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IAEAInternational Atomic Energy Agency
The Management of NORM Residues and NORM
Waste Technologies
WORKSHOP ON NORM IN THE OIL AND
GAS INDUSTRY
IAEA Technical Co-operation Project
Monitoring and Assessment of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM)
from the Oil and Gas Industry
QAT 9006
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Lecture contents
An overview of the principles of waste management
An overview of generation of NORM residues
NORM residues management plan Safety assessments
Strategies for NORM residues management
NORM waste management
Waste Technologies
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NORM w aste: Naturally occurring radioactive material(NORM) for which no further use is foreseen
NORM residues: Material that remains from a processand comprises or is contaminated by naturally occurringradioactive material (NORM).A NORM residue may or may notbe waste.
Residues - Waste
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Principles of the Safety fundamentals
Principle 7:Protection of present & future generations
People and the environment, present and future, must beprotected against radiation risks
Radioactive waste must be managed in such a way as to avoidimposing an undue burden on future generations; that is, thegenerations that produce the waste have to seek and applysafe, practicable and environmentally acceptable solutions forits long term management. The generation of radioactive wastemust be kept to the minimum practicable level by means ofappropriate design measures and procedures, such as therecycling and reuse of material.
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General requirements:
A national policy framework within which NORM residuesare managed;
A strategy for the implementation of this policy, includingthe provision of necessary resources;
An appropriate national legal and organisational
framework within which NORM residue managementactivities can be planned and carried out safely.
General aspects concerning NORM residues management
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The residues from processing NORM commonly containnon-radioactive, constituents that may be hazardous.
The national policy and strategy should ensure that themanagement system for NORM residues is consistent with
management systems and requirements for other industrialprocess residues.
The national policy should also ensure that the
management (including decontamination), storage anddisposal of contaminated items are taken into account.
Requirements (cont)
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Member States should determine which industries within
their jurisdiction are concerned with the production andprocessing of NORM, including also a national inventoryof legacy sites, i.e. sites containing NORM residues fromdiscontinued and past practices.
To produce a national overview of operations processing NORMthat are:
Exempted from the requirements of the Standards
Subject to regulations
Management framework
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The regulatory body should have a good understanding ofthe technical and financial circumstances of the operator ofeach facility.
The operators must have available sufficient financial andhuman resources to enable not only the safe and efficientmanagement of NORM residues, but also a capability tomanage all decommissioning and remediation activities.
Management framework - 2
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Non-Radiological Contaminants
Often the impacts of non-radiological contaminants isas important or even more important than radiologicalimpacts (however potential radiological impacts may beperceived as more important by the public)
Non-radiological parameters may need to be assessedto understand the environmental processes driving thedispersion of radioactive contaminations (e.g. pH,
ground water head, etc.)
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Residue management issues
Four possible scenarios to consider Legacy residues from old, closed operation
New residues, being generated from a newoperation
A site has a combination of legacy and currentoperational residues
Legacy residues but still has valuable by-productswhich may be reprocessed
Planned or existing exposure situation?
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Residue management issues
The fundamental safety objective is to protect people and theenvironment from harmful effects of ionizing radiation.
So how do we work to achieve this in residue management?
By establishing a residues management plan according tothe Standards
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Determination :
a) residue streams/items
b) quantities
c) radioactivity concentrations (total and nuclide specific)
d) physical and chemical form of the residue
e) other hazardous properties (non-radiological)
f) residues which have to be designated for disposal as waste.
The Residues management plan
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Waste minimisation
Examples may include:
Recycling of contaminated waters in processing
Salvage and recycling of reagents
Agricultural use, e.g. phosphogypsum
Building materials, e.g. fly ash, phosphogypsum, red mud
Road construction, e.g. slag, phosphogypsum, fly ash
Recycling of contaminated scrap
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Disposal of NORM residues as waste
NORM w aste: Naturally occurring radioactive material(NORM)for which no further use is foreseen
Having minimised the amount of waste actually producedwe need to ensure that it is managed safely
Some NORM waste will be suitable for re-injection intowells/boreholes
Some waste may be disposed off by storage in nearsurface facilities
Some may require further conditioning prior to disposal
Some waste may be suitable for safe disposal throughdilute & disperse systems
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The waste management plan will require the compilation of
a variety of waste related safety assessments.
