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TheapplicationofShariahinWesternThrace
ProtectingthereligiousfreedomoftheMuslimminorityordismantlingtheGreekConstitution?
byEiriniKakoulidou
InWesterncountriessomeMuftisandMuslimorganisationsexpresstheneedfor
adesignatedcompetentbody,whichwouldresolvemattersofIslamicLaw,such
asdissolutionofmarriage,inheritanceandmarriage.Thecriticsarestrongly
opposedtotheseproposals,duetosecularprinciplesandthenecessityofa
commonlegalframework,whichcombatsanykindofdiscrimination(racial,religiousetc.).
However,foralmostonecentury,intheGreekareaofThrace1,theMuslimcitizens
haveexercisedtheirrighttosettletheirlegalissueswiththehelpoftheirmuftis.
ThevalidityofIslamicLawintheGreeklegalsystemisbasedonArticle4ofLaw
147/1914.2
Theprevailinglegalopinionisthatthisprovisionintroducesapersonallegal
systemoflocalcharacterthatisanexceptionconcerningonlytheGreekMuslims
livinginWesternThrace.GreekMuslimslivingoutsideWesternThraceare
subjectedexclusivelytotheprovisionsoftheCivilCode.Article5paragraph2of
thelaterLaw1920/1991states:TheMuftihasjurisdictionamongMuslimGreek
citizensofhisregiononmarriages,divorces,alimonies,custodies,guardianships,
emancipationofminors,Muslimwills,andinheritancedisputes,ifthese
relationshipsareruledbytheShariah.3
Infact,thereisadualjudicialsystemfortheMuslimminorityinWesternThrace;
theapplicationofIslamicLawandthecivilGreekCode.Officially,inthe
1Western Thrace or simply Thrace is located between the Nestos and Evros. Together with
the regions of Macedonia and Epirus, it is often referred to informally as northern Greece. It
is also called Greek Thrace to distinguish it from Eastern Thrace, which lies east of the river
Evros and forms the European part of Turkey, and the area to the north, in Bulgaria, known as
Northern Thrace.
2
Greek Helsinki Monitor, 2006 : http://www.iwraw-ap.org/resources/pdf/Greece(1).pdf3
Ibid
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abovementionedlegalissues,theMuslimscanchooseeitherthecivilcourtorthe
Muftislegalservices.Actually,inmostofthecases,theychoosethejudgementof
theMufti.Thisspeciallegalsystemofconcurrentjurisdiction,asdefinedbythe
EU,isamatterofcontroversyamongGreeklawyersandhumanrightsorganisations.
ThevexedquestionhasbeenwhetherShariahfamilylawcontains,essentially,
discriminatoryprovisionswhichviolatehumanrights,particularlywomensrights.
Onthesubjectofwomensrights,theapplicationofShariahlawintheareaof
WesternThraceseemstobeinconflictwiththeprovisionsoftheGreek
Constitutionandlegislation.Additionally,itviolatesfundamentalhumanrights
whichfightagainstallformsofdiscriminatorytreatmenttowardswomen.
Thissituationhascreatedalegalandfundamentaldilemma;Ontheonehand,
thereistheneedtoprotectthereligiousfreedomoftheMuslimminority,in
accordancewithitsownculturalandtraditionalvalues.Ontheotherhand,itis
necessarytoensureconformitywiththecardinalrulesofhumanrights,bothona
Europeanandonaninternationallevel,includingtherighttoreligioustolerance.
Isitpossibleforalltheseconditionstocoexistsimultaneously?
Thepurposeofthisassignmentistoillustratetheparadoxoftheapplicationof
IslamiclawinGreece,anEUmemberstate,andthecontradictionbeingcreated.
Neo-milletsystemincontemporaryGreece
TheMuslimminorityofThracehashistoricallyemergedfromtheOttoman
EmpiresdemiseandthecreationofanewTurkishnation.
4
TheOttomanmillet
4The Muslim minority of Thrace has historically emerged from the Ottoman Empires demise
and the creation of a new Turkish nation. The Treaty of Lausanne (1923) established the
obligatory population exchange between Christian Greek populations which were situated in
the borders of the new Turkish nation, with the Islamic Turkish populations which lived on
Greek soil. The Greek minority of Constantinople was excluded from this pact, as well as the
Islamic minority of Thrace, which at the time numbered 86,000 people. Out of the latter,
39,000 were of Turkish descent, 30,000 were Pomaks and 12,000 were Gypsies (Rom). The
Treaty of Lausanne declares that Muslim minority members are free to state their ethnicbackground (Turkish, Pomak or Rom), speak their native languages, practice their religious
tasks and maintain their customs and traditions.
