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Title:ThePracticeandScienceOfDrawing
Author:HaroldSpeed
ReleaseDate:December6,2004[EBook#14264]
Language:English
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THE
PRACTICE&SCIENCE
OF
DRAWING
BY
HAROLDSPEED
AssociédelaSociétéNationaledesBeaux-Arts,Paris;MemberoftheRoyalSocietyofPortraitPainters,&c.
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With93Illustrations&Diagrams
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LONDONSEELEY,SERVICE&CO.LIMITED38GREATRUSSELLSTREET1913
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[Illustration:PlateI.
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FOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFSAMEMONOCHROMEPAINTINGINDIFFERENTSTAGESILLUSTRATINGAMETHODOFSTUDYINGMASSDRAWINGWITHTHEBRUSH]
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PREFACE
Permitmeinthefirstplacetoanticipatethedisappointmentofanystudentwhoopensthisbookwiththeideaoffinding"wrinkles"onhowtodrawfaces,trees,clouds,orwhatnot,shortcutstoexcellenceindrawing,oranyofthetrickssopopularwiththedrawingmastersofourgrandmothersandstilldearlylovedbyalargenumberofpeople.Nogoodcancomeofsuchmethods,fortherearenoshortcutstoexcellence.Buthelpofaverypracticalkinditistheaimofthefollowingpagestogive;althoughitmaybenecessarytomakeagreatercallupontheintelligenceofthestudentthantheseVictorianmethodsattempted.
Itwasnotuntilsometimeafterhavingpassedthroughthecourseoftrainingintwoofourchiefschoolsofartthattheauthorgotanyidea
ofwhatdrawingreallymeant.Whatwastaughtwasthefaithfulcopyingofaseriesofobjects,beginningwiththesimplestforms,suchascubes,cones,cylinders,&c.(anexcellentsystemtobeginwithatpresentindangerofsomeneglect),afterwhichmorecomplicatedobjectsinplasterofPariswereattempted,andfinallycopiesofthehumanheadandfigureposedinsuspendedanimationandsupportedbyblocks,&c.Insofarasthiswasaccuratelydone,allthismechanicaltrainingofeyeandhandwasexcellent;butitwasnotenough.AndwhenwithaneyetrainedtotheclosestmechanicalaccuracytheauthorvisitedthegalleriesoftheContinentandstudiedthedrawingsoftheoldmasters,itsoonbecameapparentthateitherhisortheirideasofdrawingwereallwrong.Veryfewdrawingscouldbefoundsufficiently"likethemodel"toobtaintheprizeateitherofthegreatschoolshehad
attended.Luckilytherewasjustenoughmodestyleftforhimtorealisethatpossiblytheywereinsomemysteriouswayrightandhisowntraininginsomewaylacking.Andsohesettoworktotryandclimbthelonguphillroadthatseparatesmechanicallyaccuratedrawingfromartisticallyaccuratedrawing.
Nowthisjourneyshouldhavebeencommencedmuchearlier,andperhapsitwasduetohisownstupiditythatitwasnot;butitwaswithavagueideaofsavingsomestudentsfromsuchwrong-headedness,andpossiblystraighteningoutsomeofthepath,thatheacceptedtheinvitationtowritethisbook.
Inwritinguponanymatterofexperience,suchasart,thepossibilities
ofmisunderstandingareenormous,andoneshudderstothinkofthethingsthatmaybeputdowntoone'scredit,owingtosuchmisunderstandings.Itislikewritingaboutthetasteofsugar,youareonlylikelytobeunderstoodbythosewhohavealreadyexperiencedtheflavour;bythosewhohavenot,thewildestinterpretationwillbeputuponyourwords.Thewrittenwordisnecessarilyconfinedtothethingsoftheunderstandingbecauseonlytheunderstandinghaswrittenlanguage;whereasartdealswithideasofadifferentmentaltexture,whichwordscanonlyvaguelysuggest.However,therearealargenumberofpeoplewho,althoughtheycannotbesaidtohaveexperiencedina
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fullsenseanyworksofart,haveundoubtedlytheimpellingdesirewhichalittledirectionmayleadontoafullerappreciation.Anditistosuchthatbooksonartareuseful.Sothatalthoughthisbookisprimarilyaddressedtoworkingstudents,itishopedthatitmaybeofinteresttothatincreasingnumberofpeoplewho,tiredwiththerushandstruggleofmodernexistence,seekrefreshmentinartisticthings.Tomanysuchinthiscountrymodernartisstillaclosedbook;itspointofviewissodifferentfromthatofthearttheyhavebeenbroughtupwith,thattheyrefusetohaveanythingtodowithit.Whereas,iftheyonlytookthetroubletofindoutsomethingofthepointofviewofthemodernartist,theywoulddiscovernewbeautiestheylittlesuspected.
IfanybodylooksatapicturebyClaudeMonetfromthepointofviewofaRaphael,hewillseenothingbutameaninglessjargonofwildpaint-strokes.AndifanybodylooksataRaphaelfromthepointofviewofaClaudeMonet,hewill,nodoubt,onlyseehard,tinnyfiguresinasettingdevoidofanyofthelovelyatmospherethatalwaysenvelopsformseeninnature.Sowideapartaresomeofthepointsofviewinpainting.Inthetreatmentofformthesedifferencesinpointofviewmakeforenormousvarietyinthework.Sothatnoapologyneedbemadeforthelargeamountofspaceoccupiedinthefollowingpagesbywhatisusuallydismissedasmeretheory;butwhatisinrealitythefirstessentialofanygoodpracticeindrawing.Tohaveaclearideaofwhat
itisyouwishtodo,isthefirstnecessityofanysuccessfulperformance.Butourexhibitionsarefullofworksthatshowhowseldomthisisthecaseinart.Worksshowingmuchingenuityandability,butnoartisticbrains;picturesthatarelittlemorethanschoolstudies,exercisesintherepresentationofcarefullyorcarelesslyarrangedobjects,butcoldtoanyartisticintention.
Atthistimeparticularlysomeprinciples,andaclearintellectualunderstandingofwhatitisyouaretryingtodo,areneeded.Wehavenosettraditionstoguideus.Thetimeswhenthestudentacceptedthestyleandtraditionsofhismasterandblindlyfollowedthemuntilhefoundhimself,aregone.Suchconditionsbelongedtoanagewhenintercommunicationwasdifficult,andwhentheartistichorizonwas
restrictedtoasingletownorprovince.Sciencehasalteredallthat,andwemayregretthelossoflocalcolourandsinglenessofaimthisgrowthofartinseparatecompartmentsproduced;butitisunlikelythatsuchconditionswilloccuragain.Quickmeansoftransitandcheapmethodsofreproductionhavebroughttheartofthewholeworldtoourdoors.Whereformerlytheartisticfoodatthedisposalofthestudentwasrestrictedtothefewpicturesinhisvicinityandsomeprintsofothers,nowthereisscarcelyapictureofnoteintheworldthatisnotknowntotheaveragestudent,eitherfrompersonalinspectionatourmuseumsandloanexhibitions,orfromexcellentphotographicreproductions.NotonlyEuropeanart,buttheartoftheEast,ChinaandJapan,ispartoftheformativeinfluencebywhichheissurrounded;nottomentionthemodernscienceoflightandcolourthathashadsuchan
influenceontechnique.Itisnowonderthataperiodofartisticindigestionisuponus.Hencethestudenthasneedofsoundprinciplesandaclearunderstandingofthescienceofhisart,ifhewouldselectfromthismassofmaterialthosethingswhichanswertohisowninnerneedforartisticexpression.
Thepositionofartto-dayislikethatofariverwheremanytributariesmeetingatonepoint,suddenlyturnthesteadyflowtoturbulence,themanystreamsjostlingeachotherandthedifferentcurrentspullinghitherandthither.Afteratimethesenewly-metforces
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willadjustthemselvestothealteredcondition,andalarger,finerstreambetheresult.Somethinganalogoustothiswouldseemtobehappeninginartatthepresenttime,whenallnationsandallschoolsareactingandreactinguponeachother,andartislosingitsnationalcharacteristics.Thehopeofthefutureisthatalargeranddeeperart,answeringtothealteredconditionsofhumanity,willresult.
Therearethosewhowouldleavethissceneofstrugglinginfluencesandawayuponsomebareprimitivemountain-topstartanewstream,beginalloveragain.Buthowevernecessaryitmaybetogivetheprimitivemountainwatersthatwerethestartofallthestreamsamoreprominentplaceinthenewflowonwards,itisunlikelythatmuchcancomeofanyattempttoleavetheturbulentwaters,gobackwards,andstartagain;theycanonlyflowonwards.Tospeakmoreplainly,thecomplexityofmodernartinfluencesmaymakeitnecessarytocallattentiontotheprimitiveprinciplesofexpressionthatshouldneverbelostsightofinanywork,buthardlyjustifiestheattitudeofthoseanarchistsinartwhowouldflouttheheritageofculturewepossessandattemptanewstart.Suchattemptshoweverwhensincereareinterestingandmaybeproductiveofsomenewvitality,addingtotheweightofthemainstream.Butitmustbealongthemainstream,alonglinesinharmonywithtraditionthatthechiefadvancemustbelookedfor.
Althoughithasbeenfeltnecessarytodevotemuchspacetoanattempt
tofindprinciplesthatmaybesaidtobeatthebasisoftheartofallnations,theexecutivesideofthequestionhasnotbeenneglected.Anditishopedthatthelogicalmethodforthestudyofdrawingfromthetwooppositepointsofviewoflineandmasshereadvocatedmaybeuseful,andhelpstudentstoavoidsomeoftheconfusionthatresultsfromattemptingsimultaneouslythestudyofthesedifferentqualitiesofformexpression.
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CONTENTS
I.INTRODUCTIONII.DRAWINGIII.VISIONIV.LINEDRAWINGV.MASSDRAWINGVI.THEACADEMICANDCONVENTIONALVII.THESTUDYOFDRAWINGVIII.LINEDRAWING:PRACTICALIX.MASSDRAWING:PRACTICALX.RHYTHM
XI.RHYTHM:VARIETYOFLINEXII.RHYTHM:UNITYOFLINEXIII.RHYTHM:VARIETYOFMASSXIV.RHYTHM:UNITYOFMASSXV.RHYTHM:BALANCEXVI.RHYTHM:PROPORTIONXVII.PORTRAITDRAWINGXVIII.THEVISUALMEMORYXIX.PROCEDUREXX.MATERIALS
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XXI.CONCLUSION
APPENDIX
INDEX
LISTOFPLATES
I.SETOFFOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFTHESAMESTUDYFROMTHELIFEINDIFFERENTSTAGESII.DRAWINGBYLEONARDODAVINCIIII.STUDYFOR"APRIL"IV.STUDYFORTHEFIGUREOF"BOREAS"V.FROMASTUDYBYBOTTICELLIVI.STUDYBYALFREDSTEPHENSVII.STUDYFORTHEFIGUREOFAPOLLOVIII.STUDYFORAPICTUREIX.STUDYBYWATTEAUX.EXAMPLEOFXVTHCENTURYCHINESEWORKXI.LOSMENENAS.BYVELAZQUEZ
XII.STUDYATTRIBUTEDTOMICHAELANGELOXIII.STUDYBYDEGASXIV.DRAWINGBYERNESTCOLEXV.FROMAPENCILDRAWINGBYINGRESXVI.STUDYBYRUBENSXVII.ADEMONSTRATIONDRAWINGATTHEGOLDSMITHS'COLLEGEXVIII.STUDYILLUSTRATINGMETHODOFDRAWINGXIX.ILLUSTRATINGCURVEDLINESXX.STUDYFORTHEFIGUREOF"Love"XXI.STUDYILLUSTRATINGTREATMENTOFHAIRXXII.STUDYFORDECORATIONATAMIENSXXIII.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHEPAINTINGFROMACAST(1)XXIII.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHEPAINTINGFROMACAST(2)
XXIV.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHEPAINTINGFROMACAST(3)XXIV.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHEPAINTINGFROMACAST(4)XXV.ILLUSTRATINGSOMETYPICALBRUSHSTROKESXXVI.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHESAMESTUDY(1)XXVII.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHESAMESTUDY(2)XXVIII.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHESAMESTUDY(3)XXIX.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHESAMESTUDY(4)XXX.ASTUDYFORAPICTUREOF"ROSALINDANDORLANDO"XXXI.ILLUSTRATIONSFROMBLAKE'S"JOB"(PLATESI.,V.,X.,XXI.)XXXII.ILLUSTRATIONSFROMBLAKE'S"JOB"(PLATESII.,XI.,XVIII.,XIV.)XXXIII.FÃTECHAMPÃTREXXXIV.BACCHUSANDARIADNEXXXV.LOVEANDDEATH
XXXVI.SURRENDEROFBREDAXXXVII.THEBIRTHOFVENUSXXXVIII.THERAPEOFEUROPAXXXIX.BATTLEOFS.EGIDIOXL.THEASCENSIONOFCHRISTXLI.THEBAPTISMOFCHRISTXLII.PORTRAITOFTHEARTIST'SDAUGHTERXLIII.MONTESOLARO,CAPRIXLIV.PARTOFTHE"SURRENDEROFBREDA"XLV.VENUS,MERCURY,ANDCUPID
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XLVI.OLYMPIAXLVII.L'EMBARQUEMENTPOURCYTHÃREXLVIII.THEANSIDEIMADONNAXLIX.FINDINGOFTHEBODYOFST.MARKL.FROMADRAWINGBYHOLBEINLI.SIRCHARLESDILKELII.JOHNREDMOND,M.P.LIII.THELADYAUDLEYLIV.STUDYONBROWNPAPERLV.FROMASILVERPOINTDRAWINGLVI.STUDYFORTREEIN"THEBOARHUNT"
LISTOFDIAGRAMS
I.TYPESOFFIRSTDRAWINGSBYCHILDRENII.SHOWINGWHERESQUARENESSESMAYBELOOKEDFORIII.ADEVICEFORENABLINGSTUDENTSTOOBSERVEAPPEARANCESASAFLATSUBJECTIV.SHOWINGTHREEPRINCIPLESOFCONSTRUCTIONUSEDINOBSERVINGMASSES,CURVES,ANDPOSITIONOFPOINTS
V.PLANOFCONEILLUSTRATINGPRINCIPLESOFLIGHTANDSHADEVI.ILLUSTRATINGSOMEPOINTSCONNECTEDWITHTHEEYESVII.EGGANDDARTMOULDINGVIII.ILLUSTRATINGVARIETYINSYMMETRYIX.ILLUSTRATINGVARIETYINSYMMETRYX.ILLUSTRATINGINFLUENCEOFHORIZONTALLINESXI.ILLUSTRATINGINFLUENCEOFVERTICALLINESXII.ILLUSTRATINGINFLUENCEOFTHERIGHTANGLEXIII.LOVEANDDEATHXIV.ILLUSTRATINGPOWEROFCURVEDLINESXV.THEBIRTHOFVENUSXVI.THERAPEOFEUROPAXVII.BATTLEOFS.EGIDIO
XVIII.SHOWINGHOWLINESUNRELATEDCANBEBROUGHTINTOHARMONYXIX.SHOWINGHOWLINESUNRELATEDCANBEBROUGHTINTOHARMONYXX.THEARTIST'SDAUGHTERXXI.THEINFLUENCEONTHEFACEOFDIFFERENTWAYSOFDOINGTHEHAIRXXII.THEINFLUENCEONTHEFACEOFDIFFERENTWAYSOFDOINGTHEHAIRXXIII.EXAMPLESOFEARLYITALIANTREATMENTOFTREESXXIV.THEPRINCIPLEOFMASSORTONERHYTHMXXV.MASSORTONERHYTHMIN"ULYSSESDERIDINGPOLYPHEMUS"XXVI.EXAMPLEOFCOROT'SSYSTEMOFMASSRHYTHMXXVII.ILLUSTRATINGHOWINTERESTMAYBALANCEMASSXXVIII.PROPORTION
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THEPRACTICEANDSCIENCEOFDRAWING
I
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INTRODUCTION
Thebestthingsinanartist'sworkaresomuchamatterofintuition,thatthereismuchtobesaidforthepointofviewthatwouldaltogetherdiscourageintellectualinquiryintoartisticphenomenaonthepartoftheartist.Intuitionsareshythingsandapttodisappeariflookedintotooclosely.Andthereisundoubtedlyadangerthattoomuchknowledgeandtrainingmaysupplantthenaturalintuitivefeelingofastudent,leavingonlyacoldknowledgeofthemeansofexpressioninitsplace.Fortheartist,ifhehastherightstuffinhim,hasaconsciousness,indoinghisbestwork,ofsomething,asRuskinhassaid,"notinhimbutthroughhim."Hehasbeen,asitwere,buttheagentthroughwhichithasfoundexpression.
Talentcanbedescribedas"thatwhichwehave,"andGeniusas"thatwhichhasus."Now,althoughwemayhavelittlecontroloverthispowerthat"hasus,"andalthoughitmaybeaswelltoabandononeselfunreservedlytoitsinfluence,therecanbelittledoubtastoitsbeingthebusinessoftheartisttoseetoitthathistalentbesodeveloped,thathemayproveafitinstrumentfortheexpressionofwhateveritmaybegivenhimtoexpress;whileitmustbelefttohisindividualtemperamenttodecidehowfaritisadvisabletopursueanyintellectual
analysisoftheelusivethingsthatarethetruematterofart.Providedthestudentrealisesthis,andthatarttrainingcanonlydealwiththeperfectingofameansofexpressionandthattherealmatterofartliesabovethisandisbeyondthescopeofteaching,hecannothavetoomuchofit.Foralthoughhemusteverbeachildbeforetheinfluencethatmoveshim,ifitisnotwiththeknowledgeofthegrownmanthathetakesoffhiscoatandapproachesthecraftofpaintingordrawing,hewillbepoorlyequippedtomakethemameansofconveyingtoothersinadequateformthethingshemaywishtoexpress.Greatthingsareonlydoneinartwhenthecreativeinstinctoftheartisthasawell-organisedexecutivefacultyatitsdisposal.