The assessments should focus on: Occupational exposures related to waste management (in the process
plant and in waste management facilities).
Public exposures from effluents and wastes
Environmental impacts of waste management facilities.
Normal operations, maintenance activities and (non radiological)accident conditions.
The NORM waste management plan Safety assessments
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Developing a waste management plan is a complexongoing process.
Development of the plan must commence at an earlystage in the project, well before construction commences.
Potential impacts on the workers, public and environmentmust be quantified and minimized.
Doses must be kept ALARA.
The final disposal option should preferably rely on passivemanagement controls to the greatest extent practicable.
The Regulatory Body must be involved at an early stage.
The waste management plan Overview
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NORM Disposal Methods
Four main categories:
Dilution and dispersal of the waste into the environment, e.g.liquid or gaseous discharges;
Concentration and containment of the waste at authorizedwaste disposal facilities;
Processing of the waste with other chemical waste byincineration or other methods;
Disposal of the waste by returning it back to the initial source ofthe material ( e.g. reinjection into the reservoir).
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NORM Disposal Methods
For any proposed disposal method requiring regulatory
authorization, the owner/operator must conduct a riskassessment and submit it to the regulatory body for review.
The regulatory body must base its decision on the risk
assessment and must be satisfied that the method meets allrelevant national and international legal and regulatoryrequirements and long term safety requirements.
NORM wastes meeting the clearance criteria specified by theregulatory body may be disposed of as normal (non-
radioactive) waste.
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NORM Disposal Methods
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Disposal methods for produced water
The large volumes of produced water preclude storage andtreatment as a practicable disposal method.
The impracticability of treatment applies to both radioactive andnonradioactive contaminants, although some form of treatmentis usually needed to meet the requirements set by regulatorybodies with respect to non-radioactive contaminants such asdissolved and dispersed hydrocarbons.
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Disposal methods for produced water
There are three methods for disposal of producedwater:
reinjection into the reservoir,
discharge into marine waters, and
discharge into seepage ponds.
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Reinjection into the reservoir
This method is commonly used onshore and offshore.
There are some technical constraints such as the potential forbreakthrough into production wells.
No added radiological risks would seem to be associated withthis disposal method as long as the radioactive material carriedby the produced water is returned in the same or lowerconcentration to the formations from which it was derived (the
confirmation of which might entail taking some measurements).Should this not be the case, it is important that any regulatorydecision on this method of disposal be supported by anappropriate risk assessment.
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Discharge into marine waters
Many production installations on the continental shelf discharge theirproduced water into estuaries and the sea.
Regulatory requirements with respect to the discharge of NORM in this waydiffer between countries; in some cases there are no requirements at all andin others authorizations are required if activity concentrations exceed the
discharge criteria set by the regulatory bodies.
Some discharges may be subject to international maritime conventions suchas the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping ofWastes and Other Matter, 1972 (the London Convention) and the
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-EastAtlantic, 1992 (the OSPAR Convention).
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Discharge into marine waters
Risk assessments of discharges from platforms on the Dutch and Norwegiancontinental shelf are based on modelling of dispersion and exposurepathways.
These risk assessments show that the calculated level of risk to humans isstrongly dependent on local conditions (estuary, coastal or open sea) and on
the degree of conservatism applied in the dispersion and exposure pathwaymodelling.
It is important that risk assessments such as these are carried out and usedas the basis for regulatory requirements with respect to this method of
disposal.
In addition the modeling exercises to estimate dose should be based onrealistic assumptions confirmed by site specific measurements.