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systemofferedreligiousminoritiestheabilitytoregulatemanyoftheirown
affairsandlegalissues,undertheirownethicsandreligiouscustoms.In1926,the
milletsystemwascompletelyabolishedinTurkey,despitethespecificprovisions
fromtheLausanneTreaty,whichclearlystatedthatGreeceandTurkeymustimplementmeasuresinordertoensurethatallissueswithregardtothepersonal
statusoftheminoritieswouldberesolvedinlinewiththeirreligiouscustoms.5In
orderforthistoactuallyhappen,theminoritieswereaskedtoconsenttothe
revocationoftheirspecialstatus,whichtheydid.Nevertheless,A.Bedermacher-
Gerousisclaimsthattheconsentoftheminoritywasnullandvoidand
thereforeTurkeyviolatedtheinternationalobligationoftheLausanneTreaty.6
AnoutstandingparadoxisthatTurkey,withitsprimarilyMuslimpopulation,has
abolishedthemilletsysteminwhichreligiouscourtswereacceptable,butGreece
aEUcountry,withanOrthodoxpopulation,stillsupportsitinWesternThrace.
AccordingtoTsitselikis,theIslamiclegalregulationofpersonalstatus,inThrace,
convertstheold-fashionmilletintoanenclaveofpostmodernreligioussociety,
creatinginfactaneo-milletsystem,inwhichGreekcivillawhasasecondary
role.7
TheroleoftheMuftiandtheqdi
TheOttomanlegalsystemhadtwomainauthorities:theMufti(ascholarwho
interpretstheShariah)andtheqdi(thejudge).TheMuftigavehisopinion
(fatw)onlegalsubjects,andthen,thisfatwcouldbepresentedbeforecourtby
5AspasiaTsaoussi and Eleni Zervogianni Tsaoussi, A. and Zervogianni, E. (2008),
Multiculturalism and Family Law: The Case of Greek Muslims, European Challenges in
Contemporary Family Law, Katharina Boele-Woelki and Tone Sverdrup, eds., Intersentia:
Mortsel, p.211
6Ibid p.12, note 9
7Tsitselikis, K, The legal status of Islam in Greece, Die Welt des Islams No:44, 3, BrillAcademic Publishers: Leiden 2004, p.130
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eitherofthepartiesasalegaladvice,whichcouldfavoureitherthedefendantor
theplaintiff.8
AfterGreeceannexedmostoftheEuropeanterritorywhichpreviouslybelonged
totheOttomanEmpire,in1881,theGreekauthoritiesassignedthefunctionsoftheMuftiaswellastheonesoftheqditothenewMufti.Putdifferently,the
Muftihad,fromnowonadualrole;hewasbothascholargivingthefatw,and
thejudgecarryinghisopinionintoeffect.Inthesameyear,theMuftiwas
assignedathirdrole,whenGreecesignedtheTreatyofConstantinoplewith
Turkey.Now,theMuftiwasalsothereligiousleaderofMuslimcitizens9
Therefore,accordingtoIslamiclawandtradition,theMuftihasalsothedutyof
collectingthezakt(obligatorycharity),sothattheminimumstandardsof
livelihoodcanbeguaranteedforthepoorestcitizens.TheMuftiorganisesthe
zaktinordertoredistributethewealthfromthewealthiercitizenstothe
poorestones.10
Protectingthereligiousfreedom
Theprotectionoftherighttoreligiousfreedomforminoritiescanbefoundin
severalinternationalhumanrightstreaties,characterisedasaninternational
standardwhichshouldbefollowedbyallstates.
ImmediatelyaftertheWorldWarII,someinternationalinstitutionsincluded
referencestoreligiousfreedom,withregardstotheprinciplesofnon-
discrimination,equality,toleranceandrespectforotherpeoplesreligionand
beliefs.SuchinstitutionscontaintheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsand
theInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights.Unfortunately,thereisnointernationalofficialdocumentconcerningthe
protectionofreligiousfreedomexclusively.TheUNDeclarationonthe
8Vikr, K. S. (2005), Between God and the Sultan, C. Hurst & Co.: London.
