9(041
)7,11(071)56,9(041
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)7,11(071)56,9(041
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)26,8(521---
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)26,8(521)85,7(011
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.dradnatsEMSAehthtiwecnadroccanidesuebtsumselbatesehT.6991-43.61BdradnatSEMSA,dnEgnidleWdna,dedaerhT,degnalF-evlaVehtmorfdetcartxesinoitamrofnielbaT.1
seidoBevlaV003ssalCISNArofsgnitaRerutarepmeT-erusserPdradnatS )1(
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)83ot92-(001ot02-)39(002
)9,74(596)2,54(556
)7,15(057)7,15(057
)0,15(047)5,64(576
)7,15(057)7,15(057
)7,15(057)7,15(057
)7,15(057)7,15(057
)6,94(027)4,14(006
)6,94(027)7,24(026
)6,94(027)7,24(026
)6,94(027)7,24(026
)6,94(027)5,54(066
)941(003)402(004
)1,44(046)7,24(026
)3,05(037)6,84(507
)2,54(556)8,34(536
)3,05(037)6,84(507
)6,94(027)9,74(596
)3,05(037)6,84(507
)5,63(035)4,23(074
)6,83(065)5,53(515
)6,83(065)5,53(515
)6,83(065)5,53(515
)4,24(516)6,93(575
)062(005)613(006
)3,04(585)9,63(535
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)2,73(045)5,53(515
)343(056)173(007
)2,63(525---
)7,04(095---
)9,63(535)9,63(535
)7,04(095)3,93(075
)7,04(095)3,93(075
)7,04(095)3,93(075
)3,82(014)9,72(504
)7,03(544)6,92(034
)7,03(544)6,92(034
)7,03(544)6,92(034
)8,43(505)1,43(594
.dradnatsEMSAehthtiwecnadroccanidesuebtsumselbatesehT.6991-43.61BdradnatSEMSA,dnEgnidleWdna,dedaerhT,degnalF-evlaVehtmorfdetcartxesinoitamrofnielbaT.1
seidoBevlaV006ssalCISNArofsgnitaRerutarepmeT-erusserPdradnatS )1(
ECIVRESERUTAREPMET
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.dradnatsEMSAehthtiwecnadroccanidesuebtsumselbatesehT.6991-43.61BdradnatSEMSA,dnEgnidleWdna,dedaerhT,degnalF-evlaVehtmorfdetcartxesinoitamrofnielbaT.1
seidoBevlaVEWBroTPN051ssalCISNArofsgnitaRerutarepmeT-erusserPlaicepS )1(
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)062(005)613(006
)3,81(562)3,81(562
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)1,41(502)4,31(591
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)1,41(502)4,31(591
)9,51(032)2,51(022
)343(056)173(007
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)0,02(092)0,91(572
)0,02(092)3,91(082
)0,91(572)0,91(572
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.dradnatsEMSAehthtiwecnadroccanidesuebtsumselbatesehT.6991-43.61BdradnatSEMSA,dnEgnidleWdna,dedaerhT,degnalF-evlaVehtmorfdetcartxesinoitamrofnielbaT.1
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM563
564
TECHNICAL
-29 0 30 65 100 150 178 208
34.5
232
27.6
22.0
17.2
13.8
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8.6
5.0
0
0
0
50
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150
200
250
300
350
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450
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TEMPERATURE, F°
TEMPERATURE, °C
PR
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CLASS B(1”-12”)
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CLASS B(14”-24”)
CLASS A(1”-12”)
ANSI CLASS
125 RATINGS
SATURATED
STEAM
ANSI CLASS 250 RATINGS
Pressure/Temperature Ratings for ASTM A126 Cast Iron Valves
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)941(003)402(004
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)4,14(006)3,83(555
)1,34(526)3,93(075
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)062(005)613(006
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)7,15(057)7,15(057
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)7,15(057)7,15(057
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.dradnatsEMSAehthtiwecnadroccanidesuebtsumselbatesehT.6991-43.61BdradnatSEMSA,dnEgnidleWdna,dedaerhT,degnalF-evlaVehtmorfdetcartxesinoitamrofnielbaT.1
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.dradnatsEMSAehthtiwecnadroccanidesuebtsumselbatesehT.6991-43.61BdradnatSEMSA,dnEgnidleWdna,dedaerhT,degnalF-evlaVehtmorfdetcartxesinoitamrofnielbaT.1
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52.5157.7152.0205.2257.42
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00.9105.2200.5257.7205.03
57.1283.42---------
024203632484
00.5205.9200.6357.2405.9400.65
00.7200.2352.9300.6457.2557.06
05.8200.33------------
05.9205.53------------
57.2300.93------------
------------------
.segnalfeznorb051ssalCISNAotylppaoslahcni21hguorhthcni1seziS.1.segnalfeznorb003ssalCISNAotylppaoslahcni8hguorhthcni1seziS.2
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM564
565
TECHNICAL
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nepo-ediw,evlavelgnA 2.8 11 41 81 12 82 33 24 65 58 211 541 561 091 022 052 082 043 024
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,nepo-ediw,evlavetaGnoitcudergnihsubthgilsro
4.0 5.0 6.0 80. 9.0 2.1 3.1 7.1 3.2 5.3 5.4 7.5 7.6 0.8 0.9 11 21 41 71
.noitceridfoegnahconhtiweetehthguorhtthgiartssiwolfehtnehweetafonurehthguorhtwolfotdiassidiulfA.1.epipgnitcennocregralehtfoaeralanretniehtnahtssel%52siepipgnitcennocrellamsehtfoaeralanretniehtfi4/1decuderebotdiassieetA.2
SHARP ENTRANCELOSS = 0.9 VP
MANIFOLD TAKE-OFFLOSS = 0.7 VP
FLANGED ENTRANCELOSS = 0.5 VP
a° LOSS15 16 VP30 17 VP45 25 VP60 35 VP
a
snoitanibmoClairetaMfotrahCecnatsiseRgnillaGdnaraeW
LAIRETAM403
sselniatSleetS
613sselniatS
leetSeznorB lenocnI lenoM CyolletsaH lekciN 02yollA
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FFSFF
PPSFF
PPSFF
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FPPFF
FPPFF
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FFFF
FFFF
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FFFS
FFFS
FFSS
FFSS
FFSS
FSSS
SSSS
PSSS
SPSS
SSPS
SSSP
gnitaoClekciNsselortcelE.1yrotcafsitaS-S
riaF-FrooP-P
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM565
566
TECHNICAL
leetSsselniatS—leetSyollAdnanobraC:ataDepiP
lanimoNeziSepiP)sehcnI(
edistuOretemaiD)sehcnI(
noitacifitnedIllaW
)t(ssenkcihT)sehcnI(
edisnI)d(retemaiD
)sehcnI(
lateMfoaerAerauqS()sehcnI
aerAlanretnIesrevsnarTepiPthgieWrepsdnuoP(
)tooF
thgieWretaW
repsdnuoP()epiPfotooF
leetS sselniatSleetS
eludehcS.oN
)a(erauqS()sehcnI
)A(erauqS(
)teeFepiPnorI
eziSeludehcS
.oN
8/1 504.0
...DTS
...04
S01S04
940.0860.0
703.0962.0
8450.00270.0
0470.08650.0
15000.004000.0
91.042.0
230.0520.0
SX 08 S08 590.0 512.0 5290.0 5630.0 52000.0 13.0 610.0
4/1 045.0
...DTS
...04
S01S04
560.0880.0
014.0463.0
0790.00521.0
0231.01401.0
19000.027000.0
33.024.0
750.0540.0
SX 08 S08 911.0 203.0 4751.0 6170.0 05000.0 45.0 130.0
8/3 576.0
...DTS
...04
S01S04
560.0190.0
545.0394.0
6421.00761.0
3332.00191.0
26100.033100.0
24.075.0
101.0380.0
SX 08 S08 621.0 324.0 3712.0 5041.0 89000.0 47.0 160.0
2/1 048.0
...