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Discharge into seepage ponds
Produced water can be discharged to form artificial lagoons,
ponds or seepage pits. Subsequently, the released waters drainto ground leaving radioactive deposits associated with the soilthat eventually require remedial action.
It has been estimated that 30 000 contaminated waste pits andbottom sediment sites exist in coastal Louisiana, United Statesof America.
A key factor in determining the acceptability of this method isthe radiological impact of the contaminated water on localsurface water and groundwater and the potential accumulationof radionuclides in local biota.
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Discharge into seepage ponds-2
The degree of impact depends on several factors, including:
The radionuclide activity levels in the produced water,
The proportion of the activity contained in the deposited salts,
The degree of dilution into local surface water and groundwater,
The volumes discharged.
Risk assessments incorporating mathematical modelling can beused to estimate the local contamination and the resulting dosesreceived by the critical group. The regulatory body will then haveto make a decision regarding the acceptability of the disposalmethods
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Discharge into seepage ponds-3
This method can be considered as a form of waste treatment (concentrateand contain) in that the dissolved radionuclides are converted into soliddeposits.
The solid waste materials, including soil contaminated by the downwardmigration of radionuclides, will have to be collected, packaged and disposed
of in a manner similar to those specified for scales and sludges, ortransported in bulk to a burial site that will isolate the waste more effectivelythan the original seepage pond area.
The land areas require remediation and radiation surveys of residual
contamination to be undertaken in order to obtain clearance from theregulatory body for future unrestricted use of the land. The regulatory bodyneeds to specify the clearance levels to which the land must bedecontaminated.
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Discharge into seepage ponds
In considering this disposal method, the following aspects need to beaddressed:
Selection of a suitable site;
Controls to prevent public access to the area;
Risk assessments to determine the human and environmental impacts, including
long term implications, arising from contamination of soil, groundwater and surfacewater;
Possible need for occupational risk assessments and radiation protectionprogrammes for certain activities or areas, to control exposures and limit the spreadof contamination into public areas;
Quality assurance (QA)
Record keeping programmes e.g. waste inventories;
Transport costs and compliance with transport regulations;
Clean-up and remediation costs;
Disposal of the solid residues as radioactive wastes.
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Disposal of scales and sludge's
Various disposal methods are in regular use:
Discharge from offshore facilities into marine waters (subject tointernational maritime conventions such as the LondonConvention and the OSPAR Convention),
Injection into hydraulically fractured formations, Disposal in abandoned wells, and
Dispersal on land.
Disposal by shallow land burial and
Decontamination by melting of scrap metal is practised on alimited scale.
Deep underground disposal (e.g. Norway, Germany).
Discharge from offshore facilities into
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Discharge from offshore facilities intomarine waters
The discharge of solid NORM wastes from offshore platforms is
an allowed practice on the continental shelf of the UnitedKingdom and Norway (this will change with OSPAR and zeroemission policy).
Operators are required to obtain authorization for thesedischarges and to keep records.
Intentional discharge of solid NORM wastes with produced
water is not allowed on the Dutch continental shelf.
Discharge from offshore facilities into
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Discharge from offshore facilities intomarine waters
This method of disposal can result in the build-up of localized
concentrations of scales around offshore rigs over a period ofyears, and the following aspects need to be addressed:
The need for risk assessments to determine the human and
environmental impacts;
The possible need for occupational risk assessments andradiation protection programmes for certain activities or areas,
to control exposures and limit the spread of contamination intopublic areas;
The need for QA and record keeping programmes such as
waste inventories.
Injection into hydraulically fractured
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Injection into hydraulically fracturedformations
Methods of disposal that employ hydraulic fracturing have been
developed and used for: Offshore generated solid NORM wastes in the Gulf of Mexico.
