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The Endocrine System
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The Endocrine System
• Glands and organs produce hormones
• Second messenger system of the body
• Uses chemical messages (hormones) that are released into the blood
• Hormones control several major processes– Reproduction
– Growth and development
– Mobilization of body defenses
– Maintenance of much of homeostasis
– Regulation of metabolism
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Hormone Overview
• Hormones are produced by specialized
cells
• Cells secrete hormones into extracellular
fluids
• Blood transfers hormones to target sites
• These hormones regulate the activity of
other cells
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The Chemistry of Hormones
• Amino acid-based hormones
• Steroids – made from cholesterol
• Prostaglandins – made from highly active
lipids
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Mechanisms of Hormone Action
• Hormones affect only certain tissues or
organs (target cells or organs)
• Target cells must have specific protein
receptors
• Hormone binding influences the working of
the cells
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Effects Caused by Hormones
• Changes in plasma membrane
permeability or electrical state
• Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes
• Activation or inactivation of enzymes
• Stimulation of mitosis
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Steroid Hormone Action
• Diffuse through the plasma membrane of
target cells
• Enter the nucleus
• Bind to a specific protein within the
nucleus
• Bind to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
• Activate genes that result in synthesis of
new proteins
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Steroid Hormone Action
STEROID HORMONE ANIMATIONFigure 9.1a
PRESS
TO PLAY
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Nonsteroid Hormone Action
• Hormone binds to a membrane receptor
• Hormone does not enter the cell
• Sets off a series of reactions that activates
an enzyme
• Catalyzes a reaction that produces a
second messenger molecule
• Oversees additional intracellular changes
to promote a specific response
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Nonsteroid Hormone Action
NONSTEROID HORMONE ANIMATIONFigure 9.1b
PRESS
TO PLAY
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Control of Hormone Release
• Hormone levels in the blood are
maintained by negative feedback
• A stimulus or low hormone levels in the
blood triggers the release of more
hormone
• Hormone release stops once an
appropriate level in the blood is reached
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Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine
Glands• Endocrine glands are
activated by other
hormones
• Hypothalamus in the
brain secretes:
• Inhibiting Hormone-
turns off pituitary
• Releasing Hormone-
turns on pituitaryFigure 9.2a
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Location of Major Endocrine
Organs
Figure 9.3
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Pituitary Gland• Size of a grape
• Hangs by a stalk from the
hypothalamus
• Protected by the sphenoid bone
• Has two functional lobes
– Anterior pituitary – glandular tissue
– Posterior pituitary – nervous tissue
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Hormones of the Anterior
Pituitary
Figure 9.4
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Growth Hormone (GH)
• General metabolic hormone
• Major effects are directed to growth of
skeletal muscles and long bones
• Causes amino acids to be built into
proteins
• Causes fats to be broken down for a
source of energy
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones• Prolactin (PRL)
– Stimulates and maintains milk production in mammary tissue following childbirth
– Function in males is unknown
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)– Stimulates the activity of the adrenal
cortex (gland)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)– Influences growth and activity of the
thyroid gland
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
– Stimulates follicle (egg) development in
ovaries (female)
– Stimulates sperm development in testes
(male)
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Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary
Hormones
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
–Triggers ovulation in ovary in females
–Causes ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum which will trigger the production of other hormones
–Stimulates testosterone production in testes in males
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
– Increases melanin synthesis in the skin• Important in control of skin pigmentation in many non-primate mammals,
reptiles, fish and amphibians.
• In Adult humans it is virtually non-existent but is produced in fetal
development, very young children, pregnant women and some diseased
states.
