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The Posterior Pituitary The Posterior Pituitary
Contains axons of hypothalamic neuronsContains axons of hypothalamic neurons
Stores antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and Stores antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocinoxytocin
ADH and oxytocin are released in response to ADH and oxytocin are released in response to nerve impulsesnerve impulses
Both use PIP-calcium second-messenger Both use PIP-calcium second-messenger mechanism at their targetsmechanism at their targets
OxytocinOxytocin
Stimulates uterine contractions during Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth by mobilizing Cachildbirth by mobilizing Ca2+2+ through a PIP through a PIP22--CaCa2+2+ second-messenger system second-messenger system
Also triggers milk ejection (“letdown” reflex) Also triggers milk ejection (“letdown” reflex) in women producing milkin women producing milk
Plays a role in sexual arousal and orgasm in Plays a role in sexual arousal and orgasm in males and femalesmales and females
Antidiuretic Hormone Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)(ADH)
Hypothalamic osmoreceptors respond to Hypothalamic osmoreceptors respond to changes in the solute concentration of the changes in the solute concentration of the bloodblood
If solute concentration is highIf solute concentration is high Osmoreceptors depolarize and transmit Osmoreceptors depolarize and transmit
impulses to hypothalamic neuronsimpulses to hypothalamic neurons ADH is synthesized and released, inhibiting ADH is synthesized and released, inhibiting
urine formationurine formation
Antidiuretic Hormone Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)(ADH)
If solute concentration is lowIf solute concentration is low ADH is not released, allowing water loss ADH is not released, allowing water loss
Alcohol inhibits ADH release and causes Alcohol inhibits ADH release and causes copious urine outputcopious urine output
Homeostatic Homeostatic Imbalances of ADHImbalances of ADH
ADH deficiency—diabetes insipidus; huge ADH deficiency—diabetes insipidus; huge output of urine and intense thirstoutput of urine and intense thirst
ADH hypersecretion (after neurosurgery, ADH hypersecretion (after neurosurgery, trauma, or secreted by cancer cells)—trauma, or secreted by cancer cells)—syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH)(SIADH)
Thyroid GlandThyroid Gland
Consists of two lateral lobes connected by a Consists of two lateral lobes connected by a median mass called the isthmusmedian mass called the isthmus
Composed of follicles that produce the Composed of follicles that produce the glycoprotein thyroglobulinglycoprotein thyroglobulin
Colloid (thyroglobulin + iodine) fills the lumen Colloid (thyroglobulin + iodine) fills the lumen of the follicles and is the precursor of thyroid of the follicles and is the precursor of thyroid hormonehormone
Parafollicular cells produce the hormone Parafollicular cells produce the hormone calcitonincalcitonin
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.8
Thyroid Hormone (TH)Thyroid Hormone (TH)
Actually two related compoundsActually two related compounds TT44 (thyroxine); has 2 tyrosine molecules + 4 (thyroxine); has 2 tyrosine molecules + 4
bound iodine atomsbound iodine atoms TT33 (triiodothyronine); has 2 tyrosines + 3 bound (triiodothyronine); has 2 tyrosines + 3 bound
iodine atomsiodine atoms
Thyroid HormoneThyroid Hormone
Major metabolic hormoneMajor metabolic hormone
Increases metabolic rate and heat production Increases metabolic rate and heat production (calorigenic effect)(calorigenic effect)
Plays a role inPlays a role in Maintenance of blood pressureMaintenance of blood pressure Regulation of tissue growthRegulation of tissue growth Development of skeletal and nervous systemsDevelopment of skeletal and nervous systems Reproductive capabilitiesReproductive capabilities
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.9
To peripheral tissues
T3
T3
T3
T4
T4
Lysosome
Tyrosines (part of thyroglobulinmolecule)
T4
DIT (T2)Iodine
MIT (T1)
Thyro-globulincolloid
Iodide (I–)
RoughER
Capillary
Colloid
Colloid inlumen offollicle
Thyroid follicle cells
Iodinated tyrosines arelinked together to form T3
and T4.
Iodideis oxidizedto iodine.
Thyroglobulin colloid isendocytosed and combinedwith a lysosome.