In considering this disposal method, the following aspects need to beaddressed:
Site selection in relation to the long term stability of the surrounding geologicalstructures and the required depth of emplacement;
The possible need for encapsulation or stabilization (e.g. in concrete);
The need for risk assessments to determine the human and environmental impacts; The possible need for occupational risk assessments and radiation protection
programmes for certain activities or areas, to control exposures and limit the spreadof contamination to public areas;
The need for QA and record keeping programmes such as those for waste
inventories.
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Disposal in abandoned wells
Disposal in abandoned wells involves the emplacement
of NORM solids, whether encapsulated or not, betweenplugs in the casings of abandoned wells. The methodhas been the subject of radiological dose assessmentsand has been described as a preferred option for
onshore disposal of scales and mercury-containingsludge's.
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Disposal in abandoned wells
In considering this disposal method, the following aspects need
to be addressed:
Site selection with respect to the long term stability of the surrounding geologicalstructures and the required depth of emplacement. This should be viewed in relation
to the half life of the longest lived radionuclide226
Ra (1600 years). It should also beborne in mind that long term stability of an abandoned and plugged well will berequired in any case to eliminate the risk of a blow-out.
Possible need for encapsulation and the associated costs.
Need for risk assessments to determine the human and environmental impacts,including long term implications, arising from groundwater contamination.
Possible need for occupational risk assessments and radiation protectionprogrammes for certain activities or areas, to control exposures and limit the spreadof contamination into public areas.
Need for QA and record keeping programmes such as those for waste inventories.
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Disposal in abandoned wells
Proof of long term performance of the isolation of the
waste is likely to be more difficult to provide in the caseof non-radioactive constituents (which do not disappearby decay) than in the case of radioactive constituents.The Dutch Government requires proof of irretrievability
for sludge's disposed of in abandoned wells.
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Dispersal on land
Land dispersal (also known as land spreading or
land farming), with or without dilution, has beendescribed as a long standing waste disposal methodthat has been available to the petroleum industry, butits acceptability for the disposal of sludge's is doubtful
because of the presence of heavy metals and toxichydrocarbons.
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Dispersal on land
The following aspects need to be addressed:
The need for risk assessments to determine the human and environmentalimpacts, including long term implications, arising from groundwatercontamination;
The possible need for occupational risk assessments and radiationprotection programmes for certain activities or areas, to control exposuresand limit the spread of contamination into public areas;
The need for QA and record keeping programmes such as those for wasteinventories;
Transport costs and compliance with transport regulations.
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Disposal by shallow land burial
Shallow land burial is discussed as one of the NORM waste
disposal options in a study made by the American PetroleumInstitute and is described as being practised on a limited scale inTexas and in three other states in the USA. Remediationproblems caused by earthen pit disposal of scale and sludgeappear to be considerable. The presence of non-radioactivecontaminants is one of the more important factors to beconsidered, and makes this method of disposal an unlikely optionfor sludge's.
The radiological assessment of NORM waste disposal in non-hazardous waste landfills is discussed. Operational guidance onpossible shallow ground disposal methods is available.
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Disposal by shallow land burial
The following aspects need to be addressed:
Selection of a suitable site requiring minimum depth ofemplacement. It is particularly important that a suitable
site be selected for such a waste management facility.The site selection process should focus on takingmaximum advantage of desirable characteristics withregard to minimizing the impact of wastes and ensuring
the long term stability of the facility. The various optionsand the final decision will be subject to economic,technical and practical constraints.
Di l b h ll l d b i l
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Disposal by shallow land burial
Factors that need to be considered in the site selection
process include:
Anticipated duration of the facility, i.e. temporary or final;
Climate and meteorology;
Hydrology and flooding; Geography;
Geology, geochemistry and geomorphology;
Seismicity;
Mineralogy; Demography and land use;
Biota;
Amenability to decommissioning and the permanent disposal of wastes.
Di l b h ll l d b i l
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Disposal by shallow land burial
Institutional control issues.
Long term stability of the facility. Need for risk assessments to determine the human and
environmental impacts, including long term implications, arisingfrom groundwater contamination.