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Ofthetwodivisionsintowhichthetechnicalstudyofpaintingcanbedivided,namelyFormandColour,weareconcernedinthisbookwithFormalone.Butbeforeproceedingtoourimmediatesubjectsomethingshouldbesaidastothenatureofartgenerally,notwiththeambitionofarrivingatanyfinalresultinashortchapter,butmerelyinordertogiveanideaofthepointofviewfromwhichthefollowingpagesarewritten,sothatmisunderstandingsmaybeavoided.
Thevarietyofdefinitionsthatexistjustifiessomeinquiry.Thefollowingareafewthatcometomind:
"Artisnatureexpressedthroughapersonality."
Butwhatofarchitecture?Ormusic?ThenthereisMorris's
"Artistheexpressionofpleasureinwork."
Butthisdoesnotapplytomusicandpoetry.AndrewLang's
"Everythingwhichwedistinguishfromnature"
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seemstoobroadtocatchholdof,whileTolstoy's
"Anactionbymeansofwhichoneman,havingexperiencedafeeling,intentionallytransmitsittoothers"
isnearerthetruth,andcoversallthearts,butseems,fromitsomittinganymentionof#rhythm#,veryinadequate.
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Nowthefactsoflifeareconveyedbyoursensestotheconsciousnesswithinus,andstimulatetheworldofthoughtandfeelingthatconstitutesourreallife.Thoughtandfeelingareveryintimatelyconnected,fewofourmentalperceptions,particularlywhentheyfirstdawnuponus,beingunaccompaniedbysomefeeling.Butthereisthisgeneraldivisiontobemade,ononeextremeofwhichiswhatwecallpureintellect,andontheotherpurefeelingoremotion.Thearts,Itakeit,areameansofgivingexpressiontotheemotionalsideofthismentalactivity,intimatelyrelatedasitoftenistothemorepurelyintellectualside.Themoresensualsideofthisfeelingisperhapsitslowest,whilethefeelingsassociatedwiththeintelligence,thelittlesensitivenessesofperceptionthatescapepureintellect,arepossiblyitsnoblestexperiences.
Pureintellectseekstoconstructfromthefactsbroughttoourconsciousnessbythesenses,anaccuratelymeasuredworldofphenomena,uncolouredbythehumanequationineachofus.Itseekstocreateapointofviewoutsidethehumanstandpoint,onemorestableandaccurate,unaffectedbytheever-changingcurrentofhumanlife.Itthereforeinventsmechanicalinstrumentstodothemeasuringofoursenseperceptions,astheirrecordsaremoreaccuratethanhumanobservationunaided.
Butwhileinscienceobservationismademuchmoreeffectivebytheuseofmechanicalinstrumentsinregisteringfacts,thefactswithwhichartdeals,beingthoseoffeeling,canonlyberecordedbythefeelinginstrument--man,andareentirelymissedbyanymechanicallydevised
substitutes.
Theartisticintelligenceisnotinterestedinthingsfromthisstandpointofmechanicalaccuracy,butintheeffectofobservationonthelivingconsciousness--thesentientindividualineachofus.Thesamefactaccuratelyportrayedbyanumberofartisticintelligencesshouldbedifferentineachcase,whereasthesamefactaccuratelyexpressedbyanumberofscientificintelligencesshouldbethesame.
Butbesidesthefeelingsconnectedwithawiderangeofexperience,eacharthascertainemotionsbelongingtotheparticularsenseperceptionsconnectedwithit.Thatistosay,therearesomethatonlymusiccanconvey:thoseconnectedwithsound;othersthatonlypainting,
sculpture,orarchitecturecanconvey:thoseconnectedwiththeformandcolourthattheyseverallydealwith.
Inabstractformandcolour--thatis,formandcolourunconnectedwithnaturalappearances--thereisanemotionalpower,suchasthereisinmusic,thesoundsofwhichhavenodirectconnectionwithanythinginnature,butonlywiththatmysterioussensewehave,thesenseofHarmony,Beauty,orRhythm(allthreebutdifferentaspectsofthesamething).
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Thisinnersenseisaveryremarkablefact,andwillbefoundtosomeextentinall,certainlyallcivilised,races.AndwhentheartofaremotepeopleliketheChineseandJapaneseisunderstood,oursensesofharmonyarefoundtobewonderfullyinagreement.Despitethefactthattheirarthasdevelopedonlineswidelydifferentfromourown,nonetheless,whenthesurpriseatitsnewnesshaswornoffandwebegintounderstandit,wefinditconformstoverymuchthesamesenseofharmony.
Butapartfromthefeelingsconnecteddirectlywiththemeansofexpression,thereappearstobemuchincommonbetweenalltheartsintheirmostprofoundexpression;thereseemstobeacommoncentreinourinnerlifethattheyallappealto.Possiblyatthiscentrearethegreatprimitiveemotionscommontoallmen.Thereligiousgroup,thedeepaweandreverencemenfeelwhencontemplatingthegreatmysteryoftheUniverseandtheirownlittlenessinthefaceofitsvastness--thedesiretocorrespondanddeveloprelationshipwiththesomethingoutsidethemselvesthatisfelttobebehindandthroughallthings.Thentherearethoseconnectedwiththejoyoflife,thethrobbingofthegreatlifespirit,thegladnessofbeing,thedesireofthesexes;andalsothoseconnectedwiththesadnessandmysteryofdeathanddecay,&c.
Thetechnicalsideofanartis,however,notconcernedwiththesedeepermotivesbutwiththethingsofsensethroughwhichtheyfind
expression;inthecaseofpainting,thevisibleuniverse.Theartistiscapableofbeingstimulatedtoartisticexpressionbyallthingsseen,nomatterwhat;tohimnothingcomesamiss.Greatpictureshavebeenmadeofbeautifulpeopleinbeautifulclothesandofsqualidpeopleinuglyclothes,ofbeautifularchitecturalbuildingsandtheuglyhovelsofthepoor.AndthesamepainterwhopaintedtheAlpspaintedtheGreatWesternRailway.
Thevisibleworldistotheartist,asitwere,awonderfulgarment,attimesrevealingtohimtheBeyond,theInnerTruththereisinallthings.Hehasaconsciousnessofsomecorrespondencewithsomethingtheothersideofvisiblethingsanddimlyfeltthroughthem,a"still,
smallvoice"whichheisimpelledtointerprettoman.Itistheexpressionofthisall-pervadinginnersignificancethatIthinkwerecogniseasbeauty,andthatpromptedKeatstosay:
"Beautyistruth,truthbeauty."
Andhenceitisthattheloveoftruthandtheloveofbeautycanexisttogetherintheworkoftheartist.Thesearchforthisinnertruthisthesearchforbeauty.Peoplewhosevisiondoesnotpenetratebeyondthenarrowlimitsofthecommonplace,andtowhomacabbageisbutavulgarvegetable,aresurprisediftheyseeabeautifulpicturepaintedofone,andsaythattheartisthasidealisedit,meaningthathehasconsciouslyaltereditsappearanceonsomeidealisticformula;whereas
hehasprobablyonlyhonestlygivenexpressiontoatruer,deepervisionthantheyhadbeenawareof.Thecommonplaceisnotthetrue,butonlytheshallow,viewofthings.
[Illustration:PlateII.
DRAWINGBYLEONARDODAVINCIFROMTHEROYALCOLLECTIONATWINDSOR
_Copyrightphoto,Braun&Co._]
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Fromentin's
"Artistheexpressionoftheinvisiblebymeansofthevisible"
expressesthesameidea,anditisthisthatgivestoartitshighplaceamongtheworksofman.
Beautifulthingsseemtoputusincorrespondencewithaworldtheharmoniesofwhicharemoreperfect,andbringadeeperpeacethanthisimperfectlifeseemscapableofyieldingofitself.Ourmomentsofpeaceare,Ithink,alwaysassociatedwithsomeformofbeauty,ofthissparkofharmonywithincorrespondingwithsomeinfinitesourcewithout.Likeamariner'scompass,wearerestlessuntilwefindreposeinthisonedirection.Inmomentsofbeauty(forbeautyis,strictlyspeaking,astateofmindratherthananattributeofcertainobjects,althoughcertainthingshavethepowerofinducingitmorethanothers)weseemtogetaglimpseofthisdeepertruthbehindthethingsofsense.Andwhocansaybutthatthissense,dullenoughinmostofus,isnotanechoofagreaterharmonyexistingsomewheretheothersideofthings,thatwedimlyfeelthroughthem,evasivethoughitis.
Butwemusttreadlightlyintheserarefiedregionsandgetontomorepracticalconcerns.Byfindingandemphasisinginhisworkthoseelementsinvisualappearancesthatexpresstheseprofounderthings,the
painterisenabledtostimulatetheperceptionoftheminothers.Intherepresentationofafinemountain,forinstance,thereare,besidesallitsrhythmicbeautyofformandcolour,associationstouchingdeeperchordsinournatures--associationsconnectedwithitssize,age,andpermanence,&c.;atanyratewehavemorefeelingsthanformandcolourofthemselvesarecapableofarousing.Andthesethingsmustbefeltbythepainter,andhispicturepaintedundertheinfluenceofthesefeelings,ifheisinstinctivelytoselectthoseelementsofformandcolourthatconveythem.Suchdeeperfeelingsarefartoointimatelyassociatedevenwiththefinerbeautiesofmereformandcolourforthepaintertobeabletoneglectthem;noamountoftechnicalknowledgewilltaketheplaceoffeeling,ordirectthe
paintersosurelyinhisselectionofwhatisfine.
Therearethosewhowouldsay,"Thisisallverywell,butthepainter'sconcerniswithformandcolourandpaint,andnothingelse.Ifhepaintsthemountainfaithfullyfromthatpointofview,itwillsuggestalltheseotherassociationstothosewhowantthem."Andotherswhowouldsaythattheformandcolourofappearancesareonlytobeusedasalanguagetogiveexpressiontothefeelingscommontoallmen."Artforart'ssake"and"Artforsubject'ssake."Therearethesetwoextremepositionstoconsider,anditwilldependontheindividualonwhichsidehisworklies.Hisinterestwillbemoreontheaestheticside,inthefeelingsdirectlyconcernedwithformandcolour;oronthesideofthementalassociationsconnectedwithappearances,accordingto
histemperament.Butneitherpositioncanneglecttheotherwithoutfatalloss.Thepictureofformandcolourwillneverbeabletoescapetheassociationsconnectedwithvisualthings,neitherwillthepictureallforsubjectbeabletogetawayfromitsformandcolour.Anditiswrongtosay"Ifhepaintsthemountainfaithfullyfromtheformandcolourpointofviewitwillsuggestallthoseotherassociationstothosewhowantthem,"unless,asispossiblewithasimple-mindedpainter,hebeunconsciouslymovedbydeeperfeelings,andimpelledtoselectthesignificantthingswhileonlyconsciousofhispaint.Butthechancesarethathispicturewillconveythethingshewasthinking
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about,and,inconsequence,insteadofimpressinguswiththegrandeurofthemountain,willsaysomethingverylike"SeewhatacleverpainterIam!"Unlesstheartisthaspaintedhispictureundertheinfluenceofthedeeperfeelingsthescenewascapableofproducing,itisnotlikelyanybodywillbesoimpressedwhentheylookathiswork.
Andthepainterdeeplymovedwithhighidealsastosubjectmatter,whoneglectstheformandcolourthroughwhichheisexpressingthem,willfindthathisworkhasfailedtobeconvincing.Theimmaterialcanonlybeexpressedthroughthematerialinart,andthepaintedsymbolsofthepicturemustbeveryperfectifsubtleandelusivemeaningsaretobeconveyed.Ifhecannotpaintthecommonplaceaspectofourmountain,howcanheexpecttopaintanyexpressionofthedeeperthingsinit?Thefactis,bothpositionsareincomplete.Inallgoodartthematterexpressedandthemannerofitsexpressionaresointimateastohavebecomeone.Thedeeperassociationsconnectedwiththemountainareonlymattersforartinsofarastheyaffectitsappearanceandtakeshapeasformandcolourinthemindoftheartist,informingthewholeprocessofthepainting,eventothebrushstrokes.Asinagoodpoem,itisimpossibletoconsiderthepoeticideaapartfromthewordsthatexpressit:theyarefiredtogetheratitscreation.
Nowanexpressionbymeansofoneofourdifferentsenseperceptionsdoesnotconstituteart,ortheboyshoutingatthetopofhisvoice,
givingexpressiontohisdelightinlifebutmakingahorriblenoise,wouldbeanartist.Ifhisexpressionistobeadequatetoconveyhisfeelingtoothers,theremustbesomearrangement.Theexpressionmustbeordered,rhythmic,orwhateverwordmostfitlyconveystheideaofthosepowers,consciousorunconscious,thatselectandarrangethesensuousmaterialofart,soastomakethemosttellingimpression,bybringingitintorelationwithourinnatesenseofharmony.Ifwecanfindaroughdefinitionthatwillincludeallthearts,itwillhelpustoseeinwhatdirectionliethosethingsinpaintingthatmakeitanart.Thenotuncommonidea,thatpaintingis"theproductionbymeansofcoloursofmoreorlessperfectrepresentationsofnaturalobjects"willnotdo.Anditisdevoutlytobehopedthatsciencewillperfectamethodofcolourphotographyfinallytodispelthisillusion.
What,then,willserveasaworkingdefinition?Theremustbesomethingaboutfeeling,theexpressionofthatindividualitythesecretofwhicheveryonecarriesinhimself;theexpressionofthategothatperceivesandismovedbythephenomenaoflifearoundus.And,ontheotherhand,somethingabouttheorderingofitsexpression.
Butwhoknowsofwordsthatcanconveyajustideaofsuchsubtlematter?Ifonesays"ArtistherhythmicexpressionofLife,oremotionalconsciousness,orfeeling,"allareinadequate.Perhapsthe"rhythmicexpressionoflife"wouldbethemoreperfectdefinition.Buttheword"life"issomuchmoreassociatedwitheatinganddrinkinginthepopularmind,thanwiththespiritorforceorwhateveryoucareto
callit,thatexistsbehindconsciousnessandistheanimatingfactorofourwholebeing,thatitwillhardlyserveausefulpurpose.Sothat,perhaps,forarough,practicaldefinitionthatwillatleastpointawayfromthemechanicalperformancesthatsooftenpassforart,"#theRhythmicexpressionofFeeling#"willdo:forbyRhythmismeantthatorderingofthematerialsofart(formandcolour,inthecaseofpainting)soastobringthemintorelationshipwithourinnatesenseofharmonywhichgivesthemtheirexpressivepower.Withoutthisrelationshipwehavenodirectmeansofmakingthesensuousmaterialofartawakenanansweringechoinothers.Theboyshoutingatthetopof
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hisvoice,makingahorriblenoise,wasnotanartistbecausehisexpressionwasinadequate--wasnotrelatedtotheunderlyingsenseofharmonythatwouldhavegivenitexpressivepower.
[Illustration:PlateIII.
STUDYFOR"APRIL"
Inredchalkontonedpaper.]
Letustestthisdefinitionwithsomesimplecases.Hereisasavage,shoutingandflinginghisarmsandlegsaboutinwilddelight;heisnotanartist,althoughhemaybemovedbylifeandfeeling.Butletthisshoutingbedoneonsomeorderedplan,toarhythmexpressiveofjoyanddelight,andhislegandarmmovementsgovernedbyitalso,andhehasbecomeanartist,andsinginganddancing(possiblytheoldestofthearts)willresult.
Ortakethecaseofonewhohasbeendeeplymovedbysomethinghehasseen,sayamankilledbyawildbeast,whichhewishestotellhisfriends.Ifhejustexplainsthefactsashesawthem,makingnoefforttoorderhiswordssoastomakethemosttellingimpressionuponhishearersandconveytothemsomethingofthefeelingsthatarestirringinhim,ifhemerelydoesthis,heisnotanartist,althoughthe
recitalofsuchaterribleincidentmaybemoving.Butthemomenthearrangeshiswordssoastoconveyinatellingmannernotonlytheplainfacts,butthehorriblefeelingsheexperiencedatthesight,hehasbecomeanartist.Andifhefurtherordershiswordstoarhythmicbeat,abeatinsympathywithhissubject,hehasbecomestillmoreartistic,andaprimitiveformofpoetrywillresult.
Orinbuildingahut,solongasamanisinterestedsolelyintheutilitariansideofthematter,asaresomanybuildersto-day,andjustputsupwallsasheneedsprotectionfromwildbeasts,andarooftokeepouttherain,heisnotyetanartist.Butthemomenthebeginstoconsiderhisworkwithsomefeeling,andarrangestherelativesizesofhiswallsandroofsothattheyanswertosomesensehehasfor
beautifulproportion,hehasbecomeanartist,andhishuthassomearchitecturalpretensions.Nowifhishutisofwood,andhepaintsittoprotectitfromtheelements,nothingnecessarilyartistichasbeendone.Butifheselectscoloursthatgivehimpleasureintheirarrangement,andiftheformshiscolourmassesassumearedesignedwithsomepersonalfeeling,hehasinventedaprimitiveformofdecoration.
Andlikewisethesavagewho,wishingtoillustratehisdescriptionofastrangeanimalhehasseen,takesapieceofburntwoodanddrawsonthewallhisideaofwhatitlookedlike,asortofcatalogueofitsappearanceinitsdetails,heisnotnecessarilyanartist.Itisonlywhenhedrawsundertheinfluenceofsomefeeling,ofsomepleasurehefeltintheappearanceoftheanimal,thathebecomesanartist.
Ofcourseineachcaseitisassumedthatthemenhavethepowertobemovedbythesethings,andwhethertheyaregoodorpoorartistswilldependonthequalityoftheirfeelingandthefitnessofitsexpression.
[Illustration:PlateIV.
STUDYONTISSUE-PAPERINREDCHALKFORFIGUREOFBOREAS]
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Thepurestformofthis"rhythmicexpressionoffeeling"ismusic.AndasWalterPatershowsusinhisessayon"TheSchoolofGiorgione,""musicisthetypeofart."Theothersaremoreartisticastheyapproachitsconditions.Poetry,themostmusicalformofliterature,isitsmostartisticform.Andinthegreatestpicturesform,colour,andideaareunitedtothrilluswithharmoniesanalogoustomusic.