...DTS
...
...04
S5S01S04
560.0380.0901.0
017.0476.0226.0
3851.04791.03052.0
9593.08653.00403.0
57200.084200.011200.0
45.076.058.0
271.0551.0231.0
SX...SXX
08061...
S08......
741.0781.0492.0
645.0664.0252.0
0023.06383.03405.0
0432.06071.0
050.0
36100.081100.053000.0
90.113.117.1
201.0470.0220.0
4/3 050.1
...
...DTS
...
...04
S5S01S04
560.0380.0311.0
029.0488.0428.0
1102.01252.06233.0
8466.08316.00335.0
26400.062400.017300.0
96.068.031.1
882.0662.0132.0
SX...SXX
08061...
S08......
451.0912.0803.0
247.0216.0434.0
5334.08965.00817.0
0334.01692.0
841.0
00300.060200.030100.0
74.149.144.2
881.0821.0460.0
1 513.1
...
...DTS
...
...04
S5S01S04
560.0901.0331.0
581.1790.1940.1
3552.00314.09394.0
9201.12549.00468.0
66700.065600.000600.0
78.004.186.1
8740904.0573.0
SX...SXX
08061...
S08......
971.0052.0853.0
759.0518.0995.0
8836.05638.00670.1
0917.07125.0
282.0
99400.026300.069100.0
71.248.266.3
213.0032.0221.0
4/1-1 066.1
...
...DTS
...
...04
S5S01S04
560.0901.0041.0
035.1244.1083.1
7523.07174.05866.0
938.1336.1594.1
77210.043110.004010.0
11.118.172.2
797.0807.0946.0
SX...SXX
08061...
S08......
191.0052.0283.0
872.1061.1698.0
5188.00701.1
435.1
382.1750.1036.0
19800.043700.083400.0
00.367.312.5
555.0854.0372.0
2/1-1 009.1
...
...DTS
...
...04
S5S01S04
560.0901.0541.0
077.1286.1016.1
7473.03316.05997.0
164.2222.2630.2
90710.034510.041410.0
82.190.227.2
660.1369.0288.0
SX...SXX
08061...
S08......
002.0182.0004.0
005.1833.1001.1
860.1924.1588.1
767.1604.1059.0
52210.067900.006600.0
36.368.414.6
567.0806.0
24.0
2 573.2
...
...DTS
...
...04
S5S01S04
560.0901.0451.0
542.2751.2760.2
7174.00677.0570.1
859.3456.3553.3
94720.083520.003320.0
16.146.256.3
27.185.154.1
SX...SXX
08061...
S08......
812.0443.0634.0
939.1786.1305.1
774.1091.2656.2
359.2142.2477.1
05020.065510.023210.0
20.564.730.9
82.179.077.0
.91.93Bdna01.63BISNAmorfdetcartxeerasthgiewdnassenkcihtllaw,noitacifitnedI.ylevitcepserepipgnortSartxEelbuoDdna,gnortSartxE,dradnatSetacidniSXXdna,SX,DTSsnoitatonehT
.htgnelepipfotoofrepteefcibucniemulovtneserperosla"teeferauqs"nidetsilseulavaeralanretniesrevsnarT
- continued -
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM566
567
TECHNICAL
)deunitnoc(leetSsselniatS—leetSyollAdnanobraC:ataDepiP
lanimoNeziSepiP)sehcnI(
edistuOretemaiD)sehcnI(
noitacifitnedIllaW
)t(ssenkcihT)sehcnI(
edisnI)d(retemaiD
)sehcnI(
lateMfoaerAerauqS()sehcnI
aerAlanretnIesrevsnarTepiPthgieWrepsdnuoP(
)tooF
thgieWretaW
repsdnuoP()epiPfotooF
leetS sselniatSleetS
eludehcS.oN
)a(erauqS()sehcnI
)A(erauqS(
)teeFepiPnorI
eziSeludehcS
.oN
2/1-2 578.2
...
...DTS
...
...04
S5S01S04
380.0021.0302.0
907.2536.2964.2
0827.0930.1407.1
467.5354.5887.4
20040.078730.022330.0
84.235.397.5
05.263.270.2
SX...SXX
08061...
S08......
972.0573.0255.0
323.2521.2177.1
452.2549.2820.4
832.4645.3464.2
24920.036420.001710.0
66.710.0196.31
78.145.170.1
3 005.3
...
...DTS
...
...04
S5S01S04
380.0021.0612.0
433.3062.3860.3
0198.0472.1822.2
037.8743.8393.7
36060.069750.003150.0
30.333.485.7
87.326.302.3
SX...SXX
08061...
S08......
003.0834.0006.0
009.2426.2003.2
610.3502.4664.5
506.6804.5551.4
78540.055730.058820.0
52.0123.4185.81
68.253.208.1
2/1-3 000.4
...
...DTS
...
...04
S5S01S04
380.0021.0622.0
438.3067.3845.3
120.1364.1086.2
545.11401.11
688.9
71080.011770.007860.0
84.379.411.9
00.518.492.4
SX 08 S08 813.0 463.3 876.3 888.8 07160.0 05.21 48.3
4 005.4
...