9Tsitselikis, K. Muslims in Greece, Islam and the European Union, Richard Potz, Wolfgang
Wieshaider, eds., Peeters: Leuven, 2004.10
Zakat is one of the five pilars of Islam.
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EliminationofAllFormsofIntoleranceandReligiousDiscriminationistheonlysuch
document,whichcoverstheprincipleofreligioustoleranceonaglobalbasistobe
followedbyallthememberstatesoftheinternationalcommunity.11
AccordingtoArticle3oftheGreekConstitution,theGreekstaterespectstheright
tofreedomofreligiousbeliefsforeveryGreekcitizen.Thisarticlecanbeanalysed
intotwoparts.Firstly,therighttoworshipfreely,eitherinprivateorinpublic,any
religiouscommunityorcreedwhosepracticedoesnotrepresentathreattothe
publicorderandmorals.Secondly,theobligationoftheGreekgovernmentto
offerlegalprotectiontochurches,cemeteries,synagogues,monasteriesand
otherreligiousinstitutionsoftheminorities.Theconceptofmoralitycanbe
interpretedinvariousways,dependingonhistoricalandculturalfactors.
Consequently,itmightbedifferentineverysociety,sincethereisnointernational
standard,whichcanbeapprovedbyallreligionsandculturesaroundtheworld.12
Humanrights
TheapplicationofShariahinfamilyandpersonallawmatters,withintheMuslim
minorityinThrace,asmanyresearchersobserve,hasatendencytodisrespect
internationalhumanrightsnorms.TheimplementationoftheShariahinWestern
Thraceisfrequentlyconsideredasaretrogressiveandanachronisticinstitution
13whichhindersthesocialandfinancialdevelopmentoftheminority.
Themaindeclarationissuedbythehumanrightsisthatallhumanbeingshave
equalvalueanddignity,regardlessofgender,religionorrace.Contemporary
humanrightslegislationrecognisestheexistenceofseveralgrouprights.Nonetheless,itgenerallyoffersadequateprotectiontotherightofindividualsand
11
Proclaimed by General Assembly resolution 36/55 of 25 November 1981
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/religion.htm
12The State, the Law and Human Rights in Modern Greece, Vol. 9, Human Rights Quarterly,
1987.
13Anagnostou, D. (1997), Religious Freedom and Minority Rights in the New Europe: The
Case of the Muslim Courts in Western Thrace Paper delivered to the XV Modern Greek
Studies, Association International Symposium 1997 on Modern Greece, Kent StateUniversity: Kent, Ohio, p. 5
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considersapersonsreligiousandculturalbackgroundaspartoftheirdistinct
identity.
Onthecontrary,theIslamicLawprovidesspecialbenefitstomenanddisfavourswomeninlegalcasesof
familydisputes,divorces,inheritanceandchildcustody.14Forexample,indivorce
cases,whereamancanmerelydivorcehiswifewithoutanyjudicialproceedings
beingnecessary,butMuslimwomenarenotentitledtoasimilarright.Another
practiceinIslamicfamilylaw,whichcanbeconsideredasadiscriminatoryrule
againstwomen,isdrawnupinthelawofinheritance.Thegeneralrulesprovide
thatdaughtersareentitledtohalftheshareofsons.Furthermore,theprocessof
divorce,accordingtoShariah,aswellastherelationshipbetweenthemarried
couple,seemstoalsodisadvantagewomen,especiallywithregardstothe
principleofequalityandthefreedevelopmentofthehumanpersonality.The
formofdivorce,accordingtowhich,ahusbandmayunilaterallydivorcehiswife,
withoutbeingrequiredtoshowcause,andevenwithouttheneedtorecourseto
anycourtorotherauthority,isapparentlydiscriminatory,sinceitisnotaccessible
tothewife.However,aMuslimwifedoesnothavetherighttofileadivorce,
exceptbycourtorderonverypreciseandstrictterms.Thesepracticesandethics
areinabsolutecontradictionwiththeGreeklawandthecustomsofthecountry.15
Weddingceremonies
Atypicalexample:Howistheweddingceremonyperformedandlegally
confirmed?InJune2000,theqdioftheMuslimcommunityinXanthiinWesternThrace,the
Mufti,issuedamarriagelicenceforvirginwomenaccordingtotheShariah.(No
157/22.6.2000).16Itincludesthefollowingterms:
14Naskou-Perraki Paroula (2011), The Law of International Organisations.