Lysosomal enzymes cleaveT4 and T3 from thyroglobulincolloid and hormones diffuseinto bloodstream.
Iodide (I–) is trapped(actively transported in).
Thyroglobulin is synthesized anddischarged into the follicle lumen.
Iodine is attached to tyrosinein colloid, forming DIT and MIT.
Golgiapparatus
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Transport and Transport and Regulation of THRegulation of TH
TT44 and T and T33 are transported by thyroxine- are transported by thyroxine-binding globulins (TBGs) binding globulins (TBGs)
Both bind to target receptors, but TBoth bind to target receptors, but T33 is ten is ten times more active than Ttimes more active than T44
Peripheral tissues convert TPeripheral tissues convert T44 to T to T33
Transport and Transport and Regulation of THRegulation of TH
Negative feedback regulation of TH release Negative feedback regulation of TH release Rising TH levels provide negative feedback Rising TH levels provide negative feedback
inhibition on release of TSHinhibition on release of TSH Hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone Hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone
(TRH) can overcome the negative feedback (TRH) can overcome the negative feedback during pregnancy or exposure to coldduring pregnancy or exposure to cold
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.7
Hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary
Thyroid gland
Thyroidhormones
TSH
TRH
Target cellsStimulates
Inhibits
Homeostatic Homeostatic Imbalances of THImbalances of TH
Hyposecretion in adults—myxedema; Hyposecretion in adults—myxedema; endemic goiter if due to lack of iodineendemic goiter if due to lack of iodine
Hyposecretion in infants—cretinismHyposecretion in infants—cretinism
Hypersecretion—Graves’ diseaseHypersecretion—Graves’ disease
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.10
CalcitoninCalcitonin
Produced by parafollicular (C) cellsProduced by parafollicular (C) cells
Antagonist to parathyroid hormone (PTH)Antagonist to parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Inhibits osteoclast activity and release of CaInhibits osteoclast activity and release of Ca2+2+ from bone matrixfrom bone matrix
CalcitoninCalcitonin
Stimulates CaStimulates Ca2+2+ uptake and incorporation into uptake and incorporation into bone matrixbone matrix
Regulated by a humoral (CaRegulated by a humoral (Ca2+2+ concentration concentration in the blood) negative feedback mechanismin the blood) negative feedback mechanism
No important role in humans; removal of No important role in humans; removal of thyroid (and its C cells) does not affect Cathyroid (and its C cells) does not affect Ca2+2+ homeostasishomeostasis
Parathyroid GlandsParathyroid Glands
Four to eight tiny glands embedded in the Four to eight tiny glands embedded in the posterior aspect of the thyroidposterior aspect of the thyroid
Contain oxyphil cells (function unknown) and Contain oxyphil cells (function unknown) and chief cells that secrete parathyroid hormone chief cells that secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone(PTH) or parathormone
PTH—most important hormone in CaPTH—most important hormone in Ca2+2+ homeostasishomeostasis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.11
(b)
Capillary
Chiefcells(secreteparathyroidhormone)Oxyphilcells
Pharynx(posterioraspect)
Thyroidgland
Parathyroidglands
Trachea
Esophagus
(a)
Parathyroid HormoneParathyroid Hormone
FunctionsFunctions Stimulates osteoclasts to digest bone matrix Stimulates osteoclasts to digest bone matrix Enhances reabsorption of CaEnhances reabsorption of Ca2+2+ and secretion of and secretion of
phosphate by the kidneysphosphate by the kidneys Promotes activation of vitamin D (by the Promotes activation of vitamin D (by the
kidneys); increases absorption of Cakidneys); increases absorption of Ca2+2+ by by intestinal mucosaintestinal mucosa
Negative feedback control: rising CaNegative feedback control: rising Ca2+2+ in the in the blood inhibits PTH release blood inhibits PTH release
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.12
Intestine
Kidney
Bloodstream
Hypocalcemia (low blood Ca2+) stimulatesparathyroid glands to release PTH.
Rising Ca2+ inblood inhibitsPTH release.
1 PTH activatesosteoclasts: Ca2+
and PO43S released
into blood.