...DTS
...
...04
S5S01S04
380.0021.0732.0
433.4062.4620.4
251.1156.1471.3
57.4152.4137.21
54201.089890.004880.0
29.316.597.01
93.681.605.5
SX......SXX
08021061...
S08.........
733.0834.0135.0476.0
628.3426.3834.3251.3
704.4595.5126.6101.8
05.1113.01
82.908.7
68970.06170.05460.02450.0
89.4100.9115.2245.72
89.474.420.483.3
5 365.5
...
...DTS
...
...04
S5S01
04
901.0431.0852.0
543.5592.5740.5
868.1582.2003.4
44.2220.2210.02
8551.09251.00931.0
63.677.726.41
27.945.976.8
SX......SXX
08021061...
S08.........
573.0005.0526.0057.0
318.4365.4313.4360.4
211.6359.7696.9043.11
91.8153.6116.4179.21
3621.06311.05101.01090.0
87.0240.7269.2355.83
88.790.733.616.5
6 526.6
...
...DTS
...
...04
S5S01S04
901.0431.0082.0
704.6753.6560.6
132.2337.2185.5
42.2347.1398.82
9322.04022.06002.0
06.792.979.81
79.3157.3115.21
SX......SXX
08021061...
S08.........
234.0265.0917.0468.0
167.5105.578105798.4
504.807.0123.3146.51
70.6277.3251.1248.81
0181.00561.09641.08031.0
75.8293.6353.5461.35
92.1103.01
61.961.8
9 526.8
...
...
...
...DTS
...
...020304
S5S01......S04
901.0841.0052.0772.0223.0
704.8923.8521.8170.8189.7
619.2149.3
75.662.704.8
15.5584.4558.1561.1530.05
5583.04873.01063.03553.04743.0
39.904.3163.2207.4255.82
60.4216.3274.2271.2207.12
...SX.........SXX...
0608001021041...061
...S08...............
604.0005.0495.0917.0218.0578.0609.0
318.7526.7734.7781.7100.7578.6318.6
84.0167.2169.4148.7139.9103.1279.12
49.7466.5464.3495.0405.8321.7364.63
9233.01713.08103.09182.03762.08752.02352.0
46.5393.3459.0517.0667.7624.2796.47
77.0287.9138.8195.7186.6101.6108.51
01 057.01
...
...
...
...DTS
...
...020304
S5S01......S04
431.0561.0052.0703.0563.0
284.01024.01052.01631.01020.01
63.494.542.870.0109.11
92.6882.5825.2896.0868.87
2995.02295.01375.03065.05745.0
91.5156.8140.8242.4384.04
93.7359.6367.5369.4302.43
SX.........SXX...
0608001021041061
S08...............
005.0495.0917.0448.0000.1521.1
057.9265.9213.9260.9057.8005.8
01.6129.8136.2242.6236.0320.43
66.4748.1731.8635.4631.0657.65
5815.09894.02374.01844.06714.01493.0
47.4534.4630.7792.9831.40146.511
53.2331.1335.9269.7260.6295.42
.91.93Bdna01.63BISNAmorfdetcartxeerasthgiewdnassenkcihtllaw,noitacifitnedI.ylevitcepserepipgnortSartxEelbuoDdna,gnortSartxE,dradnatSetacidniSXXdna,SX,DTSsnoitatonehT
.htgnelepipfotoofrepteefcibucniemulovtneserperosla"teeferauqs"nidetsilseulavaeralanretniesrevsnarT
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM567
568
TECHNICAL
snoisnemiDegnalFepiPnaciremA42.61BDNA,5.61B,1.61BISNAREP,SEHCNI--RETEMAIDEGNALFSSALCISNA
lanimoNeziSepiP
)norItsaC(521051ro)leetS( )1(
)norItsaC(052)leetS(003ro )2( 006 009 0051 0052
14/1-12/1-1
22/1-2
52.426.400.500.600.7
88.452.521.605.605.7
88.452.521.605.605.7
88.552.600.705.826.9
88.552.600.705.826.9
52.652.700.852.905.01
34568
05.700.900.0100.1105.31
52.800.0100.1105.2100.51
52.857.0100.3100.4105.61
05.905.1157.3100.5105.81
05.0152.2157.4105.5100.91
00.2100.4105.6100.9157.12
0121416181
00.6100.9100.1205.3200.52
05.7105.0200.3205.5200.82
00.0200.2257.3200.7252.92
05.1200.4252.5257.7200.13
00.3205.6205.9205.2300.63
05.6200.03---------
024203632484
05.7200.2357.8300.6400.3505.95
05.0300.6300.3400.0500.7500.56
00.2300.73------------
57.3300.14------------
57.8300.64------------
------------------
.segnalfeznorb051ssalCISNAotylppaoslahcni-21hguorhthcni-1seziS.1.segnalfeznorb003ssalCISNAotylppaoslahcni-8hguorhthcni-1seziS.2
snoisnemiDegnalFepiPnaciremA,SEHCNINIRETEMAIDELOHDNASTLOBDUTSFOREBMUN,SSALCISNA
42.61BDNA,5.61B,1.61BISNAREP
lamroNpiP e
eziS
tsaC(521)norI051ro)leetS( )1(
tsaC(052)norI003ro)leetS( )2(
006 009 0051 0052
.oN .aiD .oN .aiD .oN .aiD .oN .aiD .oN .aiD .oN .aiD
14/1-12/1-1
22/1-2
44444
05.005.005.026.026.0
44488
26.026.057.026.057.0
44488
26.026.057.026.057.0
44488
88.088.000.188.000.1
44488
88.088.000.188.000.1
44488
88.000.121.100.121.1
34568
48888
26.026.057.057.057.0
8882121
57.057.057.057.088.0
8882121
57.057.000.100.121.1
8882121
88.021.152.121.183.1
8882121
21.152.105.183.126.1
888821
52.105.157.100.200.2
0121416181
2121216161
88.088.000.100.121.1
6161020242
00.121.121.152.152.1
6102020202
52.152.183.105.126.1
6102020202
83.183.105.126.188.1
2161616161
88.100252.205.257.2
2121---------
05.257.2---------
024203632484
020282236344
21.152.152.105.105.105.1
424282236304
52.105.157.100.200.200.2
4242------------
26.188.1------------
0202------------
00.205.2------------
6161------------
00.305.3------------
------------------
------------------
.segnalfeznorb051ssalCISNAotylppaoslahcni-21hguorhthcni-1seziS.1.segnalfeznorb003ssalCISNAotylppaoslahcni-8hguorhthcni-1seziS.2
DIN Cast Steel Flange Standard—Nenndruck 25(Nominal Pressure 25 Bar)
NOMINALBORE,
mm
PIPETHICKNESS,
mm
FLANGE, mm BOLTING, mm
OutsideDiameter
ThicknessBolt
CircleDiameter
Numberof Bolts
ThreadBolt HoleDiameter
1015202532
66
6,577
9095105115140
1616181818
60657585100
44444
M12M12M12M12M16
1414141418
40506580100
7,58
8,5910
150165185200235
1820222424
110125145160190
44888
M16M16M16M16M20
1818181823
125150175200250
1112121214
270300330360425
2628283032
220250280310370
88121212
M24M24M24M24M27
2727272730
300350400500600
1516182123
485555620730845