Institutional dimensions (Sakkoulas Publishers, Athens) p. 53
15
Ibid
16Provided to the writer by member of the Muslim community of W.Thrace.
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Donationduetothesocialunionthroughmarriage:
One[1]dress,one[1]goldenchain(1meterlength),one[1]pairof
earrings,five[5]goldenbracelets,one[1]goldenring,one[1]watch,a
mattress,aquiltandforty[40]kilosofcopper.Donationduetodissolutionofmarriage:
Onehundredandone(101)goldenpounds.
Sincewehavesettledtheaboveculturalweddingdifferences,wedo
notseeanyreligiousorotherimpedimenttothemarriagebetweenthe
virginwoman[],whoisaGreekcitizenandlivesin[],and[]who
isaGreekcitizenandlivesin[].
Thiscontractwasexecutedbyme,theMuftiofXanthi.
Thewifesrepresentatives
Thehusbandsrepresentatives
Suchlicences,withsimilarterms,contrarytotheGreeklaw,theConstitutionand
theEuropeanlegislation,areissuedforeverysimilarlegalactbetweenMuslim
citizensofThrace.IftheGreekcourtsauthorisetheenforcementoftheselicences,
theyarevalid.Mostofthetimestheyareauthorised.WhentheGreekcourts
authorisetheirenforcement,thisissupposedlyhappeningbecauseofthetreaties
thathavebeensignedbyGreece,fromtimetotime,whichareconsideredas
binding.Isthatthecase?
ItisinterestingthatthetwogreatestinstitutionsoftheGreekjusticedisagreeon
whetherthisTreatyofAthens(1914)thatlegallycoverstheShariahregimein
Thrace,isvalidornot.Intwoofits(similar)decisions,theGreekCouncilofState
hasdecidedthatthisTreatyofAthensisnolongervalid,becauseitisutterly
coveredbythetermsoftheTreatyLausanne(1923)whichfollowedthe
populationexchangebetweenGreeceandTurkey.TheSupremeCourtof
CassationhasconsistentlyheldthatTheTreatyofAthensisthelegalfoundation
oftheminorityprotectioninGreece.17
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IsShariahinW.Thracevoluntaryorobligatory?
Officially,inthelegalissuesmentionedabove,theMuslimscanchooseeitherthe
civilcourtortheMuftislegalservices.Nonetheless,accordingtoTsitselikis,the
Muftisjurisdictionhasactuallybecomemandatory,sinceMuslimwomenare
entrappedbysocialstereotypes:incaseofanapplicationforjudicialreviewtothe
Greekcivilcourts,thislegalactionwouldbecriticised,duetolackofloyalty
towardstheminority.18
AlmostallresearchersinthefieldofIslamiclawinWesternThracesharethe
above-statedpresumption.Thiscouldalsobeinterpretedtheoppositeway:Ifthe
principlesofaminorityaresociologicallyassumedtobecherishedbywomen,
theywouldnotautomaticallyhaveanutterlyindividualisticneedtoresolvetheir
issueatanyexpense,i.e.atthecivilcourt(ortheChristiancourt,asconsideredby
manyMuslims).Certainly,thereareexceptions,buttheassumptionthat,if
MuslimwomenwerenotexpectedbysocietytochoosetheMufti,theywould
probablychoosethecivilcourts,israthergeneralising.ThefactthatMuslim
womenarehighlydedicatedtoIslamicprinciplesisverysignificantanditshould
betakenintoaccount.Nevertheless,DiaAnagnostoustatesthattheMuftis
decisionsarenotasignofastrictapplicationofShariahtofamilyissuesbutthey
demonstraterespecttowardscivillawprinciples,whichgraduallyhaveblended
withwhatisconsideredsociallyacceptableandlegitimatebytheMuslim
society.19
17
In his bookSacred law of Islam and Muslim Greek citizens -between communalism and
liberalism, the Greek lawyer Giannis Ktistakis refers to this argument and agrees with the
Councils view, emphasising that the existing distance from the Greek civil Code, as far as
the Muslim minority of Thrace is concerned, is conflict with essential components of the
contemporary human rights protection.