ThepainterexpresseshisfeelingsthroughtherepresentationofthevisibleworldofNature,andthroughtherepresentationofthosecombinationsofformandcolourinspiredinhisimagination,thatwerealloriginallyderivedfromvisiblenature.Ifhefailsfromlackofskilltomakehisrepresentationconvincingtoreasonablepeople,nomatterhowsublimehasbeenhisartisticintention,hewillprobablyhavelandedintheridiculous.Andyet,#sogreatisthepowerofdirectionexercisedbytheemotionsontheartistthatitisseldomhisworkfailstoconveysomething,whengenuinefeelinghasbeenthemotive#.Ontheotherhand,thepainterwithnoartisticimpulsewhomakesalaboriouslycommonplacepictureofsomeordinaryorpretentioussubject,hasequallyfailedasanartist,howevermuchtheskilfulnessofhisrepresentationsmaygainhimreputationwiththeunthinking.
Thestudy,therefore,ofthe#representationofvisiblenature#andof#thepowersofexpressionpossessedbyformandcolour#istheobjectof
thepainter'straining.Andacommandoverthispowerofrepresentationandexpressionisabsolutelynecessaryifheistobecapableofdoinganythingworthyofhisart.
Thisisallinartthatonecanattempttoteach.Theemotionalsideisbeyondthescopeofteaching.Youcannotteachpeoplehowtofeel.Allyoucandoistosurroundthemwiththeconditionscalculatedtostimulateanynaturalfeelingtheymaypossess.Andthisisdonebyfamiliarisingstudentswiththebestworksofartandnature.
*****
Itissurprisinghowfewartstudentshaveanyideaofwhatitisthatconstitutesart.Theyareimpelled,itistobeassumed,byanaturaldesiretoexpressthemselvesbypainting,and,iftheirintuitiveabilityisstrongenough,itperhapsmatterslittlewhethertheyknowornot.Buttothelargernumberwhoarenotsoviolentlyimpelled,itishighlyessentialthattheyhavesomebetterideaofartthanthatitconsistsinsettingdownyourcanvasbeforenatureandcopyingit.
Inadequateasthisimperfecttreatmentofaprofoundlyinterestingsubjectis,itmayservetogivesomeideaofthepointofviewfromwhichthefollowingpagesarewritten,andifitalsoservestodisturbthe"copyingtheory"inthemindsofanystudentsandencouragesthemto
makefurtherinquiry,itwillhaveservedausefulpurpose.
II
DRAWING
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Bydrawingisheremeant#theexpressionofformuponaplanesurface#.
Artprobablyowesmoretoformforitsrangeofexpressionthantocolour.Manyofthenoblestthingsitiscapableofconveyingareexpressedbyformmoredirectlythanbyanythingelse.Anditisinterestingtonoticehowsomeoftheworld'sgreatestartistshavebeenveryrestrictedintheiruseofcolour,preferringtodependonformfortheirchiefappeal.ItisreportedthatApellesonlyusedthreecolours,black,red,andyellow,andRembrandtusedlittleelse.Drawing,althoughthefirst,isalsothelast,thingthepainterusuallystudies.Thereismoreinitthatcanbetaughtandthatrepaysconstantapplicationandeffort.Colourwouldseemtodependmuchmoreonanaturalsenseandtobelessamenabletoteaching.Awell-trainedeyefortheappreciationofformiswhateverystudentshouldsethimselftoacquirewithallthemightofwhichheiscapable.
Itisnotenoughinartisticdrawingtoportrayaccuratelyandincoldbloodtheappearanceofobjects.Toexpressformonemustfirstbemovedbyit.Thereisintheappearanceofallobjects,animateandinanimate,whathasbeencalledan#emotionalsignificance#,ahiddenrhythmthatisnotcaughtbytheaccurate,painstaking,butcoldartist.Theformsignificanceofwhichwespeakisneverfoundinamechanicalreproductionlikeaphotograph.Youarenevermovedtosaywhenlookingatone,"Whatfineform."
Itisdifficulttosayinwhatthisqualityconsists.Theemphasisandselectionthatisunconsciouslygiveninadrawingdonedirectlyundertheguidanceofstrongfeeling,aretoosubtletobetabulated;theyescapeanalysis.Butitisthisselectionofthesignificantandsuppressionofthenon-essentialthatoftengivestoafewlinesdrawnquickly,andhavingasomewhatremoterelationtothecomplexappearanceoftherealobject,morevitalityandtruththanaretobefoundinahighly-wroughtandpainstakingdrawing,duringtheprocessofwhichtheessentialandvitalthingshavebeenlostsightofinthelabourofthework;andthenon-essential,whichisusuallymoreobvious,isallowedtocreepinandobscuretheoriginalimpression.Ofcourse,hadthefinisheddrawingbeendonewiththemindcentredupontheparticular
formsignificanceaimedat,andeverytouchanddetailaddedintunetothisidea,thecomparisonmighthavebeendifferent.Butitisrarelythatgooddrawingsaredonethisway.Finethingsseemonlytobeseeninflashes,andthenaturethatcancarryovertheimpressionofoneofthesemomentsduringthelabourofahighly-wroughtdrawingisveryrare,andbelongstothefewgreatonesofthecraftalone.
Itisdifficulttoknowwhyoneshouldbemovedbytheexpressionofform;butitappearstohavesomephysicalinfluenceoverus.Inlookingatafinedrawing,sayofastrongman,weseemtoidentifyourselveswithitandfeelathrillofitsstrengthinourownbodies,promptingustosetourteeth,stiffenourframe,andexclaim"That'sfine."Or,whenlookingatthedrawingofabeautifulwoman,wearesoftenedbyits
charmandfeelinourselvessomethingofitssweetnessasweexclaim,"Howbeautiful."Themeasureofthefeelingineithercasewillbetheextenttowhichtheartisthasidentifiedhimselfwiththesubjectwhenmakingthedrawing,andhasbeenimpelledtoselecttheexpressiveelementsintheforms.
Artthusenablesustoexperiencelifeatsecondhand.Thesmallmanmayenjoysomewhatofthewiderexperienceofthebiggerman,andbeeducatedtoappreciateintimeawiderexperienceforhimself.Thisisthetruejustificationforpublicpicturegalleries.Notsomuchforthe
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moralinfluencetheyexert,ofwhichwehaveheardsomuch,butthatpeoplemaybeledthroughthevisionoftheartisttoenlargetheirexperienceoflife.Thisenlargingoftheexperienceistrueeducation,andaverydifferentthingfromthememorisingoffactsthatsooftenpassesassuch.Inawaythismaybesaidtobeamoralinfluence,asalargermindislesslikelytoharboursmallmeannesses.Butthisisnotthekindofmoralinfluenceusuallylookedforbythemany,whoratherdemandamoralstorytoldbythepicture;athingnotalwayssuitabletoartisticexpression.
Oneisalwaysprofoundlyimpressedbytheexpressionofasenseofbulk,vastness,ormassinform.Thereisafeelingofbeingliftedoutofone'spunyselftosomethingbiggerandmorestable.ItisthissplendidfeelingofbignessinMichaelAngelo'sfiguresthatissosatisfying.OnecannotcomeawayfromthecontemplationofthatwonderfulceilingofhisintheVaticanwithoutthesenseofhavingexperiencedsomethingofalargerlifethanonehadknownbefore.Neverhasthedignityofmanreachedsohighanexpressioninpaint,aheightthathasbeenthedespairofallwhohavesincetriedtofollowthatlonelymaster.Inlandscapealsothisexpressionoflargenessisfine:onelikestofeeltheweightandmassoftheground,thevastnessoftheskyandsea,thebulkofamountain.
Ontheotherhandoneischarmedalsobytheexpressionoflightness.
ThismaybenotedinmuchoftheworkofBotticelliandtheItaliansofthefifteenthcentury.Botticelli'sfiguresseldomhaveanyweight;theydriftaboutasifwalkingonair,givingadelightfulfeelingofotherworldliness.ThehandsoftheMadonnathatholdtheChildmightbeholdingflowersforanysenseofsupporttheyexpress.Itis,Ithink,onthissenseoflightnessthatagreatdealoftheexquisitecharmofBotticelli'sdrawingdepends.
Thefeatherylightnessofcloudsandofdraperiesblownbythewindisalwayspleasing,andBotticellinearlyalwayshasalightwindpassingthroughhisdraperiestogivethemthissense.
Aswillbeexplainedlater,inconnectionwithacademicdrawing,itis
eminentlynecessaryforthestudenttotrainhiseyeaccuratelytoobservetheformsofthingsbythemostpainstakingofdrawings.Intheseschoolstudiesfeelingneednotbeconsidered,butonlyacoldaccuracy.Inthesamewayasingertrainshimselftosingscales,givingeverynoteexactlythesameweightandpreservingamostmechanicaltimethroughout,sothateverynoteofhisvoicemaybeaccuratelyunderhiscontrolandbeequaltothesubtlestvariationshemayafterwardswanttoinfuseintoitatthedictatesoffeeling.Forhowcanthedraughtsman,whodoesnotknowhowtodrawaccuratelythecold,commonplaceviewofanobject,hopetogiveexpressiontothesubtledifferencespresentedbythesamethingseenundertheexcitementofstrongfeeling?
[Illustration:PlateV.
FROMASTUDYBYBOTTICELLI
InthePrintRoomattheBritishMuseum.]
Theseacademicdrawings,too,shouldbeashighlyfinishedashardapplicationcanmakethem,sothatthehabitofminutevisualexpressionmaybeacquired.Itwillbeneededlater,whendrawingofafinerkindisattempted,andwhenintheheatofanemotionalstimulustheartist
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hasnotimetoconsiderthesmallersubtletiesofdrawing,whichbythenshouldhavebecomealmostinstinctivewithhim,leavinghismindfreetodwellonthebiggerqualities.
Drawing,then,tobeworthyofthename,mustbemorethanwhatiscalledaccurate.Itmustpresenttheformofthingsinamorevividmannerthanweordinarilyseetheminnature.Everynewdraughtsmaninthehistoryofarthasdiscoveredanewsignificanceintheformofcommonthings,andgiventheworldanewexperience.Hehasrepresentedthesequalitiesunderthestimulusofthefeelingtheyinspiredinhim,hotandunderlined,asitwere,addingtothegreatbookofsighttheworldpossessesinitsart,abookbynomeanscompletedyet.
Sothattosayofadrawing,asissooftensaid,thatitisnottruebecauseitdoesnotpresentthecommonplaceappearanceofanobjectaccurately,maybefoolish.Itsaccuracydependsonthecompletenesswithwhichitconveystheparticularemotionalsignificancethatistheobjectofthedrawing.Whatthissignificanceiswillvaryenormouslywiththeindividualartist,butitisonlybythisstandardthattheaccuracyofthedrawingcanbejudged.
Itisthisdifferencebetweenscientificaccuracyandartisticaccuracythatpuzzlessomanypeople.Sciencedemandsthatphenomenabeobservedwiththeunemotionalaccuracyofaweighingmachine,whileartistic
accuracydemandsthatthingsbeobservedbyasentientindividualrecordingthesensationsproducedinhimbythephenomenaoflife.Andpeoplewiththescientifichabitthatisnowsocommonamongus,seeingapictureordrawinginwhichwhatarecalledfactshavebeenexpressedemotionally,arepuzzled,iftheyaremodest,orlaughatwhattheyconsideraglaringmistakeindrawingiftheyarenot,whenallthetimeitmaybetheirmistakenpointofviewthatisatfault.
Butwhilethereisnoabsoluteartisticstandardbywhichaccuracyofdrawingcanbejudged,assuchstandardmustnecessarilyvarywiththeartisticintentionofeachindividualartist,thisfactmustnotbetakenasanexcuseforanyobviouslyfaultydrawingthatincompetencemayproduce,asisoftendonebystudentswhowhencorrectedsaythat
they"sawitso."Forthereundoubtedlyexistsaroughphysicalstandardofrightnessindrawing,anyviolentdeviationsfromwhich,evenatthedictatesofemotionalexpression,isproductiveofthegrotesque.Thisphysicalstandardofaccuracyinhisworkitisthebusinessofthestudenttoacquireinhisacademictraining;andeveryaidthatsciencecangivebysuchstudiesasPerspective,Anatomy,and,inthecaseofLandscape,evenGeologyandBotany,shouldbeusedtoincreasetheaccuracyofhisrepresentations.Forthestrengthofappealinartisticworkwilldependmuchonthepowertheartistpossessesofexpressinghimselfthroughrepresentationsthatarresteveryonebytheirtruthandnaturalness.Andalthough,whentruthandnaturalnessexistwithoutanyartisticexpression,theresultisoflittleaccountasart,ontheotherhand,whentrulyartisticexpressionisclothedin
representationsthatoffendourideasofphysicaltruth,itisonlythefewwhocanforgivetheoffenceforthesakeofthegenuinefeelingtheyperceivebehindit.
[Illustration:PlateVI.
STUDYINNATURALREDCHALKBYALFREDSTEPHENS
FromthecollectionofCharlesRickettsandCharlesShannon]
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Howfarthenecessitiesofexpressionmaybeallowedtooverridethedictatesoftruthtophysicalstructureintheappearanceofobjectswillalwaysbeamuchdebatedpoint.InthebestdrawingthedeparturesfrommechanicalaccuracyaresosubtlethatIhavenodoubtmanywilldenytheexistenceofsuchathingaltogether.Goodartistsofstrongnaturalinspirationandsimplemindsareoftenquiteunconsciousofdoinganythingwhenpainting,butareallthesameasmechanicallyaccurateaspossible.
Yethowevermuchitmaybeadvisabletoletyourselfgoinartisticwork,duringyouracademictrainingletyouraimbe#asearchingaccuracy#.
III
VISION
ItisnecessarytosaysomethingaboutVisioninthefirstplace,ifwearetohaveanygraspoftheideaofform.
Anactofvisionisnotsosimpleamatterasthestudentwhoaskedhermasterifsheshould"paintnatureasshesawnature"wouldseemtohavethought.Andhisanswer,"Yes,madam,providedyoudon'tseenatureasyoupaintnature,"expressedthefirstdifficultythestudentofpaintinghastoface:thedifficultyoflearningtosee.
Letusroughlyexaminewhatweknowofvision.Sciencetellsusthatallobjectsaremadevisibletousbymeansoflight;andthatwhitelight,bywhichweseethingsinwhatmaybecalledtheirnormalaspect,iscomposedofallthecoloursofthesolarspectrum,asmaybeseeninarainbow;aphenomenoncaused,aseverybodyknows,bythesun'sraysbeingsplitupintotheircomponentparts.
Thislighttravelsinstraightlinesand,strikingobjectsbeforeus,isreflectedinalldirections.Someoftheserayspassingthroughapointsituatedbehindthelensesoftheeye,striketheretina.Themultiplicationoftheseraysontheretinaproducesapictureofwhateverisbeforetheeye,suchascanbeseenonthegroundglassatthebackofaphotographer'scamera,oronthetableofacameraobscura,bothofwhichinstrumentsareconstructedroughlyonthesameprincipleasthehumaneye.
Theseraysoflightwhenreflectedfromanobject,andagainwhenpassingthroughtheatmosphere,undergocertainmodifications.Shouldtheobjectbearedone,theyellow,green,andbluerays,all,infact,excepttheredrays,areabsorbedbytheobject,whiletheredis
allowedtoescape.Theseredraysstrikingtheretinaproducecertaineffectswhichconveytoourconsciousnessthesensationofred,andwesay"Thatisaredobject."Buttheremaybeparticlesofmoistureordustintheairthatwillmodifytheredrayssothatbythetimetheyreachtheeyetheymaybesomewhatdifferent.Thismodificationisnaturallymosteffectivewhenalargeamountofatmospherehastobepassedthrough,andinthingsverydistantthecolourofthenaturalobjectisoftenentirelylost,tobereplacedbyatmosphericcolours,asweseeindistantmountainswhentheairisnotperfectlyclear.Butwemustnotstrayintothefascinatingprovinceofcolour.
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Whatchieflyconcernsushereisthefactthatthepicturesonourretinasareflat,oftwodimensions,thesameasthecanvasonwhichwepaint.Ifyouexaminethesevisualpictureswithoutanyprejudice,asonemaywithacameraobscura,youwillseethattheyarecomposedofmassesofcolourininfinitevarietyandcomplexity,ofdifferentshapesandgradations,andwithmanyvarietiesofedges;givingtotheeyetheillusionofnaturewithactualdepthsanddistances,althoughoneknowsallthetimethatitisaflattableonwhichoneislooking.
Seeingthenthatoureyeshaveonlyflatpicturescontainingtwo-dimensioninformationabouttheobjectiveworld,fromwhenceisthisknowledgeofdistanceandthesolidityofthings?Howdowe_see_ thethirddimension,thedepthandthickness,bymeansofflatpicturesoftwodimensions?
Thepowertojudgedistanceisdueprincipallytoourpossessingtwoeyessituatedinslightlydifferentpositions,fromwhichwegettwoviewsofobjects,andalsotothepowerpossessedbytheeyesoffocussingatdifferentdistances,othersbeingoutoffocusforthetimebeing.Inapicturetheeyescanonlyfocusatonedistance(thedistancetheeyeisfromtheplaneofthepicturewhenyouarelookingatit),andthisisoneofthechiefcausesoftheperennialdifficultyinpaintingbackgrounds.Innaturetheyareoutoffocuswhenoneis
lookingatanobject,butinapaintingthebackgroundisnecessarilyonthesamefocalplaneastheobject.Numerousarethedevicesresortedtobypainterstoovercomethisdifficulty,buttheydonotconcernushere.
Thefactthatwehavetwoflatpicturesonourtworetinastohelpus,andthatwecanfocusatdifferentplanes,wouldnotsufficetoaccountforourknowledgeofthesolidityandshapeoftheobjectiveworld,werethesesensesnotassociatedwithanothersenseallimportantinideasofform,#thesenseoftouch#.
Thissenseisveryhighlydevelopedinus,andtheearlierperiodofourexistenceislargelygivenovertofeelingfortheobjectiveworld
outsideourselves.Whohasnotwatchedthelittlebabyhandsfeelingforeverythingwithinreach,andwithoutitsreach,forthematterofthat;fortheinfanthasnoknowledgeyetofwhatisandwhatisnotwithinitsreach.Whohasnotofferedsomebrightobjecttoayoungchildandwatcheditsclumsyattemptstofeelforit,almostasclumsyatfirstasifitwereblind,asithasnotyetlearnedtofocusdistances.Andwhenhehasatlastgotholdofit,howeagerlyhefeelsitallover,lookingintentlyatitallthetime;thuslearningearlytoassociatethe"feelofanobject"withitsappearance.Inthiswaybydegreesheacquiresthoseideasofroughnessandsmoothness,hardnessandsoftness,solidity,&c.,whichlateronhewillbeabletodistinguishbyvisionalone,andwithouttouchingtheobject.