3438404446
430490550660770
1616162020
M27M30M33M33M36
3033363639
70080090010001200
2426272932
9601085118513201530
5054586270
875990109012101420
2424282832
M39M45M45M52M52
4248485656
1400160018002000
34374043
1755197521952425
76849096
1640186020702300
36404448
M56M56M64M64
62627070
61kcurdnneN–dradnatSegnalFleetStsaCNID)raB61erusserPlanimoN(
LANIMON,EROB
mm
EPIP,SSENKCIHT
mm
,EGNALF mm ,GNITLOB mm
edistuOretemaiD
ssenkcihTtloBelcriC
retemaiD
rebmuNstloBfo
daerhTtloBeloH
retemaiD0151025223
665,6
77
0959501511041
6161818181
06565758001
44444
21M21M21M21M61M
4141414181
04055608001
5,7885,85,9
051561581002022
8102810202
011521541061081
44488
61M61M61M61M61M
8181818181
521051571002052
0111212141
052582513043504
2222424262
012042072592553
8882121
61M02M02M02M42M
8132323272
003053004005006
5161811232
064025085517048
8203236304
014074525056077
2161610202
42M42M72M03M33M
7272033363
00700800900010021
4262729223
0195201521155215841
2424446425
048059050107110931
4242828223
33M63M63M93M54M
6393932484
00410061008100020022
4363931434
58610391031254325552
8546860747
09510281020203220442
6304448425
54M25M25M65M65M
8465652626
18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM568
569
TECHNICAL
sgnitaRevlaVleetStsaCNID–sdradnatSNID )1(
LANIMON,ERUSSERP
)RAB(
)RAB(ERUSSERPGNIKROWELBISSIMREP
021–01- oC 002 oC 052 oC 003 oC 053 oC 004 oC
61520446001
61520446001
4122530508
3102235407
1171820406
0161426365
831122305
061052023004
061052023004
031002052023
211571522082
69051291042
09041081522
08521061002
02tagnitarsemit5.1:erusserptsetcitatsordyH.1 o .C
DIN Cast Steel Flange Standard–Nenndruck 40(Nominal Pressure 40 Bar)
NOMINALBORE,
mm
PIPETHICKNESS,
mm
FLANGE, mm BOLTING, mm
OutsideDiameter
ThicknessBolt CircleDiameter
Numberof Bolts
ThreadBolt HoleDiameter
1015202532
66
6,577
9095105115140
1616181818
60657585100
44444
M12M12M12M12M16
1414141418
40506580100
7,58
8,5910
150165185200235
1820222424
110125145160190
44888
M16M16M16M16M20
1818181823
125150175200250
1112131416
270300350375450
2628323438
220250295320385
88121212
M24M24M27M27M30
2727303033
300350400450500
1719212121
515580660685755
4246505052
450510585610670
1616162020
M30M33M36M36M39
3336393942
6007008009001000
2427303336
890995114012501360
6064727680
795900103011401250
2024242828
M45M45M52M52M52
4848565656
120014001600
424754
157517952025
8898108
146016801900
323640
M56M56M64
626270
46kcurdnneN–dradnatSegnalFleetStsaCNID)raB46erusserPlanimoN(
LANIMON,EROB
mm
EPIP,SSENKCIHT
mm
,EGNALF mm ,GNITLOB mm
edistuOretemaiD
ssenkcihTelcriCtloBretemaiD
rebmuNstloBfo
daerhTeloHtloBretemaiD
0151522304
0101012101
001501041551071
0202424282
0757001011521
44444
21M21M61M02M02M
4141813222
055608001521
0101112131
081502512052592
6262820343
531061071002042
48888
02M02M02M42M72M
2222226203
051571002052003
4151619112
543573514074035
6304246425
082013543004064
821212161
03M03M33M33M33M
3333636363
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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:52 AM569
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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM570
571
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
AAbsolute Pressure (abs press) - Gauge pressure plus barometric pressure. Absolute pressure can be zero only in a perfectvacuum.
Absolute Viscosity (abs visc) - The product of a fluid’s kinematic viscosity times its density. Absolute viscosity is a measure ofa fluid’s tendency to resist flow, without regard to its density. Sometimes the term dynamic viscosity is used in place of absoluteviscosity.
Accuracy - A measure of how close a regulator can keep downstream pressure (P2) to the setpoint. Regulator accuracy isexpressed as percent droop or proportional band or offset in percent of setpoint or in units of pressure.
ACFH - Actual Cubic Feet per Hour. The actual volume of fluid measured by the meter. This is not SCHF (standard cubic feetper hour).
Active/Working Regulator - A regulator that is in service performing a control function.
Adjusting Screw - A screw used to affect the compression setting of a loading spring.
AGA - The American Gas Association or Australian Gas Association.
Airsets - See Filter/Supply Regulators.
ALPGA - Australian Liquefied Petroleum Gas Association, Ltd.
ANSI - American National Standards Institute.
API - American Petroleum Institute.
Appliance (Equipment) - Any device that uses gas as a fuel or raw material to produce light, heat, power, refrigeration, or airconditioning.
ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Aspirator - Any device using fluid velocity effect to produce a low-pressure zone. Used in regulator control and combustionsystems.
Atmospheric Pressure - The pressure exerted by the atmosphere at a given location and time. Sea level pressure is approximately14.7 pounds per square inch absolute (1.0 bar absolute.
Automatic Control System - A control system that operates without human intervention.
Automatic Cutoff - A device used on some regulators to close the main valve in the event of pressure deviation outside of apreset range. Must be reopened manually.