18Tsitselikis, K The legal status of Islam in Greece, Die Welt des Islams No:44, 3, Brill
Academic Publishers: Leiden 2004 p.p 112-113
19Anagnostou, D. (1997), Religious Freedom and Minority Rights in the New Europe: The
Case of the Muslim Courts in Western Thrace Paper delivered to the XV Modern Greek
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Moreover,thereisanewtrendamongtheMuslimsofThrace:Ininheritance
mattersandindivisionofmatrimonialproperty,incaseofadivorce,thetwo
partieswillfirstseekadvicefromtheMufti.Ifthetwopartiesarenotsatisfiedby
theMuftislegalopinion,thentheycanbringthematterbeforetheCivilcourt.Anagnostoustatesthat,nowadays,mostMuslimsusuallyprefertoseisetoCivil
courtsinordertoresolvetheirinheritancematters,whichhavegraduallyfallen
underthejurisdictionofcivilcourts.20
ThecontrolmechanismoftheCivilCourt
TheCivilCourtcontrolsthelimitsofjurisdictionoftheMuftislegaldecision,
withoutexaminingthemeritsofthecase.IfaMuslimlodgedanappealagainst
theMuftisdecisiontotheCivilCourt,thejudgewouldcontrolonlytheapplication
ofthisparticulardecision.Whatismore,theCivilCourtandtheCourtofAppeal
controltheconstitutionalityoftheMuftisdecision.Nevertheless,ifthecivilcourt
wantstocontroltheconstitutionalityoftheMuftisdecision,thejudgeisnot
familiarwiththecontentoftheIslamiclawrulesand,thus,isunabletoevaluate
thisdecision.21Thiscouldactuallybeaproblem,becausetheconditionofthe
genderequalityprovisionsoftheEuropeanConventiononHumanRightsdoes
notseemtobecompatiblewithcertainprovisionsofIslamicfamilyand
inheritancelaw.
EleniZervogiannimentionsthat,accordingtothestatistics,only11outof2,679
caseshavebeenfoundunconstitutional,since1991.Shestatesthat,apparently,
Studies, Association International Symposium 1997 on Modern Greece, Kent State
University: Kent, Ohio, p.24
20Anagnostou, D. Religious Freedom and Minority Rights in the New Europe: The Case of
the Muslim Courts in Western Thrace Paper delivered to the XV Modern Greek Studies,
Association International Symposium 1997 on Modern Greece, Kent State University: Kent,
Ohio, 1997, p.2421
Tsitselikis, K. Muslims in Greece, Islam and the European Union, Richard Potz, WolfgangWieshaider, eds., Peeters: Leuven 2004 p. 104
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Greekjudgesdonotessentiallyexaminetheessenceofadecisionwhentheyhave
todecideonitsunconstitutionality.22
EventhoughthejurisdictionoftheMuftiisofficiallycontrolledbytheCivilCourt
andtheCourtofAppeal,thiscontrolmechanism,infact,interfereswiththedecisionsoftheMuftionlyonexceptionaloccasions.
Unwrittenlaw
AccordingtotheHanafischoolofLaw(whichisthemostpopularschoolfor
MuslimsinWesternThrace),oneapparentreasonforthejudgesoftheCivilCourt
notbeingeasilyfamiliarwithIslamiclawisthefactthattheappliedlawisnotin
writtenform.Itisneitherstandardisednorcodified.DuringOttomantimes,the
Muftigavehislegalopinion(fatw)onmattersandtheqdiwasabletouseboth
thediverse
rulesoftheShariahandtheqnun,whichwasalegalCodedrawnupbythe
Sultan.However,thenewMuftiofWesternThraceissuesthefatwwithout
havinganysupplementaryauthoritativetext,issuedbyapoliticalauthority,which
mustberecognisedbyIslamicreligion.
Nevertheless,thereareobviouslydifferentapproachesregardingthestatusofthe
Mufti.TheMuslimsofWesternThracefrequently,contrarytothetermcourts,
claimthattheMuftidoesnotissuehisopiniononlegalcasesbasedonthe
conventionalandcivilsenseoftheterm;hisroleisprimarilyconsultativeand
compromising.23
22
AspasiaTsaoussi and Eleni Zervogianni Tsaoussi, A. and Zervogianni, E. Multiculturalism
and Family Law: The Case of Greek Muslims, European Challenges in Contemporary Family
Law, Katharina Boele-Woelki and Tone Sverdrup, eds., Intersentia: Mortsel, 2008, p.p 119-
12023Anagnostou, D. Religious Freedom and Minority Rights in the New Europe: The Case of
the Muslim Courts in Western Thrace Paper delivered to the XV Modern Greek Studies,
Association International Symposium 1997 on Modern Greece, Kent State University: Kent,Ohio, p.25
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Concurrentjurisdiction-Shouldthismodelberevised?
