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The Aquatic Environment
Outline:– Water cycle – Properties of water– Light and temperature in aquatic environments– Oxygen and carbon dioxide in water– Water movement in streams– Tides and estuaries
Readings: Ch. 4
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Water or hydrologic cycle
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Water storages and fluxes
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Physical properties of water
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Physical properties of water
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Physical properties of water
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Physical properties of water
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•High specific heat: •Specific heat: number of calories necessary to raise 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius
•Peculiar density-temperature relationship: pure water most dense when at 4 degrees Celsius.
Physical properties of water
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Physical properties of water: cohesion
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Physical properties of water: viscosity and buoyancy
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Diffusion and osmosis
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Physical conditions in the aquatic environment
– Light–Temperature–Oxygen–Salinity–Acidity
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Physical conditions:
1. Light
• Some incident sunlight is reflected from the water’s surface
• The lower the angle of the sun, the greater the reflectance
The amount of light that penetrates the water’s surface varies with latitude, season
• Light that does penetrate is absorbed by water molecules…
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Fig. 4.6
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• Different wavelengths penetrate to different depths
• E.g. for visible light:– Red: most rapidly absorbed– Blue: least rapidly absorbed --> greatest
penetration
• Suspended particles in the water also absorb and scatter light --> reduces penetration even further
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Physical conditions
2. Temperature
• Water is most dense at 4oC
• Lake in summer: – temperature drops with increasing depth– Stratification of water column
• Epilimnion: warm surface water• Thermocline: rapid decline in temperature• Hypolimnion: cold, dense water (~4oC)
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Temperature
• Tropical lakes: thermocline all year
• Temperate lakes: only in summer– Autumn: surface cools --> temperature
becomes uniform throughout (~4oC)Mixing of all parts = fall turnover– Increased nutrient levels at the surface
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Fig. 4.7
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Temperature
• Temperate lakes in winter– surface colder than 4oC– Bottom near 4oC
• Temperate lakes in spring– Ice melts --> surface warms --> ~4oC
throughoutSpring turnover
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Temperature
• Oceans: never undergo complete turnover
• Winter: thermocline rises
• Summer: thermocline descendsBottom never mixes with top
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Temperature
• Flowing waters: temperature variable
• Shallow waters: follow air temperature– Track changes slowly
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Physical conditions:
3. Oxygen• Diffuses from air through surface• Solubility decreases as water temperature
increases• Solubility decreases as salinity increases• Diffusion: 10,000 times slower than in airMixing of water by winds and currents is
critical• Temperature stratification --> oxygen
stratification
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Oxygen
Oceans: Highest conc. near surface (upper 10-20m)– Photosynthesis– Wind mixing
• Decreases to minimum at 500-1,000 m– Oxygen minimum zone– No turnover --> water never reoxygenated
• Below 1,000 m : conc. increases again– Polar regions: surface (high conc.) waters
cool, sink --> currents --> highly oxygenated deep waters carried to lower latitudes
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Physical conditions:
4. Salinity• Flow of rivers into ocean: dissolved
materials increase over time• Concentrations can’t increase beyond
maximum solubility limit.– e.g. Ca2+ forms CaCO3 (limestone)– e.g. Cl- - highly soluble (max. 360 g/L)
• Maximum not yet reached (today 19 g/L)
• Total concentration of all salt in ocean: 3.5% or 35 ppt
• Fresh water 0.065 to 0.3 ppt
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Physical conditions:
5. Acidity
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Factors affecting pH
• Fresh water: underlying rock is important– Limestone:
• raises pH • buffers against changes
– Sandstone, granite• Lowers pH
• Oceans: Na+, K+, Ca2+ raise pH– pH ~ 7.5-8.4
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Effect of pH on living organisms
• Direct effects: interference with physiological processes
• Indirect effects: effect on other dissolved substances– E.g. Al3+: concentration increases below pH 5
• Insoluble at higher pH
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Water Movement
Fast flow --> rocky bottom Slow flow --> silty bottom
Increase in water volume increase flow rate
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Tides
• Gravity of moon causes two “bulges” on opposite sides of the earth
• Gravity of sun has similar but smaller effect
Water movement
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Water movement - Tides
• In most locations: two high and two low tides within a 24hr period
• Tides may vary depending on latitude, prevailing winds, contour of the land, depth of water, and other factors
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Water movement - Tides
• Intertidal zone: between high and low tide levels on shoreline
• Extreme fluctuations in water availability, salinity, sun intensity, temperature, and oxygen availability
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Water movement - upwelling
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The Terrestrial Environment
Outline:• Life on land• Light and vegetation• Soils
– formation– horizons– moisture holding
capacity– ion exchange
Readings: Ch. 5
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…is a hostile environment
• Living cells 75-95% water; must remain hydrated to survive
• Water availability fluctuates with precipitation patterns
Constraints: 1. Desiccation• Terrestrial organisms have adaptations
that reduce water loss, and/or replace lost water
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2. Structural support
• Trees invest > 80% of their mass in supportive woody tissues• Animals: skeletons
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Terrestrial env’t - constraints
3. Temperature variations on land >> those in the water
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Physical conditions
1. Light availability
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Leaf area index
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Orientation of leaves
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Daily distribution of light
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Seasonal distribution of light
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Soil
1. Formation• Begins with weathering of rocks• Types of weathering:
i. Mechanical --> breakup• Freezing / thawing• Erosion• Roots
ii. Chemical• Oxidation• Acids• Rainwater acts as medium for reactions
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Factors affecting soil formation
I. Parent material• Bedrock, glacial till, eolian (wind-
deposited), fluvial (water-deposited)
II. Biotic factors• Roots
– Increase mechanical weathering– Reduce erosion– Reduce leaching– Increase organic material (affects pH)
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Factors affecting soil formation
III. Climate• Direct effects: temperature, winds, pptn• Leaching = movement of solutes• Indirect effects: via plant growth
IV. Topography• Steep slope --> increased erosion, “soil
creep”
V. Time• From bedrock to soil: ~ 2,000-20,000 yrs
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2. Soil types
• Colour reflects chemical composition– Black: high organic matter– Yellow-brown or red: Fe oxides– Dark purple: Mn oxides
– White / gray: CaCO3, MgCO3, quartz, gypsum
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Soil types
• Texture reflects particle size– Components of soil:
• Sand: 0.05 - 2.0 mm• Silt: 0.002 - 0.05 mm• Clay: < 0.002 mm
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“Texture” = %, by weight, of sand, silt and clay
Size: 0.002 - 0.05 mm
Size: 0.05 - 2.0 mm
Size: < 0.002 mm
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Soil texture
• Affects pore space --> air, water movement
• Coarse texture (high sand, low clay):– Large pores– Rapid water infiltration, drainage
• Fine texture (low sand, high clay):– Small pores– Poor aeration– High surface area– High compactability
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Soil layers (“horizons”)
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Moisture retention
• When all the pore spaces between soil particles are completely filled with water, the soil is at field capacity
• Clay soil: – small pores --> slow drainage– Total pore space actually > than sandy soil! (higher
field capacity)
• Capillary water = water held by capillary action– Difficulty of extraction increases as moisture content
decreases– wilting point: no further extraction
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Available water capacity (AWC) = field capacity - wilting point
• Pure sand: 30-40% of volume = pores
• Pure clay: up to 60% of volume = pores– Higher field
capacity and higher wilting point
• AWC highest in soils of intermediate texture (loams)
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Ion exchange capacity = total # of charged sites on soil particles within a volume of soil
Al3+ > H+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ = NH4+ > Na+
Ion exchange capacity
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