BBackpressure Regulator - This is a device that controls and responds to changes in its upstream/inlet pressure. Functions thesame as a relief valve in that it opens on increasing upstream pressure.
Barometer - An instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure, usually in inches, centimeters, or millimeters of mercurycolumn.
Barometric Pressure - The atmospheric pressure at a specific place according to the current reading of a barometer.
Bellows - A flexible, thin-walled cylinder made up of corrugations one next to the other that can expand or contract underchanging pressures.
Bimetallic Thermal System - A device working on the difference in coefficient of expansion between two metals to produce thepower to position a valve plug in response to temperature change.
19TechGloss.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:24 AM571
Glossary of Terms
572
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Bleed - Removal of fluid from a higher pressure area to a lower pressure area in a regulator pilot system.
Bode Diagram - A plot of log amplitude ratio and phase values on a log frequency base for a transfer function. (It is a commonform of graphically presenting frequency response data.)
Body - Pressure retaining shell enclosing the restricting element.
Boiler - A closed vessel in which a liquid is heated or vaporized.
Bonnet - The regulator component that connects the valve body to the actuator.
Boost - The increase in control pressure above setpoint as flow is increased from low flow to maximum flow. Some regulatorsexhibit droop instead of boost.
British Thermal Unit (Btu) - The quantity of heat required to raise one pound of water from 59°F to 60°F.
Buildup - In a relief valve, the pressure increase above setpoint required to produce a given flow rate.
BSPT - British Standard Pipe Thread.
CC1 - A term used in a sizing equation. It is defined as the ratio of the gas sizing coefficient and the liquid sizing coefficient andprovides a numerical indicator of the valve’s recovery capabilities.
Cage - A hollow, cylindrical trim element that is a guide to align the movement of a valve plug with a seat ring and/or retainsthe seat ring in the valve body. The walls of the cage contain openings that usually determine the flow characteristic of thecontrol valve.
Capacity, Flow - The amount of a specified fluid that will flow through a valve, specific length and configuration of tubing, amanifold, fitting, or other component at a specified pressure drop in a fixed period of time. (scfh, gpm, m /h(n), lpm, pph)
Capacity, Rated - The rate of flow through the regulator specified by the manufacturer for a given inlet pressure, outletpressure, offset, and size.
Capacity, Wide-Open - If a wide-open failure occurs, this is the amount a regulator will flow.
Cavitation - A phenomenon whereby liquid flowing through a valve under reduced pressure will form gaseous bubbles that willcollapse upon pressure recovery, producing potential trim damage. This is a concern when high-pressure drops exist across thevalve.
Centipoise - A unit for measurement of absolute viscosity. One centipoise is equal to one hundredth of a poise, the metric (cgs)unit of absolute viscosity. The absolute viscosity of water at 20°C is approximately one centipoise.
Centistoke - A unit for measurement of kinematic viscosity. One centistoke is equal to one hundredth of a stoke, the metric (cgs)unit of kinematic viscosity. The kinematic viscosity in centistokes times the density equals the absolute viscosity in centipoises.
CFH - Cubic Feet per Hour (ft3/h). Volumetric measurement of gas flow per hour, generally at line conditions.
Cg (Flow Coefficient) - A term used in gas and steam valve sizing equations. The value of Cg is proportional to flow rate and isused to predict flow based on physical size or flow area.
CGA - Canadian Gas Association.
Coal/Coke Oven Gas - A gas with a high sulfur content that is produced from baking coal. It may also contain tar that cancause sticking in moving parts of a regulator. Regulators with brass or copper parts should not be used with this gas. Often thisgas requires the use of fluoroelastomers.
Compressibility Effect - The change in density of gas or air under conditions of compression.
Compression (Spring) - The action on a spring which decreases its length relative to the force to which it is subjected.
19TechGloss.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:24 AM572
573
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Condensate - The liquid resulting when a vapor is cooled and/or when its pressure is increased.
Control Line - The external piping which connects the regulator actuator or pilot to the point on the main line where controlis required.
Control Valve - A mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically operated valve, using an external power source to effect itsoperation, that modifies the fluid flow characteristics in a process. It consists of a valve connected to an actuator mechanismthat is capable of changing the position of the flow controlling element or closure member in the valve in response to a signalfrom the controlling device.
Controller - A device that operates automatically to regulate a controlled variable.
Critical Flow - The rate at which a fluid flows through an orifice when the stream velocity at the orifice is equal to the velocityof sound in the fluid. Under such conditions, the rate of flow may be increased by an increase in upstream pressure, but it willnot be affected by a decrease in downstream pressure. Critical flow occurs when P2 is approximately 1/2 of P1 absolute.
Critical Velocity - The velocity at critical flow. Also called sonic velocity.
CSA - Canadian Standards Association.
Cs (Flow Coefficient) - Steam valve sizing coefficient. At pressures below 1000 psig, a constant relationship exists between thegas sizing coefficient (Cg) and the steam coefficient (Cs). This relationship is expressed: Cs = Cg ÷ 20.
Cv (Flow Coefficient) - Liquid sizing coefficient. It is numerically equal to the number of U.S. Gallons of water at 60°F thatwill flow through the valve in one minute when the pressure differential across the valve is one pound per square inch.
DDead Band - The range through which an input can be varied without initiating observable response.
Delta P (DP) (∆∆∆∆∆P) (Pressure Drop) - The difference between the inlet and outlet pressures.
Demand - The rate at which fluid is delivered to or required by a system, part of a system, or a piece of equipment, usuallyexpressed in terms of volume per unit of time.
Density - The weight of a unit volume of a substance. Also called specific weight.
Diaphragm - A flexible membrane used in a regulator or relief valve to sense changes in downstream pressure and respond tothem, thus moving the restricting element or closure member to which it is attached.
Diaphragm Actuated Regulator - A regulator utilizing a diaphragm and actuator to position the valve plug.
Diaphragm Case - A housing used for supporting a diaphragm and establishing one or two pressure chambers.
Diaphragm Effect - The change in effective area of the diaphragm as the regulator strokes from low to high flow.
Diaphragm Plate - A plate used to transmit force in conjunction with a diaphragm and fluid pressure on a spring to the actuatorstem or pusher post.
Differential Pressure - The difference in pressure between two points in a system.
Differential Pressure Regulator - A device that maintains a constant differential pressure between a reference pressure and thepressure of the controlled fluid.
Digester Gas - A gas produced by sewage treatment plants. This gas is used to power burners and engines. Due to its highmethane content, stainless steel construction may be required.
Disk - A movable part that is positioned in the flow path to modify the rate of flow through the valve. It is often made of anelastomer material to improve shutoff capability.