2 PTH increasesCa2+ reabsorptionin kidneytubules.
3 PTH promoteskidney’s activation of vitamin D,which increases Ca2+ absorptionfrom food.
Bone
Ca2+ ions
PTH Molecules
Homeostatic Homeostatic Imbalances of PTHImbalances of PTH
Hyperparathyroidism due to tumorHyperparathyroidism due to tumor Bones soften and deformBones soften and deform Elevated CaElevated Ca2+2+ depresses the nervous system depresses the nervous system
and contributes to formation of kidney stonesand contributes to formation of kidney stones
Hypoparathyroidism following gland trauma Hypoparathyroidism following gland trauma or removalor removal Results in tetany, respiratory paralysis, and Results in tetany, respiratory paralysis, and
deathdeath
Adrenal (Suprarenal) Adrenal (Suprarenal) GlandsGlands
Paired, pyramid-shaped organs atop the Paired, pyramid-shaped organs atop the kidneyskidneys
Structurally and functionally, they are two Structurally and functionally, they are two glands in oneglands in one Adrenal medulla—nervous tissue; part of the Adrenal medulla—nervous tissue; part of the
sympathetic nervous systemsympathetic nervous system Adrenal cortex—three layers of glandular tissue Adrenal cortex—three layers of glandular tissue
that synthesize and secrete corticosteroidsthat synthesize and secrete corticosteroids
Adrenal CortexAdrenal Cortex
Three layers and the corticosteroids producedThree layers and the corticosteroids produced Zona glomerulosa—mineralocorticoidsZona glomerulosa—mineralocorticoids Zona fasciculata—glucocorticoidsZona fasciculata—glucocorticoids Zona reticularis—sex hormones, or Zona reticularis—sex hormones, or
gonadocorticoidsgonadocorticoids
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.13a
• Cortex
Kidney
• Medulla
Adrenal gland
Capsule
Zonaglomerulosa
Zonafasciculata
Zonareticularis
Adrenalmedulla
(a) Drawing of the histology of the adrenal cortex and a portion of the adrenal medulla
Med
ulla
Cort
ex
MineralocorticoidsMineralocorticoids
Regulate electrolytes (primarily NaRegulate electrolytes (primarily Na++ and K and K++) in ) in ECFECF Importance of NaImportance of Na++: affects ECF volume, blood : affects ECF volume, blood
volume, blood pressure, levels of other ionsvolume, blood pressure, levels of other ions Importance of KImportance of K++: sets RMP of cells: sets RMP of cells
Aldosterone is the most potent Aldosterone is the most potent mineralocorticoid mineralocorticoid Stimulates NaStimulates Na++ reabsorption and water reabsorption and water
retention by the kidneysretention by the kidneys
Mechanisms of Mechanisms of Aldosterone SecretionAldosterone Secretion
1.1. Renin-angiotensin mechanism: decreased Renin-angiotensin mechanism: decreased blood pressure stimulates kidneys to release blood pressure stimulates kidneys to release renin, triggers formation of angiotensin II, a renin, triggers formation of angiotensin II, a potent stimulator of aldosterone release potent stimulator of aldosterone release
2.2. Plasma concentration of KPlasma concentration of K++: Increased K: Increased K++ directly influences the zona glomerulosa cells directly influences the zona glomerulosa cells to release aldosteroneto release aldosterone
3.3. ACTH: causes small increases of aldosterone ACTH: causes small increases of aldosterone during stressduring stress
4.4. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP): blocks renin Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP): blocks renin and aldosterone secretion, to decrease blood and aldosterone secretion, to decrease blood pressurepressure
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.14
Primary regulators Other factors
Blood volumeand/or blood
pressure
Angiotensin II
Blood pressureand/or blood
volume
K+ in blood
DirectstimulatingeffectRenin
Initiatescascadethatproduces
Kidney
Hypo-thalamus
Heart
CRH
Anteriorpituitary
Zona glomerulosaof adrenal cortex
Enhancedsecretionof aldosterone
Targetskidney tubules
Absorption of Na+ andwater; increased K+ excretion
Blood volumeand/or blood pressure
Inhibitoryeffect
Stress
ACTH Atrial natriureticpeptide (ANP)
Homeostatic Homeostatic Imbalances of Imbalances of AldosteroneAldosterone
Aldosteronism—hypersecretion due to Aldosteronism—hypersecretion due to adrenal tumorsadrenal tumors Hypertension and edema due to excessive NaHypertension and edema due to excessive Na++