Inits2009HumanRightsReport:Greece,theU.S.DepartmentofStatesBureauof
Democracy,HumanRights,andLabourstatesthatShariahiscriticisedbymany
NGOandmediareportsasdiscriminatoryagainstwomen,especiallyinchild-
custody,divorce,orinheritancecases.24IncontemporaryGreece,therearecritics
whowantthepresentpoliticalmodeltobeabolishedorreformed.Theexpertise
oftheresearchersiscrucialfortheNGOsandmedia.
Thestudieshavevariousapproachesandconclusions.
ThemostpenetratingcritiqueontheapplicationofIslamiclawintheGreeklegal
systemisprovidedbyYannisKtistakis.InhisbookTheHolyLawofIslamandthe
GreekMuslimCitizens(Athens/Thessalonica:SakkoulasPublishers,2006),he
statesthatGreeceistheonlyEuropeancountrywhichstillimplementsthe
Shariah,andthatShariahisinterpretedandappliedbyHolyCourtsinWestern
Thraceinthemostanachronisticway.Thestudyillustratesthefactthat,contrary
totheGreekgovernmentsstatements,noprovisionoftheTreatyofLausanne
makestheimplementationoftheShariahorthefunctioningofHolyCourts
mandatoryfortheMuslimminoritymembers.Whatismore,hestatesthatGreek
courtscannotevaluatethemeritsofdecisions,whicharebasedonanunwritten
lawthatisunfamiliartotheGreekjudges.Inaddition,theMuftisdecisionsare
writteninaforeignlanguage(OttomanTurkish).Therefore,theGreekjudges
cannotreadthem,sincetheirtranslationsarefrequentlyinaccurate.25
AftergivingexamplesofseveralproblemscausedbytheMuftisdecisions,suchasparentalconsentforchildmarriages,womensunequalrightstoobtainadivorce,
indifferencetowardschildrensbestinterestincustodycases,Ktistakisreaches
theconclusionthat,duetochildmarriagesofchildren,thenumberofMuslim
24http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/eur/136034.htm
25Greek Helsinki Monitor 2006 p.37
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divorcesisfivetimeshigherthanChristiandivorces.26Itisnotquiteclearif
Ktistakishasanysuggestionasanalternativesolution,exceptfortheabolitionof
thisconcurrentjurisdiction.
AspasiaTsaoussiandEleniZervogianniofferanotherthoroughcritiqueoftheconcurrentjurisdiction.IntheirstudyMulticulturalismandFamilyLaw:TheCase
ofGreekMuslims,basedonthefactthattheconcurrentjurisdictiondisfavours
Muslimwomen,theysuggestthatthereisabetteralternative.Theyadvisethe
Greekcitizens,regardlessoftheirreligion,tomovetowardsmediation,inorderto
settletheirfamilymatters.Accordingtothem,thebasicprinciplesofmediation
fulfiltheoverwhelmingmoralandreligiousneedsofbothculturesinWestern
Thrace.Therefore,theyprovideandcontainthecommonvaluesofthetwo
competing,yetcoexistingsystems.27
Theircritiquebeginswiththealmostsimilarprinciplessharedbytheminorityand
themajority.Theyalsoarguethatitispossibletoaddressthesensitivityofthe
twocommunitiesinasinglejurisdictionsystemthroughtheAlternativeDispute
Resolution(ADR)procedure.Thisideaseemstocombinethemediationofthe
Shariahwiththesecularprinciple,whichrequiresonejurisdictionforallcitizens.