Downstream - Any site beyond a reference point (often a valve or regulator) in the direction of fluid flow.
19TechGloss.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:24 AM573
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Drift - A change in setpoint over an extended period of time.
Droop - The amount a regulator deviates below its setpoint as flow increases. Some regulators exhibit boost instead of droop.
DVGW - Deutscher Verein des Gas - und Wasserfaches e.v.(German approval agency).
Dynamic Unbalance - The force exerted on a valve plug when fluid is flowing through the valve.
EEffective Area - In a diaphragm actuator, the part of the diaphragm area that generates operating force. The effective area isless than the total area. (The effective area of a diaphragm may change as it is stroked, usually being a maximum at the startand a minimum at the end of the travel range. Molded diaphragms have less change in effective area than flat-sheet diaphragms.)
End Connection - The style of joint used to make a pressure tight connection between the valve body and the pipeline.
Entropy - A thermodynamic quantity that measures the fraction of the total energy of a system that is not available for doingwork.
Enthalpy - Total heat content, expressed in BTU per pound, above an arbitrary set of conditions chosen as the base or zeropoint.
External Pressure Registration - A regulator with a control line. The actuator pressure is isolated from the body outlet pressurewithin the regulator.
External Static Line - The same as control line.
FFace-to-Face Dimension - The dimension from the face of the inlet opening to the face of the outlet opening of the regulator.
Fail-Closed - In the event of a regulator failure, a condition wherein the valve port remains closed. All regulators can fail openor closed.
Fail-Open - In the event of a regulator failure, a condition wherein the valve port remains open. All regulators can fail openor closed.
Filter/Supply Regulators - Pressure reducing regulators used in air service to simultaneously filter and reduce pressure. Usedto supply process control instruments pneumatic power. Also called airsets.
First Stage Regulator - A regulator used to reduce inlet pressure to a set value being fed to another regulator in series.
Fixed Factor Measurement - The measurement of gas at a controlled elevated pressure without the use of an automaticcorrecting device to correct the volume for variation from base or contract pressure. This is accomplished by placing anaccurate regulator upstream of the meter. Also known as PFM (Pressure Factor Measurement).
Fixed Restriction - A small diameter hole in the pilot or piloting system that determines gain.
Flange - End connections of regulator valve bodies used for bolting onto another fitting or pipe element.
Flange Facing - The finish on the end connection of valves.
Flashing - A condition when liquid changes to the vapor state caused by pressure reduction inside a valve.
Flow Capacity - The rated flow through a regulator under stated inlet, outlet, and droop pressures.
Flow Characteristic - Relationship between flow through the valve and percent rated travel.
19TechGloss.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:24 AM574
575
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Flow Coefficient - See Cv, Cs, Cg, C1.
Flow Rate - The amount (mass, weight, or volume) of fluid flowing through a valve body per unit of time.
Fluid - Materials in a liquid, gas, or vapor state, as opposed to a solid.
Fuel Gas - A commonly distributed gas used for fuel, such as natural gas, propane, landfill gas, etc.
Full Capacity Relief - A relief valve that has the capability of maintaining downstream pressure to within certain limits inthe event of some type of failure, by venting the excess gas to the atmosphere.
GGage Pressure - (Psig or bar g) The difference between atmospheric pressure and the pressure being measured. Alsowritten gauge pressure.
Gas - That state of matter which expands to fill the entire container which holds it. Gas is one of the forms of matter (solid,liquid, and gas).
Gas Utilization Equipment - Any device which utilizes gas as a fuel or raw material, or both.
Gauge Pressure - Pressure reading as shown on a gauge (psig or bar g). The difference between atmospheric pressure andthe pressure the gauge is measuring. Also written gage pressure.
Gauge, Pressure - An instrument that measures the pressure of a fluid.
Governor - An attachment to a machine for automatic control or limitation of speed. Also, an archaic term used for a low-pressure, direct-operated, pressure reducing gas regulator.
HHard Facing - A material harder than the surface to which it is applied. Used to resist galling or fluid erosion.
Header - A piping configuration where a number of pipes are combined at one location.
Hunting - A condition in which a regulator’s outlet pressure slowly fluctuates on either side of a setpoint.
Hysteresis - A deviation from setpoint caused by friction and parts clearance.
IImpulse Line - See control line.
Inch of Water - A unit of pressure measurement. The pressure required to support a column of water one inch high.Typically reported as inches w.c. (water column); 27.68 inches of water is equal to one pound per square inch (psi).
Inlet Pressure - The pressure at the inlet opening of a valve (P1).
Inlet Pressure Sensitivity - The increase or decrease in the outlet pressure caused by changes in the inlet pressure whichresults in differing degrees of force being applied to the seat disk and diaphragm.
Internal Relief Valve - A small, spring-loaded pressure relief valve contained within the regulator at the center of thediaphragm to prevent outlet pressure from exceeding a predetermined pressure.
I/O - Input/Output -- Electrical inputs and electrical outputs.
19TechGloss.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:24 AM575
Glossary of Terms
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
J - K - LKm - Value recovery coefficient - used in liquid sizing equations to determine ∆P allowable for cavitation.
Kinematic Viscosity (kin visc) - The relative tendency of fluids to resist flow. The value of the kinematic viscosity includes theeffect of the density of the fluid. The kinematic viscosity is equal to the absolute viscosity divided by the density.
LCD - Liquid crystal display; readout panel which displays alphanumeric sequences in digital format.
Landfill Gas - A gas produced by decaying organic matter in a garbage landfill. This gas is used to power burners and engines.This gas has a high methane content and may contain other gases; therefore, stainless steel construction is usually required.
Liquid Expansion Thermal System - A closed system containing liquid whose expansion and contraction in response totemperature changes provides the power to position a valve member.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) - Butane, propane, or a mixture of the two, obtained from oil or gas wells, or as a by-productfrom the refining of gasoline. It is sold in metal bottles under pressure as a liquid; hence, sometimes called bottled gas.
Loading Element - In a regulator, the means for placing a measured amount of force against the regulator’s diaphragm. Theloading element is commonly a spring.
Loading Pressure - The pressure employed to position a pneumatic actuator. (This is the pressure that actually works on theactuator diaphragm or piston to change the position of the valve plug.)
Lockup Pressure - Increase over setpoint when the regulator is at no-flow condition.
MNm3/h - meters cubed per hour (normal); measurement of volume rate of a gas at atmospheric pressure and 0°C.