Oursurvivaldependssomuchonthissenseoftouch,thatitisofthefirstimportancetous.Wemustknowwhetherthegroundishardenoughforustowalkon,orwhetherthereisaholeinfrontofus;andmassesofcolourraysstrikingtheretina,whichiswhatvisionamountsto,willnotofthemselvestellus.Butassociatedwiththeknowledgeaccumulatedinourearlyyears,byconnectingtouchwithsight,wedoknowwhencertaincombinationsofcolourraysstriketheeyethatthereisaroadforustowalkon,andthatwhencertainothercombinationsoccurthereisaholeinfrontofus,ortheedgeofaprecipice.
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Andlikewisewithhardnessandsoftness,thechildwhostrikeshisheadagainstthebed-postisforciblyremindedbynaturethatsuchthingsaretobeavoided,andfeelingthatitishardandthathardnesshasacertainlook,itavoidsthatkindofthinginthefuture.Andwhenitstrikesitsheadagainstthepillow,itlearnsthenatureofsoftness,andassociatingthissensationwiththeappearanceofthepillow,knowsinfuturethatwhensoftnessisobserveditneednotbeavoidedashardnessmustbe.
Sightisthereforenotamatteroftheeyealone.Awholetrainofassociationsconnectedwiththeobjectiveworldissetgoinginthemindwhenraysoflightstriketheretinarefractedfromobjects.Andtheseassociationsvaryenormouslyinquantityandvaluewithdifferentindividuals;buttheoneweareherechieflyconcernedwithisthisuniversaloneoftouch.Everybody"sees"theshapeofanobject,and"sees"whetherit"looks"hardorsoft,&c.Sees,inotherwords,the"feel"ofit.
Ifyouareaskedtothinkofanobject,sayacone,itwillnot,Ithink,bethevisualaspectthatwilloccurtomostpeople.Theywillthinkofacircularbasefromwhichacontinuoussideslopesuptoapointsituatedaboveitscentre,asonewouldfeelit.Thefactthatinalmosteveryvisualaspectthebaselineisthatofanellipse,notacircle,comesasasurprisetopeopleunaccustomedtodrawing.
Butabovethesecruderinstances,whatawealthofassociationscrowdinuponthemind,whenasightthatmovesoneisobserved.Puttwomenbeforeascene,oneanordinarypersonandtheotheragreatpoet,andaskthemtodescribewhattheysee.Assumingthembothtobepossessedofareasonablepowerhonestlytoexpressthemselves,whatadifferencewouldtherebeinthevalueoftheirdescriptions.Ortaketwopaintersbothequallygiftedinthepowerofexpressingtheirvisualperceptions,andputthembeforethescenetopaintit.Andassumingonetobeacommonplacemanandtheotheragreatartist,whatadifferencewilltherebeintheirwork.Thecommonplacepainterwillpaintacommonplacepicture,whiletheformandcolourwillbethemeansofstirringdeepassociationsandfeelingsinthemindoftheother,andwillmovehim
topaintthescenesothatthesamesplendourofassociationsmaybeconveyedtothebeholder.
[Illustration:PlateVII.
STUDYFORTHEFIGUREOFAPOLLOINTHEPICTURE"APOLLOANDDAPHNE"
Innaturalredchalkrubbedwithfinger;thehighlightsarepickedoutwithrubber.]
Buttoreturntoourinfantmind.Whilethedevelopmentoftheperceptionofthingshasbeengoingon,thepurelyvisualsideofthequestion,theobservationofthepictureontheretinaforwhatitisas
formandcolour,hasbeenneglected--neglectedtosuchanextentthatwhenthechildcomestoattemptdrawing,#sightisnotthesenseheconsults#.Thementalideaoftheobjectiveworldthathasgrownupinhismindisnowassociatedmoredirectlywithtouchthanwithsight,withthefeltshaperatherthanthevisualappearance.Sothatifheisaskedtodrawahead,hethinksofitfirstasanobjecthavingacontinuousboundaryinspace.Thishismindinstinctivelyconceivesasaline.Then,hairheexpressesbyarowoflittlelinescomingoutfromtheboundary,allroundthetop.Hethinksofeyesastwopointsorcircles,oraspointsincircles,andthenoseeitherasatriangleor
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anL-shapedline.Ifyoufeelthenoseyouwillseethereasonofthis.DownthefrontyouhavetheLline,andifyoufeelroundityouwillfindthetwosidesmeetingatthetopandabasejoiningthem,suggestingthetriangle.Themouthsimilarlyisanopeningwitharowofteeth,whicharegenerallyshownalthoughsoseldomseen,butalwaysapparentifthemouthisfelt(seediagramA).Thisis,Ithink,afairtypeofthefirstdrawingtheordinarychildmakes--andjudgingbysomeancientscribblingofthesameorderIremembernoticingscratchedonawallatPompeii,andbysavagedrawinggenerally,itappearstobeafairlyuniversaltype.Itisaveryremarkablethingwhich,asfarasIknow,hasnotyetbeenpointedout,thatinthesefirstattemptsatdrawingthevisionshouldnotbeconsulted.Ablindmanwouldnotdrawdifferently,couldhebutseetodraw.Werevisionthefirstsenseconsulted,andwerethesimplestvisualappearancesoughtafter,onemightexpectsomethinglikediagramB,theshadowsundereyes,nose,mouth,andchin,withthedarkermassofthehairbeingthesimplestthingthevisualappearancecanbereducedto.Butdespitethisbeingquiteaseasytodo,itdoesnotappealtotheordinarychildastheothertypedoes,becauseitdoesnotsatisfythesenseoftouchthatformssolargeapartoftheideaofanobjectinthemind.Allarchitecturalelevationsandgeometricalprojectionsgenerallyappealtothismentalideaofform.Theyconsistofviewsofabuildingorobjectthatcouldneverpossiblybeseenbyanybody,assumingastheydothattheeyeofthespectatorisexactlyinfrontofeverypartofthe
buildingatthesametime,aphysicalimpossibility.Andyetsoremovedfromtheactualvisualappearanceisourmentalideaofobjectsthatsuchdrawingsdoconveyaveryaccurateideaofabuildingorobject.Andofcoursetheyhavegreatadvantageasworkingdrawingsinthattheycanbescaled.
[Illustration:DiagramI.
A.TYPEOFFIRSTDRAWINGMADEBYCHILDREN,SHOWINGHOWVISIONHASNOTBEENCONSULTED
B.TYPEOFWHATMIGHTHAVEBEENEXPECTEDIFCRUDESTEXPRESSIONOFVISUALAPPEARANCEHADBEENATTEMPTED]
Ifsoearlythesenseofvisionisneglectedandrelegatedtobethehandmaidenofothersenses,itisnowonderthatintheaverageadultitisinsuchashockingstateofneglect.Ifeelconvincedthatwiththegreatmajorityofpeoplevisionisseldomifeverconsultedforitself,butonlytoministertosomeothersense.Theylookattheskytoseeifitisgoingtobefine;atthefieldstoseeiftheyaredryenoughtowalkon,orwhethertherewillbeagoodcropofhay;atthestreamnottoobservethebeautyofthereflectionsfromtheblueskyorgreenfieldsdancinguponitssurfaceortherichcolouringofitsshadoweddepths,buttocalculatehowdeepitisorhowmuchpoweritwouldsupplytoworkamill,howmanyfishitcontains,orsomeotherassociationalientoitsvisualaspect.Ifonelooksupatafinemass
ofcumuluscloudsaboveaLondonstreet,theordinarypasser-bywhofollowsone'sgazeexpectstoseeaballoonoraflying-machineatleast,andwhenheseesitisonlycloudsheisapttowonderwhatoneisgazingat.Thebeautifulformandcolourofthecloudseemtobeunobserved.Cloudsmeannothingtohimbutanaccumulationofwaterdustthatmaybringrain.Thisaccountsinsomewayforthenumberofgoodpaintingsthatareincomprehensibletothemajorityofpeople.Itisonlythosepicturesthatpursuethevisualaspectofobjectstoasufficientcompletiontocontainthesuggestionoftheseotherassociations,thattheyunderstandatall.Otherpictures,theysay,are
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notfinishedenough.Anditissoseldomthatapicturecanhavethispettyrealisationandatthesametimebeanexpressionofthoselargeremotionalqualitiesthatconstitutegoodpainting.
TheearlypaintingsofthePre-RaphaeliteBrotherhoodappeartobeastrikingexceptiontothis.Butintheirworktheexcessiverealisationofalldetailswaspartoftheexpressionandgaveemphasistothepoeticideaatthebasisoftheirpictures,andwasthereforepartoftheartisticintention.Inthesepaintingsthefieryintensitywithwhicheverylittledetailwaspaintedmadetheirpictureareadymediumfortheexpressionofpoeticthought,asortof"paintedpoetry,"everydetailbeingselectedonaccountofsomesymbolicmeaningithad,bearingonthepoeticideathatwastheobjectofthepicture.
Buttothosepainterswhodonotattempt"paintedpoetry,"butseekinpaintingapoetryofitsown,avisualpoetry,thisexcessivefinish(asitiscalled)isirksome,asitmarstheexpressionofthosequalitiesinvisiontheywishtoexpress.Finishinarthasnoconnectionwiththeamountofdetailinapicture,buthasreferenceonlytothecompletenesswithwhichtheemotionalideathepaintersetouttoexpresshasbeenrealised.
[Illustration:PlateVIII.
STUDYFORAPICTUREInredcontéchalkandwhitepastelrubbedontonedpaper.]
Thevisualblindnessofthemajorityofpeopleisgreatlytobedeplored,asnatureiseverofferingthemontheirretina,eveninthemeanestslum,amusicofcolourandformthatisaconstantsourceofpleasuretothosewhocanseeit.Butsomanyarecontenttousethiswonderfulfacultyofvisionforutilitarianpurposesonly.Itistheprivilegeoftheartisttoshowhowwonderfulandbeautifulisallthismusicofcolourandform,sothatpeople,havingbeenmovedbyitinhiswork,maybeencouragedtoseethesamebeautyinthethingsaroundthem.Thisisthebestargumentinfavourofmakingartasubjectof
generaleducation:thatitshouldteachpeopletosee.Everybodydoesnotneedtodrawandpaint,butifeverybodycouldgetthefacultyofappreciatingtheformandcolourontheirretinasasformandcolour,whatawealthwouldalwaysbeattheirdisposalforenjoyment!TheJapanesehabitoflookingatalandscapeupsidedownbetweentheirlegsisawayofseeingwithoutthedeadeninginfluenceoftouchassociations.Thuslooking,oneissurprisedintoseeingforoncethecolourandformofthingswiththeassociationoftouchforthemomentforgotten,andispuzzledatthebeauty.Theoddthingisthatalthoughthusweseethingsupsidedown,thepicturesonourretinasareforoncetherightwayup;forordinarilythevisualpictureisinvertedontheretina,likethatonthegroundglassatthebackofaphotographiccamera.
Tosumupthissomewhatramblingchapter,Ihaveendeavouredtoshowthattherearetwoaspectsfromwhichtheobjectiveworldcanbeapprehended.Thereisthepurelymentalperceptionfoundedchieflyonknowledgederivedfromoursenseoftouchassociatedwithvision,whoseprimitiveinstinctistoputanoutlineroundobjectsasrepresentingtheirboundariesinspace.Andsecondly,thereisthevisualperception,whichisconcernedwiththevisualaspectsofobjectsastheyappearontheretina;anarrangementofcolourshapes,asortofmosaicofcolour.Andthesetwoaspectsgiveustwodifferentpointsofviewfromwhich
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therepresentationofvisiblethingscanbeapproached.
Whentherepresentationfromeitherpointofviewiscarriedfarenough,theresultisverysimilar.Workbuiltuponoutlinedrawingtowhichhasbeenaddedlightandshade,colour,aerialperspective,&c.,mayeventuallyapproximatetotheperfectvisualappearance.Andinversely,representationsapproachedfromthepointofviewofpurevision,themosaicofcolourontheretina,ifpushedfarenough,maysatisfythementalperceptionofformwithitstouchassociations.Andofcoursethetwopointsofviewareintimatelyconnected.Youcannotputanaccurateoutlineroundanobjectwithoutobservingtheshapeitoccupiesinthefieldofvision.Anditisdifficulttoconsiderthe"mosaicofcolourforms"withoutbeingveryconsciousoftheobjectivesignificanceofthecolourmassesportrayed.Buttheypresenttwoentirelydifferentandoppositepointsofviewfromwhichtherepresentationofobjectscanbeapproached.InconsideringthesubjectofdrawingIthinkitnecessarytomakethisdivisionofthesubject,andbothmethodsofformexpressionshouldbestudiedbythestudent.LetuscallthefirstmethodLineDrawingandthesecondMassDrawing.Mostmoderndrawingisamixtureofboththesepointsofview,buttheyshouldbestudiedseparatelyifconfusionistobeavoided.Ifthestudentneglectslinedrawing,hisworkwilllacktheexpressivesignificanceofformthatonlyafeelingforlinesseemstohavethesecretofconveying;while,ifheneglectsmassdrawing,hewillbepoorlyequippedwhenhecomesto
expressformwithabrushfullofpainttoworkwith.
IV
LINEDRAWING
Mostoftheearliestformsofdrawingknowntousinhistory,likethoseofthechildwewerediscussinginthelastchapter,arelargelyinthenatureofoutlinedrawings.Thisisaremarkablefactconsideringthe
somewhatremoterelationlineshavetothecompletephenomenaofvision.Outlinescanonlybesaidtoexistinappearancesastheboundariesofmasses.Butevenherealineseemsapoorthingfromthevisualpointofview;astheboundariesarenotalwaysclearlydefined,butarecontinuallymergingintothesurroundingmassandlosingthemselvestobecaughtupagainlateronanddefinedoncemore.Itsrelationshipwithvisualappearancesisnotsufficienttojustifytheinstinctforlinedrawing.Itcomes,Ithink,ashasalreadybeensaid,fromthesenseoftouch.Whenanobjectisfeltthereisnomerginginthesurroundingmass,butafirmdefinitionofitsboundary,whichthemindinstinctivelyconceivesasaline.
Thereisamoredirectappealtotheimaginationinlinedrawingthanin
possiblyanythingelseinpictorialart.Theemotionalstimulusgivenbyfinedesignisduelargelytolinework.Thepoweralinepossessesofinstinctivelydirectingtheeyealongitscourseisoftheutmostvaluealso,enablingtheartisttoconcentratetheattentionofthebeholderwherehewishes.Thenthereisaharmonicsenseinlinesandtheirrelationships,amusicoflinethatisfoundatthebasisofallgoodart.Butthissubjectwillbetreatedlateronwhentalkingoflinerhythm.
Mostartistswhoseworkmakesalargeappealtotheimaginationare
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strongonthevalueofline.Blake,whosevisualknowledgewassuchanegligiblequantity,butwhosementalperceptionsweresomagnificent,wasalwaysinsistingonitsvalue.Andhisdesignsaresplendidexamplesofitspowerfulappealtotheimagination.
Onthisbasisoflinedrawingthedevelopmentofartproceeded.TheearlyEgyptianwallpaintingswereoutlinestinted,andtheearliestwallsculpturewasanincisedoutline.Aftertheseincisedlinessomemanofgeniusthoughtofcuttingawaythesurfaceofthewallbetweentheoutlinesandmodellingitinlowrelief.Theappearanceofthismayhavesuggestedtothemanpaintinghisoutlineonthewalltheideaofshadingbetweenhisoutlines.
Atanyratethenextdevelopmentwastheintroductionofalittleshadingtorelievetheflatnessoftheline-workandsuggestmodelling.Andthiswasasfarasthingshadgoneinthedirectionoftherepresentationofform,untilwellonintheItalianRenaissance.Botticelliusednothingelsethananoutlinelightlyshadedtoindicateform.LightandshadewerenotseriouslyperceiveduntilLeonardodaVinci.Andawonderfuldiscoveryitwasthoughttobe,andwas,indeed,althoughitseemsdifficulttounderstandwheremen'seyeshadbeenforsolongwiththephenomenaoflightandshadebeforethemallthetime.Butthisisonlyanotherproofofwhatcannotbetooofteninsistedon,namelythattheeyeonlyseeswhatitisonthelook-outfor,anditmay
evenbetherearethingsjustaswonderfulyettobediscoveredinvision.
Butitwasstillthetouchassociationofanobjectthatwasthedominantone;itwaswithintheoutlinedemandedbythissensethatthelightandshadeweretobeintroducedassomethingasitwereputontheobject.Itwasthe"solidsinspace"ideathatartwasstillappealingto.
"Thefirstobjectofapainteristomakeasimpleflatsurfaceappearlikearelievo,andsomeofitspartsdetachedfromtheground;hewhoexcelsallothersinthatpartoftheartdeservesthegreatestpraise,"[1]wroteLeonardodaVinci,andtheinsistenceonthis
"standingout"quality,withitsappealtothetouchsenseassomethinggreatinart,soundsverystrangeinthesedays.Butitmustberememberedthatthemeansofcreatingthisillusionwerenewtoallandgreatlywonderedat.
[Footnote1:LeonardodaVinci,_TreatiseonPainting_,paragraph178.]
Andagain,inparagraph176ofhistreatise,Leonardowrites:"Theknowledgeoftheoutlineisofmostconsequence,andyetmaybeacquiredtogreatcertaintybydintofstudy;astheoutlinesofthehumanfigure,particularlythosewhichdonotbend,areinvariablythesame.Buttheknowledgeofthesituation,qualityandquantityofshadows,beinginfinite,requiresthemostextensivestudy."
Theoutlinesofthehumanfigureare"invariablythesame"?Whatdoesthismean?Fromthevisualpointofviewweknowthatthespaceoccupiedbyfiguresinthefieldofourvisionisbynomeans"invariablythesame,"butofgreatvariety.Soitcannotbethevisualappearanceheisspeakingabout.Itcanonlyrefertothementalideaoftheshapeofthemembersofthehumanfigure.Theremark"particularlythosethatdonotbend"showsthisalso,forwhenthebodyisbentupeventhementalideaofitsformmustbealtered.Thereisnohintyetofvisionbeingexploitedforitself,butonlyinsofarasityieldedmaterialto
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stimulatethismentalideaoftheexteriorworld.