Excretion of KExcretion of K++ leading to abnormal function of leading to abnormal function of neurons and muscle neurons and muscle
Glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids (Cortisol)(Cortisol)
Keep blood sugar levels relatively constantKeep blood sugar levels relatively constant
Maintain blood pressure by increasing the Maintain blood pressure by increasing the action of vasoconstrictorsaction of vasoconstrictors
Glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids (Cortisol)(Cortisol)
Cortisol is the most significant glucocorticoidCortisol is the most significant glucocorticoid Released in response to ACTH, patterns of Released in response to ACTH, patterns of
eating and activity, and stresseating and activity, and stress Prime metabolic effect is gluconeogenesis—Prime metabolic effect is gluconeogenesis—
formation of glucose from fats and proteinsformation of glucose from fats and proteins Promotes rises in blood glucose, fatty acids, Promotes rises in blood glucose, fatty acids,
and amino acidsand amino acids
Homeostatic Homeostatic Imbalances of Imbalances of
GlucocorticoidsGlucocorticoidsHypersecretion—Cushing’s syndromeHypersecretion—Cushing’s syndrome
Depresses cartilage and bone formationDepresses cartilage and bone formation Inhibits inflammationInhibits inflammationDepresses the immune systemDepresses the immune systemPromotes changes in cardiovascular, Promotes changes in cardiovascular,
neural, and gastrointestinal functionneural, and gastrointestinal function
Hyposecretion—Addison’s diseaseHyposecretion—Addison’s diseaseAlso involves deficits in mineralocorticoidsAlso involves deficits in mineralocorticoids
Decrease in glucose and NaDecrease in glucose and Na++ levels levels Weight loss, severe dehydration, and Weight loss, severe dehydration, and
hypotensionhypotension
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.15
Gonadocorticoids (Sex Gonadocorticoids (Sex Hormones)Hormones)
Most are androgens (male sex hormones) that Most are androgens (male sex hormones) that are converted to testosterone in tissue cells are converted to testosterone in tissue cells or estrogens in femalesor estrogens in females
May contribute toMay contribute to The onset of pubertyThe onset of puberty The appearance of secondary sex The appearance of secondary sex
characteristicscharacteristics Sex drive Sex drive
Adrenal MedullaAdrenal Medulla
Chromaffin cells secrete epinephrine (80%) Chromaffin cells secrete epinephrine (80%) and norepinephrine (20%)and norepinephrine (20%)
These hormones causeThese hormones cause Blood glucose levels to riseBlood glucose levels to rise Blood vessels to constrictBlood vessels to constrict The heart to beat fasterThe heart to beat faster Blood to be diverted to the brain, heart, and Blood to be diverted to the brain, heart, and
skeletal muscleskeletal muscle
Adrenal MedullaAdrenal Medulla
Epinephrine stimulates metabolic activities, Epinephrine stimulates metabolic activities, bronchial dilation, and blood flow to skeletal bronchial dilation, and blood flow to skeletal muscles and the heartmuscles and the heart
Norepinephrine influences peripheral Norepinephrine influences peripheral vasoconstriction and blood pressurevasoconstriction and blood pressure
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.16
Short-term stress More prolonged stress
Stress
Hypothalamus
CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone)
Corticotroph cellsof anterior pituitary
To target in blood
Adrenal cortex(secretes steroidhormones)
GlucocorticoidsMineralocorticoids
ACTH
Catecholamines(epinephrine andnorepinephrine)
Short-term stress response
1. Increased heart rate2. Increased blood pressure3. Liver converts glycogen to glucose and releases glucose to blood4. Dilation of bronchioles5. Changes in blood flow patterns leading to decreased digestive system activity and reduced urine output6. Increased metabolic rate
Long-term stress response
1. Retention of sodium and water by kidneys2. Increased blood volume and blood pressure
1. Proteins and fats converted to glucose or broken down for energy2. Increased blood glucose3. Suppression of immune system
Adrenal medulla(secretes amino acid-based hormones)
Preganglionicsympatheticfibers
Spinal cord
Nerve impulses
PancreasPancreas
Triangular gland behind the stomachTriangular gland behind the stomach