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Hormones of the Posterior
Pituitary• Oxytocin
– Stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor
– Causes milk ejection in mammary tissue (females)
– Contractions of sperm duct and prostate in males
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)– Causes reabsorption of water in the kidneys
– Can inhibit urine production
– In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction leading to increased blood pressure and blood volume (vasopressin)
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Hormones of the Posterior
Pituitary
Figure 9.5
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Thyroid Gland
• Found at the base of the throat
• Consists of two lobes and a connecting
isthmus
• Produces two hormones
– Thyroid hormone
– Calcitonin
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Thyroid Gland
Figure 9.6
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Thyroid Hormone
• Major metabolic hormone- regulates cell
ebergy usage, oxygen use, growth,
development
• Composed of two active iodine-containing
hormones
– Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid follicles
– Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of T4 at
target tissues
– Easily cross cell membranes and effect most
cells in the body
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Calcitonin (CT)
• Decreases blood
calcium levels by
causing its
deposition on bone
through osteoblast
activity
• Antagonistic to
parathyroid
hormone
Figure 9.9
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Parathyroid Glands• Tiny masses on the
posterior of the thyroid
• Secrete parathyroid
hormone (PTH)
– Stimulate osteoclasts to
remove calcium from bone
– Stimulate the kidneys to
absorb more calcium
– Raise calcium levels in the
blood
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Adrenal Glands
• Two glands
– Cortex – outer glandular region in three layers
– Medulla – inner neural tissue region
• Sits on top of the kidneys
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Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex• Aldosterone
– Produced in outer adrenal cortex
– Regulate mineral content in blood, water, and electrolyte balance
– Raises sodium levels in blood, decreases potassium levels in blood
– Target organ is the kidney
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Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
Figure 9.10
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Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
• Cortisol/ Cortisone
– Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal
cortex
– Promote normal cell glucose metabolism
– Help resist long-term stressors
– Anti-inflammatory effects
– Released in response to increased blood
levels of ACTH
– Target most cells in the body
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Hormones of the Adrenal
Medulla• Epinephrine/ Norepinephrine
• These hormones prepare the body to deal
with short-term stress (adrenaline)
– Increase cardiac activity, blood pressure,
sugar breakdown, release of lipids by adipose
tissue
– Most cells effected
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Figure 9.12
Hypothalamus and Adrenal Glands
in Stress Response
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Pancreas
• The pancreas is a mixed gland inferior to
the stomach
• The islets of the pancreas produce
hormones
• Some digestive
functions too
– These hormones are antagonists that
maintain blood sugar homeostasis
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Pancreatic Islets
Figure 9.13
Insulin – allows
glucose to cross
plasma membranes
into most cells in the
body (nerve and red blood
cells do not have insulin receptors)
Glucagon – allows
glucose to enter the
blood targeting liver,
muscle and adipose
tissue
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Pancreatic Hormones and
Blood Sugar
Figure 9.14
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Pineal Gland
• Found on the third ventricle of the brain
• Secretes melatonin
– Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep
cycles in the brain
– Stimulated by light (external stimulus)
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Thymus
• Located posterior to the sternum
• Largest in infants and children
• Produces thymosin
– Matures some types of white blood cells
– Important in developing the immune system
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Hormones of the Ovaries
• Estrogen
– Stimulates the development of secondary female
characteristics
– Matures female reproductive organs
– Helps prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized egg
– Helps maintain pregnancy
– Prepares the breasts to produce milk
– Target most cells
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Hormones of the Ovaries
• Progesterone
– Produced by the corpus luteum
– Acts with estrogen to bring about the
menstrual cycle
– Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the
uterus
• Inhibin: Stops secretion of FSH by the
pituitary (males too produced in testes)
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Hormones of the Testes
• Testosterone
• Responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
– Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive system
– Required for sperm cell production
– Skeletal muscle production
– Targets most cells
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Endocrine
organs
(review)
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Effect of growth hormone
Greatest production occurs during childhood
Lack of GH- pituitary dwarfism
Excess - giantism
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Abnormalities of the thyroid
Cretinism- abnormal thyroid development; short, stocky
body type. Severe hypothyroidism causes mental
retardation
Myxedema - Hypothyroidism in adults-lethargy, weight
gain, loss of hair. Grave’s disease- hyperthyroidism;
causes exophthalmic goiter-edema behind eyes
causes bulging; hyperactivity, arrythmias.
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Acromegaly
Excess production of GH; the growth plates of
bone have closed so no increased growth in
height. Feet, hands, and face become “heavy”
in appearance
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Addison’s disease
ACTH accumulates causing stimulation of
melanocytes (bronze skin color). Without cortisol,
there is no mobilization of glucose under stress; can
be life-threatening. Hyposecretion of aldosterone-most
serious, causes hyperkalemia (low blood potassium)
leading to cardiac arrest
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Cushing’s syndrome
Hypersecretion of the adrenal cortex hormone,
cortisol is primary problem. Results in Diabetes
mellitus from increased blood glucose;
Subcutaneous fat deposited in midsection; High
blood pressure