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The Physical LayerPart1
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The Theoretical Basis for Data Communication
• Fourier Analysis
• Bandwidth-Limited Signals
• Maximum Data Rate of a Channel
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Bandwidth-Limited Signals
A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier amplitudes.
(b) – (c) Successive approximations to the original signal.
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Bandwidth-Limited Signals (2)
(d) – (e) Successive approximations to the original signal.
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Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)
Relation between data rate and harmonics.
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Guided Transmission Data
• Magnetic Media
• Twisted Pair
• Coaxial Cable
• Fiber Optics
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Twisted Pair
(a) Category 3 UTP.(b) Category 5 UTP.
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Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable.
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Fiber Optics
(a) Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary at different angles.
(b) Light trapped by total internal reflection.
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Transmission of Light through Fiber
Attenuation of light through fiber in the infrared region.
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Fiber Cables
(a) Side view of a single fiber.(b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.
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Fiber Cables (2)
A comparison of semiconductor diodes and LEDs as light sources.
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Fiber Optic Networks
A fiber optic ring with active repeaters.
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Fiber Optic Networks (2)
A passive star connection in a fiber optics network.
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Wireless Transmission
• The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Infrared and Millimeter Waves
• Lightwave Transmission
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication.
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Radio Transmission
(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
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Politics of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
The ISM bands in the United States.
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Lightwave Transmission
Convection currents can interfere with laser communication systems.
A bidirectional system with two lasers is pictured here.
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Communication Satellites
• Geostationary Satellites
• Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
• Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
• Satellites versus Fiber
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Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties, including altitude above the earth, round-trip delay time
and number of satellites needed for global coverage.
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Communication Satellites (2)
The principal satellite bands.
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Communication Satellites (3)
VSATs using a hub.
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Low-Earth Orbit SatellitesIridium
(a) The Iridium satellites from six necklaces around the earth.
(b) 1628 moving cells cover the earth.
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Globalstar
(a) Relaying in space.(b) Relaying on the ground.
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Public Switched Telephone System
• Structure of the Telephone System
• The Politics of Telephones
• The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless
• Trunks and Multiplexing
• Switching
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Structure of the Telephone System
(a) Fully-interconnected network.
(b) Centralized switch.
(c) Two-level hierarchy.
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Structure of the Telephone System (2)
A typical circuit route for a medium-distance call.
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Major Components of the Telephone System
• Local loops Analog twisted pairs going to houses and
businesses
• Trunks Digital fiber optics connecting the switching
offices
• Switching offices Where calls are moved from one trunk to another
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The Politics of Telephones
The relationship of LATAs, LECs, and IXCs. All the circles are LEC switching offices. Each hexagon
belongs to the IXC whose number is on it.
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The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL, and Wireless
The use of both analog and digital transmissions for a computer to computer call. Conversion is done by the modems and codecs.
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CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
(a) Binary chip sequences for four stations(b) Bipolar chip sequences (c) Six examples of transmissions(d) Recovery of station C’s signal
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Third-Generation Mobile Phones:Digital Voice and Data
Basic services an IMT-2000 network should provide
• High-quality voice transmission
• Messaging (replace e-mail, fax, SMS, chat, etc.)
• Multimedia (music, videos, films, TV, etc.)
• Internet access (web surfing, w/multimedia.)
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Cable Television
• Community Antenna Television
• Internet over Cable
• Spectrum Allocation
• Cable Modems
• ADSL versus Cable
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Community Antenna Television
An early cable television system.
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Internet over Cable
Cable television
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Internet over Cable (2)
The fixed telephone system.
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Spectrum Allocation
Frequency allocation in a typical cable TV system used for Internet access
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Cable Modems
Typical details of the upstream and downstream channels in North America.