[Illustration:PlateIX.
STUDYBYWATTEAU
FromanoriginaldrawinginthecollectionofCharlesRickettsandCharlesShannon.]
Allthroughtheworkofthemenwhousedthislightandshade(orchiaroscuro,asitwascalled)theoutlinebasisremained.Leonardo,Raphael,MichaelAngelo,Titian,andtheVenetianswereallfaithfultoitasthemeansofholdingtheirpicturestogether;althoughtheVenetians,byfusingtheedgesoftheiroutlinemasses,gotverynearthevisualmethodtobeintroducedlaterbyVelazquez.
Inthisway,littlebylittle,startingfromabasisofsimpleoutlineforms,artgrewup,eachnewdetailofvisualappearancediscoveredadding,asitwere,anotherinstrumenttotheorchestraatthedisposaloftheartist,enablinghimtoaddtothesomewhatcrudedirectnessandsimplicityoftheearlyworkthegracesandrefinementsofthemorecomplexwork,makingtheproblemofcompositionmoredifficultbutincreasingtherangeofitsexpression.
Buttheseadditionstothevisualformulausedbyartistswasnotallgain;thesimplicityofthemeansatthedisposalofaBotticelligivesaninnocenceandimaginativeappealtohisworkthatitisdifficulttothinkofpreservingwiththemorecompletevisualrealisationoflaterschools.Whentherealisationofactualappearanceismostcomplete,themindisliabletobeledawaybysideissuesconnectedwiththethingsrepresented,insteadofseeingtheemotionalintentionsoftheartistexpressedthroughthem.Themindisapttoleavethepictureandlooking,asitwere,notatitbutthroughit,topursueatrainofthoughtassociatedwiththeobjectsrepresentedasrealobjects,butalientotheartisticintentionofthepicture.Thereisnothingintheseearlyformulaetodisturbthecontemplationoftheemotionalappealofpureformandcolour.Tothosewhoapproachapicturewiththe
ideathattherepresentationofnature,the"makingitlookliketherealthing,"isthesoleobjectofpainting,howstrangemustbetheappearanceofsuchpicturesasBotticelli's.
Theaccumulationofthedetailsofvisualobservationinartisliableeventuallytoobscurethemainideaanddisturbthelargesenseofdesignonwhichsomuchoftheimaginativeappealofaworkofartdepends.Thelargeamountofnewvisualknowledgethatthenaturalisticmovementsofthenineteenthcenturybroughttolightisparticularlyliableatthistimetoobscurethesimplerandmoreprimitivequalitiesonwhichallgoodartisbuilt.Attheheightofthatmovementlinedrawingwentoutoffashion,andcharcoal,andanawfulthingcalledastump,tooktheplaceofthepointintheschools.Charcoalisa
beautifulmediuminadexteroushand,butismoreadaptabletomassthantolinedrawing.Thelesssaidaboutthestumpthebetter,althoughIbelieveitstilllingersoninsomeschools.
Linedrawingishappilyreviving,andnothingissocalculatedtoputnewlifeandstrengthintothevagariesofnaturalisticpaintingandgetbackintoartafinesenseofdesign.
Thisobscuringofthedirectappealofartbytheaccumulationoftoomuchnaturalisticdetail,andthelossofpoweritentails,isthecause
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ofartistshavingoccasionallygonebacktoamoreprimitiveconvention.TherewastheArchaisticmovementinGreece,andmenlikeRossettiandBurne-Jonesfoundabettermeansofexpressingthethingsthatmovedtheminthetechniqueofthefourteenthcentury.Anditwasnodoubtafeelingoftheweakeninginfluenceonart,asanexpressiveforce,oftheelaboraterealisationsofthemodernschool,thatpromptedPuvisdeChavannestoinventforhimselfhislargeprimitivemanner.Itwillbenoticedthatintheseinstancesitischieflytheinsistenceuponoutlinethatdistinguishestheseartistsfromtheircontemporaries.
Art,likelife,isapttolanguishifitgetstoofarawayfromprimitiveconditions.But,likelifealso,itisapoorthingandaveryuncouthaffairifithasnothingbutprimitiveconditionstorecommendit.Becausethereisadecadentartabout,oneneednotmakeaheroofthepavementartist.Butwithoutgoingtotheextremeoffloutingthecenturiesofculturethatartinherits,asitisnowfashionableinmanyplacestodo,studentswilldowelltostudyatfirsttheearlyratherthanthelateworkofthedifferentschools,soastogetintouchwiththesimpleconditionsofdesignonwhichgoodworkisbuilt.Itiseasiertostudytheseessentialqualitieswhentheyarenotoverlaidbysomuchknowledgeofvisualrealisation.Theskeletonofthepictureismoreapparentintheearlierthanthelaterworkofanyschool.
Thefinestexampleoftheunionoftheprimitivewiththemostrefined
andculturedarttheworldhaseverseenisprobablytheParthenonatAthens,abuildingthathasbeenthewonderoftheartisticworldforovertwothousandyears.NotonlyarethefragmentsofitssculpturesintheBritishMuseumamazing,butthebeautyandproportionsofitsarchitectureareofarefinementthatis,Ithink,neverevenattemptedinthesedays.Whatarchitectnowthinksofcorrectingthepoornessofhard,straightlinesbyveryslightlycurvingthem?Orofslightlyslopinginwardsthecolumnsofhisfacadetoaddtothestrengthofitsappearance?Theamountofthesevariationsisoftheveryslightestandbearswitnesstothepitchofrefinementattempted.Andyet,withitall,howsimple!ThereissomethingoftheprimitivestrengthofStonehengeinthatsolemnrowofcolumnsrisingfirmlyfromthesteps#withoutanybase#.Withallitsmagnificence,itstillretainsthe
simplicityofthehutfromwhichitwasevolved.
SomethingofthesamecombinationofprimitivegrandeurandstrengthwithexquisiterefinementofvisualisationisseenintheartofMichaelAngelo.Hisfollowersadoptedthebig,musculartypeoftheirmaster,butlosttheprimitivestrengthheexpressed;andwhenthisprimitiveforcewaslostsightof,whatadecadencesetin!
Thisisthepointatwhichartreachesitshighestmark:whentotheprimitivestrengthandsimplicityofearlyartareaddedtheinfiniterefinementsandgracesofculturewithoutdestroyingorweakeningthesublimityoftheexpression.
Inpainting,therefinementandgracesofculturetaketheformofanincreasingtruthtonaturalappearances,addedbitbybittotheprimitivebaldnessofearlywork;untilthepointisreached,asitwasinthenineteenthcentury,whenapparentlythewholefactsofvisualnatureareincorporated.Fromthiswealthofvisualmaterial,towhichmustbeaddedtheknowledgewenowhaveoftheartsoftheEast,ofChina,Japan,andIndia,themodernartisthastoselectthosethingsthatappealtohim;hastoselectthoseelementsthatanswertohisinmostneedofexpressinghimselfasanartist.Nowonderaperiodofartisticdyspepsiaisuponus,nowonderourexhibitions,particularly
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thoseontheContinent,arefullofstrange,weirdthings.Theproblembeforetheartistwasneversocomplex,butalsoneversointeresting.Newforms,newcombinations,newsimplificationsaretobefound.Butthesteadyinginfluenceanddisciplineoflineworkwerenevermorenecessarytothestudent.
Theprimitiveforceweareindangeroflosingdependsmuchonline,andnoworkthataimsatasublimeimpressioncandispensewiththebasisofacarefullywroughtandsimplelinescheme.
Thestudy,therefore,ofpurelinedrawingisofgreatimportancetothepainter,andthenumerousdrawingsthatexistbythegreatmastersinthismethodshowhowmuchtheyunderstooditsvalue.
Andtherevivaloflinedrawing,andthedesirethereistofindasimplerconventionfoundedonthisbasis,areamongthemosthopefulsignsintheartofthemoment.
V
MASSDRAWING
Intheprecedingchapterithas,Ihope,beenshownthatoutlinedrawingisaninstinctwithWesternartistsandhasbeensofromtheearliesttimes;thatthisinstinctisduetothefactthatthefirstmentalideaofanobjectisthesenseofitsformasafeltthing,notathingseen;andthatanoutlinedrawingsatisfiesandappealsdirectlytothismentalideaofobjects.
Butthereisanotherbasisofexpressiondirectlyrelatedtovisualappearancesthatinthefulnessoftimewasevolved,andhashadaverygreatinfluenceonmodernart.Thisformofdrawingisbasedontheconsiderationoftheflatappearancesontheretina,withtheknowledge
ofthefeltshapesofobjectsforthetimebeingforgotten.Inoppositiontolinedrawing,wemaycallthisMassDrawing.
Thescientifictruthofthispointofviewisobvious.Ifonlytheaccuratecopyingoftheappearancesofnaturewerethesoleobjectofart(anideatobemetwithamongstudents)theproblemofpaintingwouldbesimplerthanitis,andwouldbelikelyerelongtobesolvedbythephotographiccamera.
Thisformofdrawingisthenaturalmeansofexpressionwhenabrushfullofpaintisinyourhands.Thereducingofacomplicatedappearancetoafewsimplemassesisthefirstnecessityofthepainter.Butthiswillbefullyexplainedinalaterchaptertreatingmore
practicallyofthepracticeofmassdrawing.
[Illustration:PlateX.
EXAMPLEOFFIFTEENTH-CENTURYCHINESEWORKBYLUILIANG(BRITISHMUSEUM)
ShowinghowearlyChinesemastershaddevelopedthemass-drawingpointofview.]
TheartofChinaandJapanappearstohavebeenmore[influencedbythis
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viewofnaturalappearancesthanthatoftheWesthasbeen,untilquitelately.TheEasternminddoesnotseemtobesoobsessedbytheobjectivityofthingsasistheWesternmind.Withusthepracticalsenseoftouchisallpowerful."Iknowthatisso,becauseIfeltitwithmyhands"wouldbeacharacteristicexpressionwithus.WhereasIdonotthinkitwouldbeanexpressiontheEasternmindwoulduse.Withthemthespiritualessenceofthethingseenappearstobethemorereal,judgingfromtheirart.Andwhoistosaytheymaynotberight?Thisiscertainlytheimpressiononegetsfromtheirbeautifulpainting,withitslightnessoftextureandavoidanceofsolidity.Itisfoundedonnatureregardedasaflatvision,insteadofacollectionofsolidsinspace.Theiruseoflineisalsomuchmorerestrainedthanwithus,anditisseldomusedtoaccentuatethesolidityofthings,butchieflytosupporttheboundariesofmassesandsuggestdetail.Lightandshade,whichsuggestsolidity,areneverused,awidelightwherethereisnoshadowpervadeseverything,theirdrawingbeingdonewiththebrushinmasses.
When,asinthetimeofTitian,theartoftheWesthaddiscoveredlightandshade,linearperspective,aerialperspective,&c.,andhadbegunbyfusingtheedgesofthemassestosuspectthenecessityofpaintingtoawidelydiffusedfocus,theyhadgotverynearconsideringappearancesasavisualwhole.ButitwasnotuntilVelazquezthatapicturewaspaintedthatwasfoundedentirelyonvisualappearances,inwhicha
basisofobjectiveoutlineswasdiscardedandreplacedbyastructureoftonemasses.
WhenhetookhisownpaintingroomwiththelittleInfantaandhermaidsasasubject,Velazquezseemstohaveconsidereditentirelyasoneflatvisualimpression.ThefocalattentioniscentredontheInfanta,withthefiguresoneithersidemoreorlessoutoffocus,thoseontheextremerightbeingquiteblurred.Thereproductionheregivenunfortunatelydoesnotshowthesesubtleties,andflattensthegeneralappearanceverymuch.Thefocusisnowheresharp,asthiswoulddisturbthecontemplationofthelargevisualimpression.Andthere,Ithink,forthefirsttime,thewholegamutofnaturalvision,tone,colour,form,lightandshade,atmosphere,focus,&c.,consideredasone
impression,wereputoncanvas.
Allsenseofdesignislost.Thepicturehasnosurface;itisallatmospherebetweenthefouredgesoftheframe,andtheobjectsarewithin.PlacedasitisinthePrado,withthelightcomingfromtherightasinthepicture,thereisnobreakbetweentherealpeoplebeforeitandthefigureswithin,excepttheslightyellowveilduetoage.
Butwonderfulasthispictureis,asa"tourdeforce,"likehisVenusofthesameperiodintheNationalGallery,itisapainter'spicture,andmakesbutacoldimpressiononthosenotinterestedinthetechniqueofpainting.Withthecuttingawayoftheprimitivesupportoffine
outlinedesignandtheabsenceofthoseaccentsconveyingafineformstimulustothemind,arthaslostmuchofitsemotionalsignificance.
[Illustration:PlateXI.
LOSMENENAS.BYVELAZQUEZ(PRADO)
Probablythefirstpictureeverpaintedentirelyfromthevisualorimpressioniststandpoint.
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_PhotoAnderson_]
[Sidenote:TheImpressionistPointofView.]
Butarthasgainedanewpointofview.Withthissubjectivewayofconsideringappearances--this"impressionistvision,"asithasbeencalled--manythingsthatweretoougly,eitherfromshapeorassociation,toyieldmaterialforthepainter,wereyetfound,whenviewedaspartofaschemeofcoloursensationsontheretinawhichtheartistconsidersemotionallyandrhythmically,tolendthemselvestonewandbeautifulharmoniesand"ensembles,"undreamtofbytheearlierformulae.Andfurther,manyeffectsoflightthatweretoohopelesslycomplicatedforpainting,consideredontheoldlightandshadeprinciples(forinstance,sunlightthroughtreesinawood),werefoundtobequitepaintable,consideredasanimpressionofvariouscolourmasses.Theearlyformulacouldneverfreeitselffromtheobjectasasolidthing,andhadconsequentlytoconfineitsattentiontobeautifulones.Butfromthenewpointofview,formconsistsoftheshapeandqualitiesofmassesofcolourontheretina;andwhatobjectshappentobetheoutsidecauseoftheseshapesmatterslittletotheimpressionist.Nothingisuglywhenseeninabeautifulaspectoflight,andaspectiswiththemeverything.Thisconsiderationofthevisualappearanceinthefirstplacenecessitatedanincreaseddependenceon
themodel.Ashedoesnotnowdrawfromhismentalperceptionstheartisthasnothingtoselectthematerialofhispicturefromuntilithasexistedasaseenthingbeforehim:untilhehasavisualimpressionofitinhismind.Withtheolderpointofview(therepresentationbyapictorialdescription,asitwere,basedonthementalideaofanobject),themodelwasnotsonecessary.InthecaseoftheImpressionistthementalperceptionisarrivedatfromthevisualimpression,andintheolderpointofviewthevisualimpressionistheresultofthementalperception.ThusithappensthattheImpressionistmovementhasproducedchieflypicturesinspiredbytheactualworldofvisualphenomenaaroundus,theolderpointofviewproducingmostofthepicturesderivingtheirinspirationfromthegloriesoftheimagination,thementalworldinthemindoftheartist.Andalthough
interestingattemptsarebeingmadetoproduceimaginativeworksfoundedontheimpressionistpointofviewoflightandair,thelossofimaginativeappealconsequentuponthedestructionofcontoursbyscintillation,atmosphere,&c.,andthelossoflinerhythmitentails,havesofarpreventedtheproductionofanyverysatisfactoryresults.Butundoubtedlythereismuchnewmaterialbroughttolightbythismovementwaitingtobeusedimaginatively;anditoffersanewfieldfortheselectionofexpressivequalities.
Thispointofview,althoughcontinuingtosomeextentintheSpanishschool,didnotcomeintogeneralrecognitionuntilthelastcenturyinFrance.ThemostextremeexponentsofitarethebodyofartistswhogroupedthemselvesroundClaudeMonet.Thisimpressionistmovement,as
thecriticshavelabelledit,wastheresultofafiercedeterminationtoconsidernaturesolelyfromthevisualpointofview,makingnoconcessionstoanyotherassociationsconnectedwithsight.Theresultwasanentirelynewvisionofnature,startlingandrepulsivetoeyesunaccustomedtoobservationfromapurelyvisualpointofviewandusedonlytoseeingthe"feelofthings,"asitwere.Thefirstresultswerenaturallyrathercrude.Butagreatamountofnewvisualfactswerebroughttolight,particularlythoseconnectedwiththepaintingofsunlightandhalflighteffects.Indeedthewholepaintingofstronglighthasbeenpermanentlyaffectedbytheworkofthisgroupof
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painters.Emancipatedfromtheobjectiveworld,theynolongerdissectedtheobjecttoseewhatwasinsideit,butstudiedrathertheanatomyofthelightrefractedfromittotheireyes.Findingthistobecomposedofallthecoloursoftherainbowasseeninthesolarspectrum,andthatalltheeffectsnatureproducedaredonewithdifferentproportionsofthesecolours,theytookthem,orthenearestpigmentstheycouldgettothem,fortheirpalette,eliminatingtheearthcoloursandblack.Andfurther,findingthatnature'scolours(theraysofcolouredlight)whenmixedproduceddifferentresultsthantheircorrespondingpigmentsmixedtogether,theydeterminedtousetheirpaintsaspureaspossible,placingthemoneagainsttheothertobemixedastheycametotheeye,themixturebeingoneofpurecolourrays,notpigments,bythismeans.
Butwearehereonlyconcernedwiththemovementasitaffectedform,andmustavoidthefascinatingprovinceofcolour.
Thosewhohadbeenbroughtupintheoldschoolofoutlineformsaidtherewasnodrawingintheseimpressionistpictures,andfromthepointofviewofthementalideaofformdiscussedinthelastchapter,therewasindeedlittle,although,hadtheimpressionbeenrealisedtoasufficientlydefinitefocus,thesenseoftouchandsoliditywouldprobablyhavebeensatisfied.Buttheparticularfieldofthisnewpointofview,thebeautyoftoneandcolourrelationsconsideredasanimpressionapartfromobjectivity,didnottemptthemtocarrytheir
worksofarasthis,ortheinsistenceontheseparticularqualitieswouldhavebeenlost.