Has both exocrine and endocrine cellsHas both exocrine and endocrine cellsAcinar cells (exocrine) produce an enzyme-Acinar cells (exocrine) produce an enzyme-
rich juice for digestionrich juice for digestionPancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
contain endocrine cellscontain endocrine cells Alpha (Alpha () cells produce glucagon (a ) cells produce glucagon (a
hyperglycemic hormone)hyperglycemic hormone) Beta (Beta () cells produce insulin (a ) cells produce insulin (a
hypoglycemic hormone)hypoglycemic hormone)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.17
Pancreaticislet (ofLangerhans)
• (Glucagon- producing) cells
• (Insulin- producing) cells
Pancreaticacinarcells (exocrine)
GlucagonGlucagon
Major target is the liver, where it promotesMajor target is the liver, where it promotes Glycogenolysis—breakdown of glycogen to Glycogenolysis—breakdown of glycogen to
glucoseglucose Gluconeogenesis—synthesis of glucose from Gluconeogenesis—synthesis of glucose from
lactic acid and noncarbohydrateslactic acid and noncarbohydrates Release of glucose to the blood Release of glucose to the blood
InsulinInsulin
Effects of insulinEffects of insulin Lowers blood glucose levelsLowers blood glucose levels Enhances membrane transport of glucose into Enhances membrane transport of glucose into
fat and muscle cellsfat and muscle cells Participates in neuronal development and Participates in neuronal development and
learning and memorylearning and memory Inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesisInhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
Insulin Action on CellsInsulin Action on Cells
Activates a tyrosine kinase enzyme receptorActivates a tyrosine kinase enzyme receptor
Cascade leads to increased glucose uptake Cascade leads to increased glucose uptake and enzymatic activities thatand enzymatic activities that Catalyze the oxidation of glucose for ATP Catalyze the oxidation of glucose for ATP
productionproduction Polymerize glucose to form glycogenPolymerize glucose to form glycogen Convert glucose to fat (particularly in adipose Convert glucose to fat (particularly in adipose
tissue)tissue)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 16.18
Liver
Liver
Tissue cells
Stimulates glucose uptake by cells
StimulatesglycogenformationPancreas
Pancreas
Insulin
Bloodglucosefalls tonormalrange.
Stimulatesglycogenbreakdown
Bloodglucoserises tonormalrange.
Glucagon
Stimulus Bloodglucose level
Stimulus Bloodglucose level
GlycogenGlucose
GlycogenGlucose
Homeostatic Homeostatic Imbalances of InsulinImbalances of Insulin
Diabetes mellitus (DM)Diabetes mellitus (DM)Due to hyposecretion or hypoactivity of insulinDue to hyposecretion or hypoactivity of insulinThree cardinal signs of DMThree cardinal signs of DM
Polyuria—huge urine outputPolyuria—huge urine output Polydipsia—excessive thirstPolydipsia—excessive thirst Polyphagia—excessive hunger and food Polyphagia—excessive hunger and food
consumptionconsumption
Hyperinsulinism:Hyperinsulinism:Excessive insulin secretion; results in Excessive insulin secretion; results in
hypoglycemia, disorientation, unconsciousnesshypoglycemia, disorientation, unconsciousness
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 16.4
Ovaries and PlacentaOvaries and Placenta
Gonads produce steroid sex hormonesGonads produce steroid sex hormones
Ovaries produce estrogens and Ovaries produce estrogens and progesterone responsible for:progesterone responsible for:Maturation of female reproductive organsMaturation of female reproductive organsAppearance of female secondary sexual Appearance of female secondary sexual
characteristics characteristics Breast development and cyclic changes in Breast development and cyclic changes in
the uterine mucosathe uterine mucosa
The placenta secretes estrogens, The placenta secretes estrogens, progesterone, and human chorionic progesterone, and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)gonadotropin (hCG)
Testes Testes
Testes produce testosterone thatTestes produce testosterone that Initiates maturation of male reproductive Initiates maturation of male reproductive
organsorgans Causes appearance of male secondary sexual Causes appearance of male secondary sexual
characteristics and sex drivecharacteristics and sex drive Is necessary for normal sperm productionIs necessary for normal sperm production Maintains reproductive organs in their Maintains reproductive organs in their