Possible need for occupational risk assessments and radiationprotection programmes for certain activities or areas, to controlexposures and limit the spread of contamination into publicareas.
Need for QA and record keeping programmes such as those forwaste inventories.
Transport costs and compliance with transport regulations.
Recycling by melting of contaminated
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Recycling by melting of contaminatedscrap metal
The recycling, by melting, of scrap metal contaminated with
NORM can be regarded as a potential disposal method as wellas a decontamination method. The NORM contamination ismostly concentrated and contained in the slag, with low residualactivity being diluted and dispersed throughout the product orsteel billet. However, volatile radionuclides (210Pb and 210Po)become concentrated in the off-gas dust and fume and mayconstitute an exposure or waste management issue.
Recycling by melting of contaminated
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Recycling by melting of contaminatedscrap metal
Issues that need to be addressed include:
The possible need for dilution of the contaminated scrap metal with uncontaminatedscrap metal to achieve clearance of the steel billets from regulatory control. This willdepend on contamination levels; the regulatory body will have to specify appropriateclearance levels for the radionuclides of concern.
The partitioning behaviour of the main radioactive elements associated with differentNORM types; Th (from the decay of 228Ra) and Ra partition to the slag, while Po andPb are emitted with, or recovered from, the off-gas.
The safe disposal of the contaminated slag and other wastes such as flue dust.
The need for risk assessments to determine the human and environmental impactsand possible need for radiation protection programmes for certain activities or areas,
and to control exposures and limit the spread of contamination into public areas.
The need for QA and record keeping programmes such as those for wasteinventories and activity levels in the slag and product.
D d d di l
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Deep underground disposal
Deep underground disposal is a well-studied method for disposal of high andintermediate level radioactive wastes from the nuclear fuel cycle. Disposal insalt caverns has been described as a potential method for NORM wastefrom the oil and gas industry.
Other possibilities include deep disposal in nearby disused metal mines.
The practical potential of these methods depends strongly on the availabilityof suitable non-operating mines close to the oil and gas production regions.Transport costs could have a significant impact on the practicability of this
option as suitable sites may be located far away from the oil and gasproduction areas.
D d d di l
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Deep underground disposal
The following aspects would need to be addressed in considering this disposalmethod:
The costs of setting up, operating and maintaining such a repository in comparisonwith the costs associated with other disposal methods;
The repository location in relation to the oil and gas producing areas;
The selection of a suitable site requiring minimum depth of emplacement;
Waste treatment, handling and packaging;
Institutional control issues;
The long term stability of the facility;
Transport costs and compliance with transport regulations;
The need for risk assessments to determine the impacts on the public and on theenvironment;
The possible need for occupational risk assessments and radiation protectionprogrammes for certain activities or areas, to control exposures and limit the spreadof contamination into public areas;
The need for QA and record keeping programmes such as waste inventories.
S
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Summary
S
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Summary
NORM residues should be minimised at every
opportunity (use - reuse recycling).
Waste management programme is a very important part
of the radiation protection programme
There are a wide variety of potential NORM disposalmethods.
All methods would require a risk assessment, and
Approval by the regulator, and most importantly
Public acceptability
Wh t t i f ti
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Assessing the Need for Radiation Protection Measures in WorkInvolving Minerals and Raw Materials (IAEA Safety Reports Series,No.49, 2006)
Extent of Environmental Contamination by Naturally OccurringRadioactive Material (NORM) and Technological Options for Mitigation(IAEA Technical Report Series No.419, 2003)
Where to get more information
Radiation Monitoring in the Mining and Milling of Radioactive Ores (IAEASafety Series No. 95, 1989)
Radiation Protection and the Management of Radioactive Waste in theOil and Gas Industry (IAEA Safety Reports Series No. 34, 2003)
Occupational Radiation Protection in the Mining and Processing of RawMaterials (IAEA Safety Standards Series No. RS-G-1.6, 2004)
Thank Yo
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Thank You