TsaoussiandZervogianniclaimthattheQur'anssolutiontodivorceoffersthe
mosttypicalexample.Astheymention,inIslam,divorceisacceptableonlywhen
therearemajorirreconcilabledifferences.Divorcehastobethelastsolution,
since,accordingtotheProphet,divorceisthemostdespicableofalllegalaction,
inthesightofGod.Hence,theQuranencouragesthepartiestotryharderto
reconcile,inthefollowingsteps:(1)Thepartiesmustmakeanefforttoresolve
theirdisputesandconfronttheirproblemstogether;(2)Iftheyfail,two
conciliators,onefromthehusbandssideandtheotherfromthewifesside,
shouldbesent,inorderforthemtosettletheirdifferences.(3)Iftheconciliators
effortsalsofail,divorcemaybegranted.26
Ibid p. 39
27Tsaoussi, A. and Zervogianni, E. (2008), Multiculturalism and Family Law: The Case of
Greek Muslims, European Challenges in Contemporary Family Law, Katharina Boele-Woelkiand Tone Sverdrup, eds., Intersentia: Mortsel. p.223
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AccordingtoKonstantinosTsitselikis,theapplicationofIslamiclawwithinthe
frameworkofaEuropeanlegalordercausessomeincompatibilities.Incertain
cases,individualrightsandprinciplesofequalityareinconflictwithreligiousfreedom.28
ItisevidentthatTsitselikis,inmanyofhisconclusions,considersbalancingvarious
interestsasahighpriority.Heclaimsthatthecurrentpoliticalmodelis
disadvantageousnotonlytocitizenswhobringtheircasesbeforetheMufti,but
alsototheauthorityandsignificanceofthisMusliminstitution.Inaddition,he
suggestsare-evaluationandreformoftheMuftiinstitution,withequalconcern
fortheMuslimreligioustraditionsandtheirfreedoms,aswellasforthe
fundamentalprinciplesandindividualrightsofthe
Europeanlegalorder.HislastsuggestionisabouttheMuftisqualificationsasa
legalleader.Tsitselikisissuggestingthat,apartfromthereligiouseducation,the
Mufticandidateshouldbeequallyqualifiedwiththerestofthejudges,soasto
avoidadebasementofhisrole.29Inhisconclusivestatements,Tsitselikissays
thatthesocialbalancebetweenlegallyimposednormsshouldbein
consideration,andthatthesenormsareunknowntotheminoritysociety.30
FederationofWesternThraceTurksinEurope(ABTTF),whichhasitsheadquarters
inGermany,hassubmittedasimilarreporttorelevantauthorities,rightafterthe
release(11March2010)ofthe2009HumanRightsReport:Greece,writtenbythe
U.S.DepartmentofState,BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor.The
reportincludesmanyoftheissuesonthetopicoftheMuslimsinWesternThrace
thathavebeenpuzzledbytheU.S.report.Inthesectionregardingwomen,the
reportstatesthatIfthegovernmentrestrainedthepowersoftheMufti(whohas
undertakenreligiousduties)andifitabolishedtherecognitionofShariah,it
wouldbeaviolationofitsobligations,whicharisefrominternationaltreatiesin
28
Tsitselikis, Konstantinos. The legal status of Islam in Greece, Die Welt des Islams No:44,
3, Brill Academic Publishers: Leiden. 2004, p.p 121-122
29
Ibid p.12230
Ibid p.131
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whichGreecehasparticipated.Nonetheless,thisdoesnotautomaticallymean
thattheTurkishMinorityofWesternThracedisrespectsanyconcernaboutthe
applicationofShariahintheareaofThrace,whichismeticulouslystatedinthe
report.ABTTFremindsusthatIslamicinheritancelawhasarestrictedapplicationinWesternThrace,anditisnotapartoftheTurkishMinoritystradition.31
Conclusions
ThepositionofaMuftiintheGreeklegalorderischaracterisedbyafundamental
contradictionbetweentwofactors,whichareequallybasedonrespectforhuman
rights:
TheproblemwhichiscausedbythemajorconflictbetweenIslamiclaw
(Shariah)andGreekLaw,thecurrentsenseofjusticeinGreeceandthe
internationalconventions,signedbyGreece,fortheprotectionofhuman
rights.
TherightoftheMuslimminorityintheGreekregionofThracetopreserve
theirrights,whichareestablished,intheirreligiouslaw.Theserightsare
importanttothisminority,inordertomaintainitscoherenceasa
community.
Accordingtoitscurrentlegalsituation,aMuftihasadualrole:
Ontheonehand,heisthehighestofficialofreligiouslaw:Hehasa
supervisingroleovermosques,prayerleaderspermosque,cemeteriesand
waqfs.Inaddition,heoffershisadviceandguidancetoMuslims,hecontrolsallcharityworkandheperformsweddingceremonies.
Ontheotherhand,heisaqdi(areligiousjudge),havingcontroloverthe
differencesbetweenGreekMuslimswholiveonhisdistrict.These
differencesarerelatedtoonlyafewissuesofFamilylawandInheritance
31Federation of Western Thrace Turks in Europe (2010), Parallel Report by ABTTF on the
2009 Human Rights Report: Greece: https://www.abttf.org/images/Raporlar/US-2010-Human-Rights-Report-on-Greece_Parallel-Report-by-ABTTF.pdf
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law,whicharecrucialissues,asfarashumanrightsareconcerned.The
legalopinionsandedicts,whichareissuedbytheMufti,areestimatedby
theCourtofCommonPleas,andthus,becomeenforceable.