Butinterestingandalluringasisthenewworldofvisualmusicopenedupbythispointofview,itisbeginningtoberealisedthatithasfailedsomehowtosatisfy.Inthefirstplace,theimpliedassumptionthatoneseeswiththeeyealoneiswrong:
"Ineveryobjectthereisinexhaustiblemeaning;theeyeseesinitwhattheeyebringsmeansofseeing,"[2]
[Footnote2:Goethe,quotedinCarlyle's_FrenchRevolution_,chap.i.]
anditisthemindbehindtheeyethatsuppliesthismeansofperception:#oneseeswiththemind#.Theultimateeffectofanypicture,beitimpressionist,post,anti,orotherwise--isitspowertostimulatethesementalperceptionswithinthemind.
Butevenfromthepointofviewofthe_true_visualperception(ifthereissuchathing)thatmodernarthasheardsomuchtalkof,thecopyingoftheretinapictureisnotsogreatasuccess.Theimpressioncarriedawayfromascenethathasmovedusisnotitscompletevisualaspect.Onlythosethingsthataresignificanttothefeltimpressionhavebeenretainedbythemind;andifthepictureistobeatruerepresentationofthis,thesignificantfactsmustbesortedoutfromthemassofirrelevantmatterandpresentedinalivelymanner.The
impressionist'shabitofpaintingbeforenatureentirelyisnotcalculatedtodothis.Goingtimeaftertimetothesameplace,evenifsimilarweatherconditionsarewaitedfor,althoughwellenoughforstudies,isagainsttheproductionofafinepicture.Everytimetheartistgoestotheselectedspothereceivesadifferentimpression,sothathemusteitherpaintalloverhispictureeachtime,inwhichcasehisworkmustbeconfinedtoasmallscaleandwillbehurriedinexecution,orhemustpaintabitoftoday'simpressionalongsideofyesterday's,inwhichcasehisworkwillbedullandlackinginonenessofconception.
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Andfurther,indecomposingthecolourraysthatcometotheeyeandpaintinginpurecolour,whilegreatadditionwasmadetothepowerofexpressinglight,yetbydestroyingthedefinitionsandenvelopingeverythinginascintillatingatmosphere,thepowertodesigninalargemannerwaslostwiththewealthofsignificancethatthemusicoflinecanconvey.
Butimpressionismhasopenedupaviewfromwhichmuchinterestingmatterforartistobegleaned.Andeverywherepaintersareselectingfromthis,andgraftingitontosomeofthemoretraditionalschoolsofdesign.
Ourconcernhereiswiththeinfluencethispointofviewhashadupondraughtsmanship.Theinfluencehasbeenconsiderable,particularlywiththosedraughtsmenwhoseworkdealswiththerenderingofmodernlife.Itconsistsindrawingfromtheobservationofthesilhouetteoccupiedbyobjectsinthefieldofvision,observingtheflatappearanceofthingsastheyareontheretina.Thisis,ofcourse,theonlyaccuratewayinwhichtoobservevisualshapes.Thedifferencebetweenthisandtheolderpointofviewisitsinsistenceontheobservationoftheflatvisualimpressiontotheexclusionofthetactileortouchsensethatbytheassociationofideaswehavecometoexpectinthingsseen.Anincreasedtruthtothecharacterofappearanceshasbeentheresult,
withacorrespondinglossofplasticformexpression.Onpages66and67areproductionofadrawingintheBritishMuseum,attributedtoMichaelAngelo,iscontrastedwithoneintheLouvrebyDegas.Theoneisdrawnfromthelinepointofviewandtheotherfromthemass.Theybothcontainlines,butintheonecasethelinesarethecontoursoffeltformsandintheothertheboundariesofvisualmasses.IntheMichaelAngelothesilhouetteisonlytheresultoftheoverlappingofrichformsconsideredintheround.Everymuscleandbonehasbeenmentallyrealisedasaconcretethingandthedrawingmadeasanexpressionofthisidea.Notethelinerhythmalso;thesenseofenergyandmovementconveyedbytheswingingcurves;andcomparewithwhatissaidlater(page162[TranscribersNote:Sidenote"Curved
Lines"])abouttherhythmicsignificanceofswingingcurves.
ThencompareitwiththeDegasandobservethetotallydifferentattitudeofmindinwhichthisdrawinghasbeenapproached.Insteadoftheoutlinesbeingtheresultofformsfeltasconcretethings,thesilhouetteiseverywhereconsideredfirst,theplasticsense(nowheresogreatasintheother)beingarrivedatfromtheaccurateconsiderationofthemassshapes.
NoticealsotheincreasedattentiontoindividualcharacterintheDegas,observethepathosofthoseunderfedlittlearms,andthehandholdingthetiredankle--howindividualitallis.Whatadifferenttalethislittlefiguretellsfromthatgivenbeforethefootlights!Seewith
whatsympathythecontourshavebeensearchedforthoseaccentsexpressiveofallthis.
[Illustration:PlateXII.
STUDYATTRIBUTEDTOMICHAELANGELO(BRITISHMUSEUM)
Notethedesiretoexpressformasafeltsolidthing,thecontoursresultingfromtheoverlappingforms.Thevisualappearanceisarrivedatasaresultofgivingexpressiontothementalideaofasolid
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object.]
[Illustration:PlateXIII.
STUDYBYDEGAS(LUXEMBOURG)
IncontrastwithMichaelAngelo'sdrawing,notethepreoccupationwiththesilhouettethespacesoccupiedbythedifferentmassesinthefieldofvision;howtheappearancesolidformsistheresultofaccuratelyportrayingthisvisualappearance.
_PhotoLevi_]
HowremotefromindividualcharacteristheMichaelAngeloincontrastwiththis!Insteadofanindividualhegivesustheexpressionofaglowingmentalconceptionofmanasatypeofphysicalstrengthandpower.
Therhythmisdifferentalso,intheonecasebeingalinerhythm,andintheotheraconsiderationoftheflatpatternofshapesormasseswithaplayoflost-and-foundnessontheedges(seelater,pages192[TranscribersNote:Sidenote"VarietyofEdges."]_etseq._,varietyofedges).Itisthisfeelingforrhythmandthesympatheticsearchingfor
andemphasisofthosepointsexpressiveofcharacter,thatkeepthisdrawingfrombeingthemechanicalperformancewhichsomuchconcernwithscientificvisualaccuracymightwellhavemadeit,andwhichhasmademechanicalmanyofthedrawingsofDegas'sfollowerswhounintelligentlycopyhismethod.
VI
THEACADEMICANDCONVENTIONAL
ThetermsAcademicandConventionalaremuchusedincriticismandgreatlyfearedbythecriticised,oftenwithouteitherpartyappearingtohavemuchideaofwhatismeant.Newso-calledschoolsofpaintingseemtoarriveannuallywiththespringfashions,andsoonerorlatertheoneoflastyeargetscalledoutofdate,ifnotconventionalandacademic.Andasstudents,forfearofhavingtheirworkcalledbyoneorotherofthesedreadterms,areinclinedtorushintoanynewextravagancethatcomesalong,someinquiryastotheirmeaningwillnotbeoutofplacebeforewepassintothechaptersdealingwithacademicstudy.
IthasbeenthecryforsometimethatSchoolsofArtturnedoutonly
academicstudents.Andonecertainlyassociatesadeadlevelofrespectablemediocritywithmuchschoolwork.Wecancalltomindalotofdull,lifeless,highly-finishedwork,imperfectlyperfect,thathaswontheprizeinmanyaschoolcompetition.Flaubertsays"aformdeadens,"anditdoesseemasifthenecessaryformalityofaschoolcoursehadsomedeadeninginfluenceonstudents;andthattherewassomeimportantpartoftheartist'sdevelopmentwhichithasfailedtorecogniseandencourage.
ThefreersystemoftheFrenchschoolshasbeeninmanycasesmore
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successful.Buteachschoolwaspresidedoverbyanartistofdistinction,andthisputthestudentsintouchwithrealworkandthusintroducedvitality.InEngland,untilquitelately,artistswereseldomemployedinteaching,whichwaslefttomensetasideforthepurpose,withoutanytimetocarryonoriginalworkoftheirown.TheRoyalAcademySchoolsareanexceptiontothis.Therethestudentshavetheadvantageofteachingfromsomedistinguishedmemberorassociatewhohaschargeoftheupperschoolforamonthatatime.Butasthevisitorisconstantlychanged,thelessexperiencedstudentsarepuzzledbythedifferentmethodsadvocated,andflounderhopelesslyforwantofadefinitesystemtoworkon;althoughforastudentalreadyinpossessionofagoodgroundingthereismuchtobesaidforthesystem,ascontactwiththedifferentmasterswidenstheiroutlook.
ButperhapsthechiefmistakeinArtSchoolshasbeenthattheyhavetoolargelyconfinedthemselvestotrainingstudentsmechanicallytoobserveandportraythethingsetbeforethemtocopy,anantiquefigure,astill-lifegroup,alivingmodelsittingasstillandlifelessashecan.Nowthisisallverywellasfarasitgoes,buttherealmatterofartisnotnecessarilyinallthis.Andiftherealmatterofartisneglectedtoolongthestudentmayfinditdifficulttogetintouchwithitagain.
Theseaccurate,painstakingschoolstudiesareverynecessaryindeedas
atrainingfortheeyeinobservingaccurately,andthehandinreproducingtheappearancesofthings,becauseitisthroughthereproductionofnaturalappearancesandtheknowledgeofformandcolourderivedfromsuchstudythatthestudentwillafterwardsfindthemeansofgivingexpressiontohisfeelings.Butwhenvaluableprizesandscholarshipsaregivenforthem,and_not_forreallyartisticwork,theydotendtobecometheendinsteadofthemeans.
Itisofcourseimprobablethatevenschoolstudiesdonewiththesoleideaofaccuracybyayoungartistwillinallcasesbedevoidofartisticfeeling;itwillcreepin,ifhehastheartisticinstinct.Butitisnotenough#encouraged#,andtheprizeisgenerallygiventothedrawingthatismostcompleteandlikethemodelinacommonplaceway.
Ifastudent,movedbyastrongfeelingforform,letshimselfgoanddoesafinething,probablyonlyremotelylikethemodeltotheaverageeye,theauthoritiesarepuzzledanddon'tusuallyknowwhattomakeofit.
Thereareschoolswherethemostartisticqualitiesareencouraged,buttheygenerallyneglecttheacademicside;andthestudentleavesthempoorlyequippedforfinework.Surelyitwouldbepossibletomakeadistinction,givingprizesforacademicdrawingswhichshouldbeasthoroughlyaccurateinamechanicalwayasindustryandapplicationcanmakethem,andalsoforartisticdrawings,inwhichthestudentshouldbeencouragedtofollowhisbent,strivingfortheexpressionofanyqualitiesthatdelighthim,andtroublinglessaboutmechanical
accuracy.Theuseofdrawingasanexpressionofsomethingfeltissooftenleftuntilaftertheschooltrainingisdonethatmanystudentsfailtoachieveitaltogether.Androwsoflifelesspictures,madeupofmodelscopiedindifferentattitudes,withstudiopropertiesaroundthem,aretheresult,andpassforartinmanyquarters.Suchpicturesoftendisplayconsiderableability,forasBurne-Jonessaysinoneofhisletters,"Itisverydifficulttopaintevenabadpicture."Buthadtheabilitybeendifferentlydirected,thepicturesmighthavebeengood.
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[Illustration:PlateXIV.
DRAWINGINREDCHALKBYERNESTCOLE
Exampleofunacademicdrawingmadeintheauthor'sclassattheGoldsmithsCollegeSchoolofArt.]
Itisdifficulttoexplainwhatiswrongwithanacademicdrawing,andwhatisthedifferencebetweenitandfafinedrawing.Butperhapsthisdifferencecanbebroughthomealittlemoreclearlyifyouwillpardonaratherfancifulsimile.Iamtoldthatifyouconstructaperfectlyfittedengine--thepistonfittingthecylinderwithabsoluteaccuracyandtheaxlestheirsocketswithnospacebetween,&c.--it#willnotwork#,butbealifelessmassofiron.Theremustbeenoughplaybetweenthevitalpartstoallowofsomemovement;"dither"is,Ibelieve,theScotchwordforit.Thepistonmustbeallowedsomeplayintheopeningofthecylinderthroughwhichitpasses,oritwillnotbeabletomoveandshowanylife.Andtheaxlesofthewheelsintheirsockets,and,infact,allpartsofthemachinewherelifeandmovementaretooccur,musthavethisplay,this"dither."Ithasalwaysseemedtomethattheaccuratelyfittingenginewaslikeagoodacademicdrawing,inawayaperfectpieceofworkmanship,butlifeless.Imperfectlyperfect,becausetherewasnoroomleftfortheplayoflife.Andtocarrythesimilefurther,ifyouallowtoogreataplaybetweentheparts,sothatthey
fitoneovertheothertooloosely,theenginewilllosepowerandbecomeapoorricketything.Theremustbethesmallestamountofplaythatwillallowofitsworking.Andthemoreperfectlymadetheengine,thelesswilltheamountofthis"dither"be.
Theword"dither"willbeausefulnametogivethatelusivequality,thatplayonmechanicalaccuracy,existinginallvitalart.#Itisthisvitalqualitythathasnotyetreceivedmuchattentioninarttraining.#
Itisherethatthephotographfails,itcanonlyatbestgivemechanicalaccuracy,whereasartgivestheimpressionofalive,individualconsciousness.Wheretherecordinginstrumentisaliveindividual,thereisnomechanicalstandardofaccuracypossible,as
everyrecordinginstrumentisadifferentpersonality.Anditisthesubtledifferencesintheindividualrenderingsofnaturethatarethelife-bloodofart.Thephotograph,onaccountofitsbeingchainedtomechanicalaccuracy,hasnoneofthisplayoflifetogiveitcharm.Itonlyapproachesartisticconditionswhenitisblurred,vague,andindefinite,asinso-calledartisticphotography,forthenonlycansomeamountofthisvitalisingplay,this"dither"beimaginedtoexist.
Itisthisperfectaccuracy,thislackofplay,ofvariety,thatmakesthemachine-madearticlesolifeless.Whereverthereislifethereisvariety,andthesubstitutionofthemachine-madeforthehand-madearticlehasimpoverishedtheworldtoagreaterextentthanweareprobablyyetawareof.Whereasformerly,beforetheadventofmachinery,
thecommonestarticleyoucouldpickuphadalifeandwarmthwhichgaveitindividualinterest,noweverythingisturnedouttosuchaperfectionofdeadnessthatoneisdriventopickupandcollect,insheerdesperation,thecommonestrubbishstillsurvivingfromtheearlierperiod.
Buttoreturntoourdrawings.Ifthevariationsfromstrictaccuracymadeundertheinfluenceoffeelingaretoogreat,theresultwillbeacaricature.Thevariationsinabeautifuldrawingaresosubtleasoftentodefydetection.ThestudiesofIngresareaninstanceofwhatI
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mean.Howtrueandinstinctwithlifearehislines,andhoweasilyonemightassumethattheyweremerelyaccurate.Butnomerelyaccurateworkwouldhavetheimpellingqualitythesedrawingspossess.Ifthewritermayventureanopiniononsogreatanartist,thesubtledifferencewearetalkingaboutwassometimesmissedbyevenIngreshimself,whenhetransferredhisdrawingstothecanvas;andthepictureshaveinsomecasesbecomeacademicandlifeless.Withoutthestimulusofnaturebeforehimitwasdifficulttopreservethe"dither"inthedrawing,andthelifehasescaped.Thisisthegreatdifficultyofworkingfromstudies;itissoeasytolosethoselittlepointsinyourdrawingthatmakeforvitalityofexpression,intheprocessofcopyingincoldblood.
[Illustration:PlateXV.
FROMAPENCILDRAWINGBYINGRES
_PhotoBulloz_]
Thefactis:itisonlytheacademicthatcanbetaught.Anditisnosmallthingifthisiswelldoneinaschool.Thequalitiesthatgivevitalityanddistinctiontodrawingmustbeappreciatedbythestudenthimself,andmayoftenassertthemselvesinhisdrawingwithouthisbeingawarethatheisdoingaughtbuthonestlycopying.Andifhehas
trainedhimselfthoroughlyhewillnotfindmuchdifficultywhenheismovedtovitalexpression.Allthemastercandoistostandbyandencouragewheneverheseesevidenceoftherealthing.Butthereisundoubtedlythisdangeroftheschoolstudiesbecomingtheendinsteadofthemeans.
Adrawingisnotnecessarilyacademicbecauseitisthorough,butonlybecauseitisdead.Neitherisadrawingnecessarilyacademicbecauseitisdoneinwhatiscalledaconventionalstyle,anymorethanitisgoodbecauseitisdoneinanunconventionalstyle.Thetestiswhetherithaslifeandconveysgenuinefeeling.
*****
Thereismuchfoolishtalkaboutconventionalart,asifartcouldevergetawayfromconventions,ifitwould.Theconventionwillbemorenaturalormoreabstractaccordingtothenatureofthethingtobeconveyedandthemediumemployedtoexpressit.Butnaturalismisjustasmuchaconventionasanyoftheotherismsthatarthaslatelybeensoassailedwith.ForareallyunconventionalartthereisMadameTussaud'sWaxworks.There,eventheconventionofaframeandflatsurfacearedoneawaywith,besidesthepaintedsymbolstorepresentthings.Theyhaverealnaturalchairs,tables,andfloors,realclothes,andevenrealhair.Realismeverywhere,butnolife.Andweallknowtheresult.Thereismoreexpressionoflifeinafewlinesscribbledonpaperbyagoodartistthaninalltherealityofthepopularshow.
Itwouldseemthat,afteracertainpoint,theneareryourpictureapproachestheactualillusionofnaturalappearance,thefurtheryouarefromtheexpressionoflife.Onecanneverhopetosurpasstheillusionaryappearanceofa#tableauvivant#.Thereyouhavereal,livingpeople.Butwhatanawfuldeathlikestillnessisfeltwhenthecurtainisdrawnaside.Theneareryouapproachtheactualinallitscompleteness,themoreevidentisthelackofthat#movement#whichalwaysaccompanieslife.Youcannotexpresslifebycopyinglaboriouslynaturalappearances.Thosethingsintheappearancethatconveyvital
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expressionandarecapableofbeingtranslatedintothemediumheisworkingwith,havetobesoughtbytheartist,andthepaintedsymbolsofhispicturemadeaccordingly.Thislackofthemovementoflifeisnevernoticedinagoodpicture,ontheotherhandthefiguresareoftenfelttomove.