functional statefunctional state
Pineal GlandPineal Gland
Small gland hanging from the roof of the Small gland hanging from the roof of the third ventricle third ventricle
Pinealocytes secrete melatonin, derived Pinealocytes secrete melatonin, derived from serotoninfrom serotonin
Melatonin may affectMelatonin may affectTiming of sexual maturation and pubertyTiming of sexual maturation and pubertyDay/night cyclesDay/night cyclesPhysiological processes that show rhythmic Physiological processes that show rhythmic
variations (body temperature, sleep, variations (body temperature, sleep, appetite)appetite)
Other Hormone-Other Hormone-Producing StructuresProducing Structures
HeartHeart Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) reduces blood Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) reduces blood
pressure, blood volume, and blood Napressure, blood volume, and blood Na++ concentrationconcentration
Gastrointestinal tract enteroendocrine cellsGastrointestinal tract enteroendocrine cells Gastrin stimulates release of HClGastrin stimulates release of HCl Secretin stimulates liver and pancreasSecretin stimulates liver and pancreas Cholecystokinin stimulates pancreas, Cholecystokinin stimulates pancreas,
gallbladder, and hepatopancreatic sphinctergallbladder, and hepatopancreatic sphincter
Other Hormone-Other Hormone-Producing StructuresProducing Structures
KidneysKidneysErythropoietin signals production of red Erythropoietin signals production of red
blood cellsblood cellsRenin initiates the renin-angiotensin Renin initiates the renin-angiotensin
mechanismmechanism
SkinSkinCholecalciferol, the precursor of vitamin DCholecalciferol, the precursor of vitamin D
Adipose tissueAdipose tissueLeptin is involved in appetite control, and Leptin is involved in appetite control, and
stimulates increased energy expenditurestimulates increased energy expenditure
Other Hormone-Other Hormone-Producing StructuresProducing Structures
Skeleton (osteoblasts)Skeleton (osteoblasts) Osteocalcin prods pancreatic beta cells to Osteocalcin prods pancreatic beta cells to
divide and secrete more insulin, improving divide and secrete more insulin, improving glucose handling and reducing body fatglucose handling and reducing body fat
ThymusThymus Thymulin, thymopoietins, and thymosins are Thymulin, thymopoietins, and thymosins are
involved in normal the development of the T involved in normal the development of the T lymphocytes in the immune response lymphocytes in the immune response
Developmental Aspects Developmental Aspects
Hormone-producing glands arise from all Hormone-producing glands arise from all three germ layers three germ layers
Exposure to pesticides, industrial chemicals, Exposure to pesticides, industrial chemicals, arsenic, dioxin, and soil and water pollutants arsenic, dioxin, and soil and water pollutants disrupts hormone functiondisrupts hormone function
Sex hormones, thyroid hormone, and Sex hormones, thyroid hormone, and glucocorticoids are vulnerable to the effects glucocorticoids are vulnerable to the effects of pollutantsof pollutants
Interference with glucocorticoids may help Interference with glucocorticoids may help explain high cancer rates in certain areasexplain high cancer rates in certain areas
Developmental AspectsDevelopmental Aspects
Ovaries undergo significant changes with age Ovaries undergo significant changes with age and become unresponsive to gonadotropins; and become unresponsive to gonadotropins; problems associated with estrogen deficiency problems associated with estrogen deficiency begin to occurbegin to occur
Testosterone also diminishes with age, but Testosterone also diminishes with age, but effect is not usually seen until very old ageeffect is not usually seen until very old age
Developmental AspectsDevelopmental Aspects
GH levels decline with age and this accounts GH levels decline with age and this accounts for muscle atrophy with agefor muscle atrophy with age
TH declines with age, contributing to lower TH declines with age, contributing to lower basal metabolic ratesbasal metabolic rates
PTH levels remain fairly constant with age, PTH levels remain fairly constant with age, but lack of estrogen in older women makes but lack of estrogen in older women makes them more vulnerable to bone-demineralizing them more vulnerable to bone-demineralizing effects of PTHeffects of PTH