Problems
Ifweexaminethecurrentlaw,boththeSubstantiveandtheProcedurallaw,we
willdiscoverthefollowingthreecategoriesofproblems,whichinhibittheMuftis
workandjustice:
Inmanycases,thereisapoorcontrolofconstitutionalityandcontradiction
betweentheMuftislegalopinionsandEuropeanorpublicpolicy.The
applicationofShariahcausesseriousproblems,ifitiscontrolledaccording
tothebasicprinciplesofthelaw,suchasequality,orchildrensand
womensbestinterest(SeerelevantbindingInternationallawonhuman
rights,InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,Conventionon
theRightsoftheChild,ConventionontheEliminationofallformsof
DiscriminationagainstWomen,etc.)
TheGreekcivilcourtsinterpretinastrictwaytheMuslimtermGreek
Muslimcitizensinthedistrictofamufti,accordingtolegislation
1920/1991.Asaresult,theGreekcourtsdonotauthorisetheenforcement
oftheMuftislegaldecisionsinregardtoaweddingbetweenaGreekand
aforeigncitizenoraweddingbetweeninhabitantsoutsidetheMuftis
district.Therefore,thedissolutionofamarriageisimpossible.
Since2008,thereisanequallystrictinterpretationontheMuftisjurisdictionoverchild-custodycases.Asaresult,theMuftislegalopinions
onsuchcases,incaseofadivorce,arenotbeencompliedwith.
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Legislativegaps
TheoptionaljurisdictionoftheMuftieitherisnotprovidedfororisnot
applicable.Veryoften,civilcourtsbringcasesbeforetheMufti,asan
exclusivelycompetentbody.
Incaseswheretheonepartyapproachesthecivilcourtsandtheother
partyapproachestheMufti,thereisnoprovisionforsuchcases.
IncasesruledbytheMufti,thereisnoprovisionforasecond-degreetrial
oranannulmentofhisrulings.
Neitherthelegalrepresentation,northeprincipleofequalityofthe
parties,northecourtsstatementofthereasonsforitsdecisionsis
compulsory.
IfwecomparetheapplicationofIslamiclawinthreeMuslimdistrictsof
Greece,thereisadifferenceinthequalityofjustice.Theapplicationof
IslamiclawinKomotiniis,toanevidentdegree,thebest.
***
References
TsitselikisK.2004,ThelegalstatusofIslaminGreece,DieWeltdesIslams
No:44,3,BrillAcademicPublishers:Leiden.
TsitselikisK.2004,MuslimsinGreece,IslamandtheEuropeanUnion,
RichardPotz,WolfgangWieshaider,eds.,Peeters:Leuven
KtistakisYannis,2006,TheHolyLawofIslamandtheGreekMuslim
Citizens(Athens/Thessalonica:SakkoulasPublishers.
BoussiakouI.2008,ReligiousFreedomandMinorityRightsinGreece:the
caseoftheMuslimminorityinwesternThrace,theHellenicObservatory,
LondonSchoolofEconomics,GreecePaperNo21:London.
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AnagnostouD.1997,ReligiousFreedomandMinorityRightsintheNew
Europe:TheCaseoftheMuslimCourtsinWesternThracePaperdelivered
totheXVModernGreekStudies,AssociationInternationalSymposium
1997onModernGreece,KentStateUniversity:Kent,Ohio.
MekosZafiris,1991,TheMuftisjurisdictionandtheGreekLaw(Sakkoulas
Publishers,Athens/Kommotini,1991.
GreekHelsinkiMonitor2006,ParallelReportonGreecesCompliancewith
theUNConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscrimination
againstWomen,http://www.iwraw-ap.org/resources/pdf/Greece(1).pdf
KotzabassiAthina,FamilyLegalRelationshipsamongGreekMuslims,
(Athens/Thessalonica,2001,www.kethi.gr),Systematiclegalapproachto
thismatter,developedbytheResearchCentreonEqualityIssues(Kethi).
TsitselikisKonstantinos,TheMufti'spositionintheGreeklegalorder,In:D.
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MAPOFGREECEWITHWESTERNTHRACEINGREEN