Picturesareblamedforbeingconventionalwhenitislackofvitalitythatisthetrouble.Iftheconventionadoptedhasnotbeenvitalisedbytheemotionthatisthereasonofthepainting,itwill,ofcourse,bealifelessaffair.Buthoweverabstractandunnaturalisticthemanneradopted,ifithasbeentrulyfeltbytheartistastherightmeansofexpressinghisemotionalidea,itwillhavelifeandshouldnotbecalledconventionalinthecommonlyacceptedoffensiveuseoftheterm.
Itisonlywhenapainterconsciouslychoosesamannernothisown,whichhedoesnotcomprehendandisincapableoffiringwithhisownpersonality,thathispictureisridiculousandconventionalinthedeadsense.
Buteveryagediffersinitstemperament,andtheartisticconventionsofoneageseldomfitanother.Theartisthastodiscoveraconventionforhimself,onethatfitshisparticularindividuality.Butthisisdonesimplyandnaturally--notbystartingoutwiththeintentionoffloutingalltraditionalconventionsonprinciple;nor,ontheother
hand,byacceptingthemallonprinciple,butbysimplyfollowinghisownbentandselectingwhatappealstohiminanythingandeverythingthatcomeswithintherangeofhisvision.Theresultislikelytobesomethingverydifferentfromtheviolentexploitsinpeculiaritythathavebeenmasqueradingasoriginalitylately.#Originalityismoreconcernedwithsinceritythanwithpeculiarity.#
Thestrugglingandfrettingafteroriginalitythatoneseesinmodernartiscertainlyanevidenceofvitality,butoneisinclinedtodoubtwhetheranythingreallyoriginalwaseverdoneinsoforcedaway.Theoldermasters,itseems,werecontentsincerelytotryanddothebesttheywerecapableofdoing.Andthiscontinualstrivingtodobetterledthemalmostunconsciouslytonewandoriginalresults.Originalityisa
qualityoverwhichanartisthasaslittleinfluenceasovertheshapeanddistinctionofhisfeatures.Allhecandoistobesincereandtryandfindoutthethingsthatreallymovehimandthathereallylikes.Ifhehasastrongandoriginalcharacter,hewillhavenodifficultyinthis,andhisworkwillbeoriginalinthetruesense.Andifhehasnot,itisamatterofopinionwhetherheisnotbetteremployedinworkingalongthelinesofsomewell-triedmannerthatwillatanyratekeephimfromdoinganythingreallybad,thaninstrugglingtocloakhisowncommonplacenessunderviolentessaysinpeculiarityandtheavoidanceoftheobviousatallcosts.
Butwhilespeakingagainstfrettingaftereccentricity,don'tletitbeassumedthatanydiscouragementisbeinggiventogenuinenewpointsof
view.Inart,whenathinghasoncebeenwelldoneandhasfoundembodimentinsomecompleteworkofart,ithasbeendoneonceforall.Thecircumstancesthatproduceditareneverlikelytooccuragain.Thatiswhythosepainterswhocontinuetoreproduceapictureoftheirs(wedonotmeanliterally)thathadbeenasuccessinthefirstinstance,neverafterwardsobtainthesuccessoftheoriginalperformance.Everybeautifulworkofartisanewcreation,theresultofparticularcircumstancesinthelifeoftheartistandthetimeofitsproduction,thathaveneverexistedbeforeandwillneverrecuragain.Wereanyofthegreatmastersofthepastalivenow,theywoulddoverydifferent
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workfromwhattheydidthen,thecircumstancesbeingsoentirelydifferent.SothatshouldanybodyseektopaintlikeTitiannow,bytryingtopaintlikeTitiandidinhistime,hecouldnotattemptanythingmoreunlikethespiritofthatmaster;whichinitsday,likethespiritofallmasters,wasmostadvanced.Butitisonlybyascrupulouslysincereandtruthfulattitudeofmindthatthenewandoriginalcircumstancesinwhichwefindourselvescanbetakenadvantageoffortheproductionoforiginalwork.Andself-consciousseekingafterpeculiarityonlystopsthenaturalevolutionandproducesabortions.
Butdonotbefrightenedbyconventions,thedifferentmaterialsinwhichtheartistworksimposetheirconventions.Andasitisthroughthesematerialsthathehastofindexpression,whatexpressivequalitiestheypossessmustbestudied,andthosefactsinnatureselectedthatareinharmonywiththem.Thetreatmentofhairbysculptorsisanextremeinstanceofthis.Whatarethosequalitiesofhairthatareamenabletoexpressioninstone?Obviouslytheyarefew,andconfinedchieflytothemassformsinwhichthehairarrangesitself.Thefinestsculptorshaveneverattemptedmorethanthis,haveneverlostsightofthefactthatitwasstonetheywereworkingwith,andnevermadeanyattempttocreateanillusionofrealhair.Andinthesameway,whenworkinginbronze,thefineartistneverlosessightofthefactthatitisbronzewithwhichheisworking.Howsadlythedistinguishedpaintertowhomamisguidedadministrationentrustedthe
workofmodellingtheBritishemblemoverlookedthis,maybeseenanydayinTrafalgarSquare,thelionstherepossessingnoneofthesplendourofbronzebutlookingasiftheyweremodelledindough,andpossessinginconsequencenoneofthevitalqualitiesofthelion.ItisinterestingtocomparethemwiththelittlelionAlfredStevensmodelledfortherailingoftheBritishMuseum,andtospeculateonwhatathrillwemighthavereceivedeverytimewepassedTrafalgarSquare,hadhebeenentrustedwiththework,ashemighthavebeen.
Andinpainting,thegreatpaintersneverlosesightofthefactthatitispaintwithwhichtheyareexpressingthemselves.Andalthoughpaintiscapableofapproachingmuchneareranactualillusoryappearanceofnaturethanstoneorbronze,theyneverpushthistothepointwhereyou
forgetthatitispaint.Thishasbeenleftforsomeofthesmallermen.
Andwhenitcomestodrawing,thegreatartistshavealwaysconfinedthemselvestothequalitiesinnaturethatthetooltheyweredrawingwithwascapableofexpressing,andnoothers.Whetherworkingwithpen,pencil,chalk,orcharcoal,theyalwayscreatedaconventionwithinwhichunlimitedexpressionhasbeenpossible.
Tosumup,academicdrawingisallthatcanbereallytaught,andisasnecessarytothepainterasthepractisingofexercisesistothemusician,thathispowersofobservationandexecutionmaybetrained.Butthevitalmatterofartisnotinallthisnecessarytraining.Andthisfactthestudentshouldalwayskeepinmind,andbeeverreadyto
givereintothosenaturalenthusiasmswhich,ifheisanartist,hewillfindwellingupwithinhim.Thedangeristhattheabsorbinginterestinhisacademicstudiesmaytakeuphiswholeattention,totheneglectoftheinstinctivequalitiesthatheshouldpossessthepossessionofwhichalonewillentitlehimtobeanartist.
VII
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THESTUDYOFDRAWING
Wehaveseenthattherearetwoextremepointsofviewfromwhichtherepresentationofformcanbeapproached,thatofoutlinedirectlyrelatedtothementalideaofformwithitstouchassociationontheonehand,andthatofmassconnecteddirectlywiththevisualpictureontheretinaontheother.
Now,betweenthesetwoextremepointsofviewthereareaninfinitevarietyofstylescombiningthembothandleaningmoretotheonesideortheother,asthecasemaybe.Butitisadvisableforthestudenttostudybothseparately,fortherearedifferentthingstobelearntanddifferentexpressivequalitiesinnaturetobestudiedinboth.
Fromthestudyofoutlinedrawingtheeyeistrainedtoaccurateobservationandlearnstheexpressivevalueofaline.Andthehandisalsotrainedtodefinitestatement,thestudentbeingledonbydegreesfromsimpleoutlinestoapproachthefullrealisationofforminallthecomplexityoflightandshade.
Butatthesametimeheshouldstudymassdrawingwithpaintfromthepurelyvisualpointofview,inordertobeintroducedtotheimportant
studyoftonevaluesandtheexpressionofformbymeansofplanes.Andsobydegreeshewilllearnaccuratelytoobserveandportraythetonemasses(theirshapesandvalues)towhichallvisualappearancescanbereduced;andhewillgraduallyarriveatthefullrealisationofform--arealisationthatwillbringhimtoapointsomewhatsimilartothatarrivedatfromtheoppositepointofviewofanoutlinetowhichhasbeenaddedlightandshade,&c.
Butunlessbothpointsofviewarestudied,thestudent'sworkwillbeincomplete.Ifformbestudiedonlyfromtheoutlinepointofview,andwhathavebeencalledsculptor'sdrawingsaloneattempted,thestudentwilllackknowledgeofthetoneandatmospherethatalwaysenvelopforminnature.Andalsohewillbepoorlyequippedwhenhecomestoexchange
thepencilforabrushandendeavourstoexpresshimselfinpaint.
Andifhisstudiesbeonlyfromthemasspointofview,thetrainingofhiseyetotheaccurateobservationofallthesubtletiesofcontoursandtheconstructionofformwillbeneglected.Andhewillnotunderstandthementalformstimulusthatthedirectionandswingofabrushstrokecangive.Theseandmanythingsconnectedwithexpressioncanbestbestudiedinlinework.
Letthestudentthereforebeginontheprinciplesadoptedinmostschools,withoutlinestudiesofsimplecastsormodels,andgraduallyaddlightandshade.Whenhehasacquiredmoreproficiencyhemayapproachdrawingfromthelife.Thisissufficientlywelldoneinthe
numerousschoolsofartthatnowexistalloverthecountry.But,atthesametime(andthis,asfarasIknow,isnotdoneanywhere),thestudentshouldbeginsomesimpleformofmassdrawinginpaint,simpleexercises,asisexplainedlaterinthechapteronMassDrawing,Practical,beingatfirstattemptedandcriticisedsolelyfromthepointofviewoftonevalues.
[Illustration:DiagramII.
SHOWINGWHERESQUARENESSESMAYBELOOKEDFORINTHEDRAWINGONTHE
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OPPOSITEPAGE]
[Illustration:PlateXVI.
STUDYBYRUBENSFROMTHECOLLECTIONOFCHARLESRICKETTSANDCHARLESSHANNON
AsplendidexampleofRubens'loveofrich,fullforms.Comparewiththediagramopposite,andnotetheflatnessesthatgivestrengthtotheforms.]
Fromlackofthiselementarytonestudy,thestudent,whenheapproachespaintingforthefirsttime,withonlyhisoutlineandlightandshadeknowledge,isentirelyatsea.Withbrushesandpaintheispresentedwithaproblemofformexpressionsentirelynew.Andheusuallybeginstoflounderabout,usinghispaintasmuchlikechalkonpaperaspossible.Andtimidoflosinghisoutlines,hefearstoputdownamass,ashehasnoknowledgeofreducingappearancestoastructureoftonemassesorplanes.
Iwouldsuggest,therefore,thatthestudentshouldstudysimultaneouslyfromthesetwopointsofview,beginningwiththeirmostextremepositions,thatis,bareoutlineontheonesideandontheothersidetonemassescriticisedfortheiraccuracyofvaluesonlyinthefirst
instance.Asheadvances,theonestudywillhelptheother.Thelineworkwillhelptheaccuracywithwhichheobservestheshapesofmasses,andwhenhecomestolightandshadehisknowledgeoftonevalueswillhelphimhere.Unitedatlast,whencompletelightandshadehasbeenaddedtohisoutlinedrawingsandtohismassdrawinganintimateknowledgeofform,theresultswillapproximateandthetwopathswillmeet.Butifthequalitiesappertainingtoeitherpointofviewarenotstudiedseparately,theresultisconfusionandthe"muddlingthrough"methodsocommoninourschoolsofart.
VIII
LINEDRAWING:PRACTICAL
Seeingthatthefirstconditionofyourdrawingisthatithastobemadeonaflatsurface,nomatterwhetheritistobeinlineormassyouintendtodraw,itisobviousthatappearancesmustbereducedtotermsofaflatsurfacebeforetheycanbeexpressedonpaper.Andthisisthefirstdifficultythatconfrontsthestudentinattemptingtodrawasolidobject.Hehassoacquiredthehabitofperceivingthesolidityofthings,aswasexplainedinanearlierchapter,thatnolittledifficultywillbeexperiencedinaccuratelyseeingthemasaflat
picture.
[Sidenote:ObservingSolidsasaFlatcopy.]
Asitisonlyfromonepointofviewthatthingscanbedrawn,andaswehavetwoeyes,thereforetwopointsofview,theclosingofoneeyewillbehelpfulatfirst.
Thesimplestandmostmechanicalwayofobservingthingsasaflatsubjectistohaveapieceofcardboardwitharectangularholecutout
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ofthemiddle,andalsopiecesofcottonthreadedthroughitinsuchamannerthattheymakeapatternofsquaresacrosstheopening,asintheaccompanyingsketch.Tomakesuchaframe,getapieceofstiffcardboard,about12inchesby9inches,andcutarectangularholeinthecentre,7inchesby5inches,asinDiagramIII.Nowmarkofftheinchesonallsidesoftheopening,andtakingsomeblackthread,passitthroughthepointAwithaneedle(fixingtheendatthispointwithsealing-wax),andacrosstheopeningtothecorrespondingpointontheoppositeside.Takeitalongtothenextpoint,asshownbythedottedline,andpassitthroughandacrosstheopeningagain,andsoon,untilBisreached,whenthethreadshouldbeheldbysomesealing-waxquitetauteverywhere.Dothesamefortheotherside.Thisframeshouldbeheldbetweentheeyeandtheobjecttobedrawn(oneeyebeingclosed)inaperfectlyverticalposition,andwiththerectangularsidesoftheopeningverticalandhorizontal.Theobjectcanthenbeobservedasaflatcopy.Thetrellisofcottonwillgreatlyhelpthestudentinseeingthesubjecttobedrawnintwodimensions,andthisisthefirsttechnicaldifficultytheyoungdraughtsmanhastoovercome.Itisusefulalsointrainingtheeyetoseetheproportionsofdifferentpartsonetoanother,thesquaresofequalsizegivingoneaunitofmeasurementbywhichallpartscanbescaled.
[Illustration:DiagramIII.
ADEVICEFORENABLINGSTUDENTSTOOBSERVEAPPEARANCESASAFLATSUBJECT][Sidenote:FixingPositionsofSalientPoints]
Verticalandhorizontallinesarealsooftheutmostimportanceinthatfirstconsiderationforsettingoutadrawing,namelythefixingofsalientpoints,andgettingtheirrelativePositions.Fig.Z,onpage87[TranscribersNote:DiagramIV],willillustratewhatismeant.LetABCDEbeassumedtobepointsofsomeimportanceinanobjectyouwishtodraw.Unaided,theplacingofthesepointswouldbeamatterofconsiderabledifficulty.ButifyouassumeaverticallinedrawnfromA,thepositionsofB,C,D,andEcanbeobservedinrelationtoitbynotingtheheightandlengthofhorizontallinesdrawnfromthemtothis
verticalline.Thisverticalcanbedrawnbyholdingaplumblineatarm'slength(closingoneeye,ofcourse)andbringingittoapositionwhereitwillcoverthepointAonyoursubject.Thepositionoftheotherpointsoneithersideofthisverticallinecanthenbeobserved.Oraknitting-needlecanbeheldverticallybeforeyouatarm'slength,givingyoualinepassingthroughpointA.Theadvantageoftheneedleisthatcomparativemeasurementscanbetakenwithit.
[Illustration:DiagramIV.
SHOWINGTHREEPRINCIPLESOFCONSTRUCTIONUSEDINOBSERVINGFIG.X,MASSES;FIG.Y,CURVES;FIG.Z,POSITIONOFPOINTS]
Inmeasuringcomparativedistancestheneedleshouldalwaysbeheldatarm'slengthandtheeyekeptinonepositionduringtheoperation;and,whetherheldverticallyorhorizontally,alwayskeptinaverticalplane,thatis,eitherstraightupanddown,oracrossatrightanglestothelineofyourvision.Ifthesethingsarenotcarefullyobserved,yourcomparisonswillnotbetrue.Themethodemployedistorunthethumb-nailuptheneedleuntilthedistancefromthepointsoreachedtothetopexactlycorrespondswiththedistanceontheobjectyouwishtomeasure.Havingthiscarefullynotedonyourneedle,withoutmovingthepositionofyoureye,youcanmoveyouroutstretchedarmandcompareit
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withotherdistancesontheobject.#Itisneveradvisabletocompareotherthanverticalandhorizontalmeasurements.#Inourdiagramthepointsweredrawnatrandomanddonotcomeinanyobviousmathematicalrelationship,andthisistheusualcircumstanceinnature.ButpointCwillbefoundtobealittleabovethehalf,andpointDalittlelessthanathirdofthewayuptheverticalline.Howmuchabovethehalfandlessthanthethirdwillhavetobeobservedbyeyeandacorrespondingamountallowedinsettingoutyourdrawing.Inthehorizontaldistances,Bwillbefoundtobeone-fourththedistancefromXtotheheightofContherightofourverticalline,andCalittlemorethanthisdistancetotheleft,whilethedistanceontherightofDisalittlelessthanone-fifthofthewholeheight.TheheightofBissonearthetopastobebestjudgedbyeye,anditsdistancetotherightisthesameasB.Thesemeasurementsarenevertobetakenasabsolutelyaccurate,butareagreathelptobeginnersintrainingtheeye,andareattimesusefulineveryartist'swork.
[Illustration:PlateXVII.
DEMONSTRATIONDRAWINGMADEBEFORETHESTUDENTSOFTHEGOLDSMITHSCOLLEGESCHOOLOFART
Illustratinghowdifferentdirectionsoflinescanhelpexpressionofform.]
Itisusefulifonecanestablishaunitofmeasurement,someconspicuousdistancethatdoesnotvaryintheobject(ifalivingmodelagreatmanydistanceswillbeconstantlyvarying),andwithwhichalldistancescanbecompared.