Sm3/h - meters cubed per hour (standard); measurement of volume rate of a gas at atmospheric pressure and 60°F.
Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure (MAOP) - The maximum pressure that the system may be operated at as determinedby its components, taking into account function and a factor of safety based on yield of parts or fracture.
Maximum Operating Pressure - The maximum pressure existing in a piping system during normal operation.
Measuring Element - A diaphragm that senses (measures) changes in downstream pressure and causes the regulator restrictingelement to move toward the open or closed position.
Minimum Controllable Flow - The lowest flow at which a steady regulated condition of the controlled variable can be maintained.
Modbus - Protocol used for communications between electronic devices developed by Gould Modicon.
N - ONACE - National Association of Corrosion Engineers
Natural Gas - A hydrocarbon gas consisting mainly of methane.
NPT - National Pipe Thread, a standard for tapered thread used on pipes and pipe fittings.
Offset - The deviation from setpoint for a given flow. Negative offset is equivalent to droop.
Operating Pressure - The actual pressure at which a device operates under normal conditions. This pressure may be positive ornegative with respect to atmospheric pressure.
19TechGloss.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:24 AM576
577
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Orifice - A fixed opening, normally the inside diameter of a seat ring, through which fluid passes. The term can also refer tothe inlet or outlet of a regulator or pilot valve. Also called a port.
Outlet Pressure (Reduced Pressure) - The pressure leaving the outlet opening of a valve (P2).
Over-Pressure Cut-Off Device - A mechanical device incorporated in a gas pipework system to shut off the supply of gas whenthe pressure at the sensing point rises to a predetermined value.
PP1 - Inlet or upstream pressure.
P2 - Outlet or downstream pressure.
PFM (Pressure Factor Measurement) - The measurement of gas at a controlled elevated pressure without the use of anautomatic correcting device to correct the volume for variation from base or contract pressure. This is accomplished byplacing an accurate regulator upstream of the meter. Also known as Fixed Factor Measurement
PID - Proportional/Intergral/Derivative device. Usually used as a controller.
Pilot (Amplifier) - A relatively small controlling regulator that operates the main regulator. They are used to increaseaccuracy.
Piston Actuated Regulator - A regulator utilizing a piston rather than a diaphragm actuator.
Pitot Tube - A hollow tube that connects the area beneath the regulator diaphragm with the vena contracta area of gas flow.The pitot tube causes the diaphragm to sense a pressure lower than that which exists downstream of the regulator, and thusallows the regulator to open more for any given change in downstream pressure. The result is increased regulator accuracy.
PL - Loading pressure. Pressure of fluid on the main diaphragm that is controlled by a pilot regulator.
Plug - Piece that throttles against an orifice to increase and decrease flow.
Poise - A metric unit for measuring absolute viscosity. One poise equals one dynesecond per square centimeter, or one gram percentimeter second.
Port - A fixed opening, normally the inside diameter of a seat ring, through which fluid passes. The term can also refer to theinlet or outlet of a regulator or pilot valve. Also called an orifice.
Powder Paint Coating - A paint process that uses dry powder with no solvents for surface finish. Dry powder can be reused,thereby reducing waste and pollutants. The powder coating over a clean surface provides better corrosion resistance thanliquid coat.
Pressure - Force per unit area.
Pressure Buildup - In a relief valve, the pressure increase above setpoint required to produce a given flow rate.
Pressure Differential - The difference in pressure between two points in a system.
Pressure Drop - The difference between the inlet and outlet pressures.
Pressure Reducing Regulator - A valve that satisfies downstream demand while maintaining a constant reduced pressure. Asthe pressure decreases, the valve opens to increase flow.
Pressure Relief Valve - A valve that opens and closes to ensure that pressure does not rise above a predetermined value.
Propane - An easily liquefiable hydrocarbon gas. Propane is one of the components of raw natural gas, and it is also derivedfrom petroleum refining processes. Its chemical formula is C3H8.
Proportional Band (Amount of Deviation) - The amount a regulator deviates from setpoint as the flow increases from minimumto maximum. Also referred to as droop or offset.
19TechGloss.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:24 AM577
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
psia - pounds per square inch, absolute - The pressure above a perfect vacuum, calculated from the sum of the pressure gaugereading and the (local or ambient) atmospheric pressure (approximately 14.7).
psid - Pounds per square inch, differential.
psig - Pounds per square inch, gauge. The pressure above atmospheric pressure. Near sea level the atmospheric pressure isapproximately 14.7 pounds per square inch.
Q - RRange - The region between the limits within which a quantity is measured, received, or transmitted, expressed by stating thelower and upper range values (Example: 3 to 15 psi; –40 to +212°F+ –40 to +100°C).
Rangeability - The ratio of maximum rated capacity to the minimum controllable flow within the specified accuracy band.
Rate of Flow - The volume of material passing a given point in a system per unit of time.
Rated Working Pressure - The maximum allowable pressure specified by the manufacturer.
Reduced Pressure - The pressure leaving the outlet opening of a valve (P2). More commonly called outlet pressure.
Regulator, Direct-Operated - See Pressure Reducing Regulator.
Regulator, Pilot-Operated - Two regulators connected so that one increases the effect of downstream pressure changes on theother. This arrangement is used to provide increased accuracy and flow capacity compared to direct-operated regulators.
Relief Valve - See Pressure Relief Valve.
Relief Valve, Pilot-Operated - Two relief valves connected so that one increases the effect of inlet pressure changes on theother. This arrangement is used to provide increased capacity and reduced buildup compared to other relief valve types.
Relief Valve, Pop Type - A spring-loaded poppet type relief valve.
Repeatability - The closeness of agreement of a regulated value when returned to the same steady-state conditions afterupset(s).
Reseat Point - In a relief/backpressure valve which is opened by an increase in inlet pressure, the point where the valve closes.
Restricting Element - The element that restricts and controls fluid flow in a system. In a regulator this element is typically adisk and orifice combination, or plug and cage assembly.
RTD - Resistance Temperature Detector. A resistance device used to measure temperature.
RTU - Remote Terminal Unit or Remote Telemetry Unit.
SSaybolt Furol - A scale used for measuring the viscosity of heavy oils. The instrument has a larger orifice and is used at ahigher temperature than the Saybolt Universal instrument used for lighter oils.
Saybolt Universal - A scale used for measuring the viscosity of oil, expressed in seconds required for a specified amount of oilto flow through an orifice; hence, the larger the number of seconds, Saybolt Universal (SSU), the more viscous the oil.
SCFH - Standard cubic feet per hour. Volumetric gas measurement of flow per hour at standard or at base conditions.
Seat - The portion of the seat ring or valve body which a closure member contacts for shutoff.
Seat Leakage - Flow of fluid past a seat or seal when in the closed position.
19TechGloss.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:24 AM578
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Seat Ring - A separate piece inserted in a valve body to form a valve body port. It generally provides a seating surface for a plugor disk.
Self-Contained Regulator - Pressure control device that is powered by the process media pressure and does not require outsideenergy.
Setpoint - The pressure at which the regulator or relief valve is set to control.
Set Pressure Range - The range of pressures, specified by the manufacturer, within which the device can be adjusted.
Soft Seat - An elastomeric, plastic, or other readily deformable material used either in the valve plug or seat ring to provide tightshutoff with minimal force.
Sonic Velocity - The speed of sound for a particular gas at a given inlet pressure and temperature.
Sour Gas - Gaseous fuel that contains a relatively large proportion of sulfur or sulfur compounds. See the discussion on SulfideStress Cracking in the Technical Section.
Specific Gravity - The ratio of weight of a given volume of fluid to the weight of an equal volume of liquid/gas at statedtemperature.
Speed of Response (Stroking Speed) - The amount of time it takes the valve plug or disk to travel from completely closed tocompletely open (0 to 100%).
Spring - Part used as the loading element in a regulator. Length is adjusted to establish setpoint.
Spring Adjustment Screw - A screw used to compress the spring to establish the regulator setpoint.
Spring Rate (K) - Spring rate is defined by the amount of force required to compress a spring a given distance. Spring rate isgiven in force/length (for example, lbf/in).
Stability - The ability to hold a steady controlled variable within the limits of stated accuracy of regulation.
Standard Atmosphere - The accepted normal atmospheric pressure at sea level, equal to 14.696 pounds per square inch.
Standard Barometer - The reading of a barometer for standard atmospheric pressure; equal to 29.92 inches of mercury column.
Standard Gravity - Standard accepted value for the force of gravity. It is equal to the force which will produce an accelerationof 32.17 feet per second per second.
Standard Pressure - The same as standard atmosphere; equal to a pressure of 14.696 pounds per square inch.
Static Line - See Control Line.
Static Pressure - The pressure in a fluid at rest.
Static Unbalance - The force exerted on a valve plug due to fluid pressure in the non-flowing condition.
Stoke - The cgs unit of kinematic viscosity. One stoke equals one centimeter squared per second.
Supercompressibility - Many gases are more compressible under high pressure at ordinary temperatures than indicated byBoyle’s Law. These gases, measured at the high pressures, will occupy a greater volume when the pressure is reduced to nearatmospheric pressure.
T - UTherm - 100,000 Btu.
Thermostat - A device that automatically maintains a predetermined temperature in an appliance or component.
Travel - The amount of linear movement of the valve closure member from the closed position to the rated full-open position.
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Travel Indicator - An external, visible device used to indicate the travel of the valve plug.
Trim - The replaceable internal parts of a regulator, usually made up of a seat ring or orifice, valve plug or disk and disk holder,and stem; other replaceable internal parts may be considered trim.
Under-Pressure Cut-Off Device - A mechanical device incorporated in a gas pipework system to shut off the supply of gas whenthe pressure at the sensing point falls to a predetermined figure.
V - WVacuum Breaker - A valve used to limit an increase in vacuum. An increase in vacuum (decrease in absolute pressure) beyonda certain value registers on the diaphragm. The valve disk will open permitting atmospheric, positive pressure, or an upstreamvacuum that has a higher absolute pressure than the downstream vacuum, to enter the system and restore to setpoint.
Vacuum Regulator - A device that maintains a vacuum at a setpoint. A decrease in this vacuum (increase in absolute pressure)beyond this value registers underneath the diaphragm and opens the valve. This permits the downstream vacuum of lowerabsolute pressure than the upstream vacuum to restore the upstream vacuum to its original pressure setting.
Valve - A device used for the control of fluid. It consists of a fluid retaining assembly, one or more parts between end openings,and a movable closure member which opens, restricts, or closes the port(s).
Valve Body - A pressure retaining housing for internal parts having inlet and outlet flow connections.
Valve Closure Member - The movable part which is positioned in the flow path to modify the rate of flow through the valve, oftenmade of an elastomer material to improve shutoff.
Valve Linkage - A lever or levers connecting the diaphragm to the valve plug or valve plug stem.
Valve Plug - A movable part which provides a variable restriction in a port.
Valve, Needle - A small, adjustable valve in which the position of a pointed plug or needle relative to an orifice or tapered orificepermits or restricts fluid flow.
Valve, Isolation - Simple valves located in the piping system used to isolate individual equipment. They are designed to beoperable by hand and installed to be readily accessible to the consumer.
VDC - Volts direct current.
Vena Contracta - The location where cross-sectional area of the flow stream is at its minimum size, where fluid velocity is at itshighest level, and fluid pressure is at its lowest level. (The vena contracta normally occurs just downstream of the actualphysical restriction in a regulator.)
Vent - An opening in the regulator spring case to allow atmospheric pressure access to the diaphragm, thus allowing freemovement of the diaphragm during operation.
Viscosity - The tendency of a fluid to resist flow.
Viscosity, Absolute - The product of a fluid’s kinematic viscosity times its density. Absolute viscosity is a measure of a fluid’stendency to resist flow, without regard to its density. Sometimes the term dynamic viscosity is used in place of absoluteviscosity.
Viscosity, Kinematic - The relative tendency of fluids to resist flow. The value of the kinematic viscosity includes the effect ofthe density of the fluid. The kinematic viscosity is equal to the absolute viscosity divided by the density.
Viscosity, SAE Number - The Society of Automotive Engineers’ arbitrary numbers for classifying fluids according to theirviscosities. The numbers in no way indicate the viscosity index of fluids.
Viscosity, SUS (or SSU) - Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS), which is the time in seconds for 60 milliliters of oil to flow througha standard orifice at a given temperature (ASTM Designation D88.56).
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Volume Corrected - The volume metered times metering pressure plus atmospheric pressure/base pressure equals volumecorrected.
Water Column - A unit of measurement. The pressure required to support a column of water one inch high. Typically reportedas inches w.c. (water column); 27.68 inches of water is equal to one pound per square inch (psi).
Weight, Specific - The weight per unit volume of a substance. The same as density.
X - Y - ZYoke - A structure by which the diaphragm case or cylinder assembly is supported rigidly on the bonnet assembly.
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