Insettingoutadrawing,thisfixingofcertainsalientpointsisthefirstthingforthestudenttodo.Thedrawingreproducedonpage90[TranscribersNote:PlateXVIII]hasbeenmadetoillustratethemethodofprocedureitisadvisabletoadoptintrainingtheeyetoaccurateobservation.Itwasfeltthataverticallinedrawnthroughthepitofthearmwouldbethemostusefulfortakingmeasurementson,andthiswasfirstdrawnanditslengthdecidedupon.Trainyourselftodraw
betweenlimitsdecideduponatthestart.Thispowerwillbeofgreatusetoyouwhenyouwishtoplaceafigureinanexactpositioninapicture.Thenextthingtodoistogettherelativeheightsofdifferentpointsmarkeduponthisline.Thefoldatthepitofthestomachwasfoundtobeexactlyinthecentre.Thiswasausefulstart,anditisgenerallyadvisabletonotewherethehalfcomesfirst,andveryusefulifitcomesinsomeobviousplace.OthermeasurementsweretakeninthesamewayasourpointsABCDEinthediagramonpage87[TranscribersNote:DiagramIV],andhorizontallinesdrawnacross,andthetransversedistancesmeasuredinrelationtotheheights.Ihavelefttheselinesonthedrawing,andalsodifferentpartsofitunfinished,soastoshowthedifferentstagesofthework.Theseguidelinesaredonementallylateron,whenthestudentismoreadvanced,and
withmoreaccuracythantheclumsyknitting-needle.Butbeforethehabitofhavingconstantlyinmindaverticalandhorizontallinewithwhichtocomparepositionsisacquired,theyshouldbeputinwithasmuchaccuracyasmeasuringcangive.
[Sidenote:BlockinginyourDrawing.]
Thenextthingtodoistoblockoutthespacescorrespondingtothoseoccupiedbythemodelinthefieldofyourvision.Themethodemployedtodothisissomewhatsimilartothatadoptedbyasurveyorindrawing
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theplanofafield.Assuminghehadanirregularshapedone,suchasisdrawninFig.X,page87[TranscribersNote:DiagramIV],hewouldproceedtoinvestitwithstraightlines,takingadvantageofanystraightnessintheboundary,notingthelengthandtheanglesatwhichthesestraightlinescuteachother,andthenreproducingthemtoscaleonhisplan.Oncehavinggotthisscaffoldingaccuratelyplaced,hecandrawtheirregularitiesoftheshapeinrelationtotheselineswithsomecertaintyofgettingthemright.
Youshouldproceedinverymuchthesamewaytoblockoutthespacesthattheformsofyourdrawingaretooccupy.Ihaveproducedtheseblocking-outlinesbeyondwhatwasnecessaryintheaccompanyingdrawing(page87[TranscribersNote:DiagramIV]),inordertoshowthemmoreclearly.
[Sidenote:HowtoobservetheShapeofCurves.]
Thereisyetanothermethodofconstructionusefulinnotingaccuratelytheshapeofacurvedline,whichisillustratedinFig.Y,page87[TranscribersNote:DiagramIV].Firstofall,fixthepositionsoftheextremitiesofthelinebymeansoftheverticalandhorizontal.Andalso,asthisisadoublecurve,thepointatwhichthecurvaturechangesfromonedirectiontotheother:pointC.BydrawinglinesCA,CBandnotingthedistancesyourcurvestravelfromthesestraight
lines,andparticularlytherelativepositionofthefarthestpointsreached,theircurvaturecanbeaccuratelyobservedandcopied.Innotingthevaryingcurvatureofforms,thisconstructionshouldalwaysbeinyourmindtoenableyoutoobservethemaccurately.Firstnotethepointsatwhichthecurvaturebeginsandends,andthenthedistancesittravelsfromalinejoiningthesetwopoints,holdingupapencilorknitting-needleagainstthemodelifneedbe.
[Illustration:PlateXVIII.
STUDYILLUSTRATINGMETHODOFDRAWING
Notethedifferentstages.1st.Centrelineandtransverselinesfor
settlingpositionofsalientpoints.2nd.Blockingin,asshowninfurtherleg.3rd.Drawingintheformsandshading,asshowninfrontleg.4th.Rubbingwithfingers(givingafaintmiddletoneoverthewhole),andpickingouthighlightswithbread,asshownonbackandarms.]
[Sidenote:TheDrawingproper.]
Adrawingbeingblockedoutinsuchastateasthefurtherlegandfootofourdemonstrationdrawing(page90[TranscribersNote:PlateXVIII]),itistimetobeginthedrawingproper.Sofaryouhaveonlybeenpeggingoutthegrounditisgoingtooccupy.Thisinitial
scaffolding,sonecessarytotraintheeye,shouldbedoneasaccuratelyaspossible,butdon'tletitinterferewithyourfreedominexpressingtheformsafterwards.Theworkuptothispointhasbeenmechanical,butitistimetoconsiderthesubjectwithsomefeelingforform.Hereknowledgeofthestructureofbonesandmusclesthatunderlietheskinwillhelpyoutoseizeonthosethingsthataresignificantandexpresstheformofthefigure.AndthestudentcannotdobetterthanstudytheexcellentbookbySirAlfredD.Fripponthissubject,entitledHumanAnatomyforArtStudents.Noticeparticularlytheswingoftheaction,suchthingsasthepulloccasionedbythearmrestingonthefarther
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thigh,andtheprominencegiventotheformsbythestrainingoftheskinattheshoulder.Alsothefirmlinesofthebentbackandthecrumpledformsofthefrontofthebody.Noticetheoverlappingofthecontours,andwheretheyareaccentuatedandwheremorelost,&c.,drawingwithasmuchfeelingandconvictionasyouarecapableof.Youwillhaveforsometimetoworktentatively,feelingforthetrueshapesthatyoudonotyetrightlysee,butassoonasyoufeelanyconfidence,rememberitshouldbeyouraimtoexpressyourselffreelyandswiftly.
Thereisatendencyinsomequarterstodiscouragethisblockinginoftheformsinstraightlines,andcertainlyithasbeenharmfultothefreedomofexpressionintheworkofsomestudents.Theynotonlybeginthedrawingwiththismechanicalblockingin,butcontinueitinthesamemechanicalfashion,cuttingupalmostalltheircurvesintoflatnesses,andneveroncebreakingfreefromthisscaffoldingtoindulgeintheenjoymentoffreelineexpression.This,ofcourse,isbad,andyetthecharacterofacurvedlineishardlytobeaccuratelystudiedinanyotherwaythanbyobservingitsrelationtostraightlines.Theinclinationandlengthofstraightlinescanbeobservedwithcertainty.Butacurvehasnotthisdefiniteness,andisaveryunstablethingtosetaboutcopyingunaided.WhobutthehighlyskilleddraughtsmancouldattempttocopyourrandomshapeatFig.X,page87[TranscribersNote:DiagramIV],withoutanyguidingstraightlines?Andeventhehighlyskilleddraughtsmanwoulddrawsuchstraightlines
mentally.Sothatsomeblockingoutofthecurvedforms,eitherdonepracticallyorinimagination,mustbeadoptedtorightlyobserveanyshapes.Butdonotforgetthatthisisonlyascaffolding,andshouldalwaysberegardedassuchandkickedawayassoonasrealformexpressionwithanyfeelingbegins.
Butitwillbesomeyearsbeforethebeginnerhasgothiseyetrainedtosuchaccuracyofobservationthathecandispensewithit.
[Sidenote:InBlocking-inobserveShapeoftheBackgroundasmuchastheObject.]
Inthecaseofforeshortenings,theeye,unaidedbythisblockingout,
isalwaysapttobeledastray.Andheretheobservationoftheshapeofthebackgroundagainsttheobjectwillbeofgreatassistance.Theappearanceoftheforeshortenedobjectissounlikewhatyouknowittobeasasolidthing,thatmuchasitisaswelltoconcentratetheattentiononthebackgroundratherthanontheforminthisblocking-outprocess.Andinfact,inblockingoutanyobject,whetherforeshortenedornot,theshapeofthebackgroundshouldbeobservedascarefullyasanyothershape.Butinmakingthedrawingproper,theformsmustbeobservedintheirinnerrelations.Thatistosay,thelinesboundingonesideofaformmustbeobservedinrelationtothelinesboundingtheotherside;asthetrueexpressionofform,whichistheobjectofdrawing,dependsonthetruerelationshipoftheseboundaries.Thedrawingofthetwosidesshouldbecarriedonsimultaneously,sothat
onemayconstantlycomparethem.
[Sidenote:BoundariesaseriesofOverlappings.]
Theboundariesofformswithanycomplexity,suchasthehumanfigure,arenotcontinuouslines.Oneformoverlapsanother,likethelinesofarangeofhills.Andthisoverlappingshouldbesoughtforandcarefullyexpressed,theoutlinesbeingmadeupofaseriesofoverlappings.
[Sidenote:Shading.]
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InLineDrawingshadingshouldonlybeusedtoaidtheexpressionofform.Itisnotadvisabletoaimatrepresentingthetruetonevalues.
Indirectlightitwillbeobservedthatasolidobjecthassomeportionofitssurfaceinlight,whileotherportions,thoseturnedawayfromthelight,areinshadow.Shadowsarealsocastonthegroundandsurroundingobjects,calledcastshadows.Thepartsofanobjectreflectingthemostdirectlightarecalledthehighlights.Iftheobjecthaveashinysurfacetheselightsareclearanddistinct;ifadullsurface,softanddiffused.Inthecaseofaveryshinysurface,suchasaglazedpot,thelightmaybereflectedsocompletelythatapictureofthesourceoflight,usuallyawindow,willbeseen.
Inthediagramonpage95[TranscribersNote:DiagramV],letArepresenttheplanofacone,BCtheopeningofawindow,andDtheeyeofthespectator,andEFGthewallofaroom.Lighttravelsinstraightlinesfromthewindow,strikesthesurfaceofthecone,andisreflectedtotheeye,makingtheangleofincidenceequaltotheangleofreflection,theangleofincidencebeingthatmadebythelightstrikinganobject,andtheangleofreflectionthatmadebythelightinleavingthesurface.
ItwillbeseenthatthelinesB1D,C2Darethelimitsofthedirect
raysoflightthatcometotheeyefromthecone,andthatthereforebetweenpoints1and2willbeseenthehighestlight.Iftheconehaveaperfectreflectingsurface,suchasalooking-glasshas,thiswouldbeallthedirectlightthatwouldbereflectedfromtheconetotheeye.Butassumingittohavewhatiscalledadullsurface,lightwouldbereflectedfromotherpartsalso,althoughnotinsogreataquantity.Ifwhatiscalledadullsurfaceislookedatunderamicroscopeitwillbefoundtobequiterough,_i.e._madeupofmanyfacetswhichcatchlightatdifferentangles.
[Illustration:DiagramV.
PLANOFCONEA,LITBYWINDOWBC;POSITIONOFEYED.ILLUSTRATING
PRINCIPLESOFLIGHTANDSHADE]
LinesB4,C3representtheextremelimitsoflightthatcanbereceivedbythecone,andthereforeatpoints3and4theshadowwillcommence.Thefactthatlightisreflectedtotheeyerightuptothepoint3doesnotupsetthetheorythatitcanonlybereflectedfrompointswheretheangleofincidencecanequaltheangleofreflection,asitwouldseemtodo,becausethesurfacebeingroughpresentsfacetsatdifferentangles,fromsomeofwhichitcanbereflectedtotheeyerightuptopoint3.Thenumberofthesefacetsthatcansoreflectisnaturallygreatestnearthehighlights,andgetsgraduallylessasthesurfaceturnsmoreaway;untilthepointisreachedwheretheshadowsbegin,atwhichpointthesurfacepositivelyturnsawayfromthelightandthe
reflectionofdirectlightceasesaltogether.Afterpoint3therewouldbenolightcomingtotheeyefromtheobject,wereitnotthatitreceivesreflectedlight.Now,thegreatestamountofreflectedlightwillcomefromthedirectionoppositetothatofthedirectlight,asallobjectsinthisdirectionarestronglylit.ThesurfaceofthewallbetweenpointsEandH,beingdirectlyoppositethelight,willgivemostreflection.Andbetweenpoints5and6thislightwillbereflectedbytheconetotheeyeinitsgreatestintensity,sinceatthesepointstheanglesofincidenceequaltheanglesofreflection.Theotherpartsoftheshadowwillreceiveacertainamountofreflectedlight,
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lesseninginamountoneithersideofthesepoints.Wehavenowraysoflightcomingtotheeyefromtheconebetweentheextremepoints7and8.From7to3wehavethelight,includingthehalftones.Between1and2thehighlight.Between3and8theshadows,withthegreatestamountofreflectedlightbetween5and6.
[Illustration:PlateXIX.
ILLUSTRATINGCURVEDLINKSSUGGESTINGFULLNESSANDFORESHORTENING]
Ishouldnothavetroubledthereaderwiththistediousdiagramwereitnotthatcertainfactsaboutlightandshadecanbelearnedfromit.Thefirstisthatthehighlightscomemuchmorewithintheedgeoftheobjectthanyouwouldhaveexpected.Withthelightdirectlyoppositepoint7,onemighthavethoughtthehighestlightwouldhavecomethere,andthatiswheremanystudentsputit,untilthelossofroundnessintheappearanceoftheirworkmakesthemlookmorecarefullyforitsposition.Sorememberalwaystolookoutforhighlightswithinthecontoursofforms,notontheedges.
Thenextthingtonoticeisthat#thedarkestpartoftheshadowwillcomenearestthelightsbetweenpoints3and5#.Thisisthepartturnedmostawayfromthedirectionofthegreatestamountofreflectedlight,andthereforereceivingleast.Thelightestpartoftheshadowwillbe
inthemiddle,rathertowardsthesideawayfromthelight,generallyspeaking.Theshadowcastonthegroundwillbedark,likethedarkestpartoftheshadowonthecone,asitssurfaceisalsoturnedawayfromthechiefsourceofreflectedlight.
Althoughtheartistwillveryseldombecalledupontodrawacone,thesameprinciplesoflightandshadethataresoclearlyseeninsuchasimplefigureobtainthroughoutthewholeofnature.Thisiswhythemuchabuseddrawingandshadingfromwhitenedblocksandpotsissouseful.Nothingsoclearlyimpressesthegenerallawsoflightandshadeasthisso-calleddullstudy.
Thislighteningofshadowsinthemiddlebyreflectedlightand
darkeningtowardstheiredgesisaveryimportantthingtoremember,theheavy,smokylookstudents'earlyworkissoproneto,beingalmostentirelyduetotheirneglectthroughignoranceofthisprinciple.Nothingismoreawfulthanshadowsdarkerinthemiddleandgraduallylightertowardstheiredges.Ofcourse,wherethereisadeephollowintheshadowparts,asatthearmpitandthefoldatthenavelinthedrawingonpage90[TranscribersNote:PlateXVIII],youwillgetadarkertone.Butthisdoesnotcontradicttheprinciplethatgenerallyshadowsarelighterinthemiddleanddarkertowardstheedges.Notetheluminousqualitytheobservationofthisprinciplegivestheshadowonthebodyofourdemonstrationdrawing.
Thisisacrudestatementofthegeneralprinciplesoflightandshade
onasimpleroundobject.Inonewithcomplexsurfacesthevarietiesoflightandshadeareinfinite.Butthesameprinciplesholdgood.Thesurfacesturnedmoretothesourceoflightreceivethegreatestamount,andarethelightest.Andfromthesepartstheamountoflightlessensthroughwhatarecalledthehalftonesasthesurfaceturnsmoreaway,untilapointisreachedwherenomoredirectlightisreceived,andtheshadowsbegin.Andintheshadowsthesamelawapplies:thosesurfacesturnedmosttowardsthesourceofreflectedlightwillreceivethemost,andtheamountreceivedwillgraduallylessenasthesurfaceturnsaway,untilatthepointimmediatelybeforewherethehalftonesbeginthe
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amountofreflectedlightwillbeverylittle,andinconsequencethedarkestpartoftheshadowsmaybelookedfor.Theremay,ofcourse,beothersourcesofdirectlightontheshadowsidethatwillentirelyalterandcomplicatetheeffect.Oronemaydrawinawide,diffusedlight,suchasisfoundintheopenaironagreyday;inwhichcasetherewillbelittleornoshadow,themodellingdependingentirelyondegreesoflightandhalftone.
Instudyingtheprinciplesofsimplelightandshadeitisadvisabletodrawfromobjectsofonelocalcolour,suchaswhitecasts.Inparti-colouredobjectstheproblemiscomplicatedbythedifferenttonesofthelocalcolour.Inlinedrawingitisaswelltotakeaslittlenoticeaspossibleofthesevariationswhichdisturbthecontemplationofpureformanddonotbelongtotheparticularprovinceofformexpressionwithwhichdrawingisconcerned.
Althoughonehasselectedastronghalflightandhalfshadeeffecttoillustratethegeneralprinciplesoflightandshade,itisnotadvisableinmakinglinedrawingstoselectsuchaposition.Apointofviewwithafairlywidelightatyourbackisthebest.Inthispositionlittleshadowwillbeseen,mostoftheformsbeingexpressedbytheplayoflightandhalftone.Thecontours,astheyareturnedawayfromthelight,willnaturallybedarker,andagainstalightbackgroundyoursubjecthasanappearancewithdarkedgesthatiseasilyexpressedbya
linedrawing.Stronglightandshadeeffectsshouldbeleftformassdrawing.YouseldomseeanyshadowsinHolbein'sdrawings;heseemstohaveputhissittersnearawidewindow,closeagainstwhichheworked.Selectalsoabackgroundasnearthetoneofthehighestlightontheobjecttobedrawnaspossible.Thiswillshowupclearlythecontour.Inthecaseofaportraitdrawing,anewspaperhungbehindtheheadanswersverywellandisalwayseasilyobtained.Thetoneofitcanbevariedbythedistanceatwhichitisplacedfromthehead,andbytheangleatwhichitisturnedawayfromortowardsthelight.
Don'tburdenalinedrawingwithheavyhalftonesandshadows;keepthemlight.Thebeautythatistheparticularprovinceoflinedrawingisthebeautyofcontours,andthisismarredbyheavylightandshade.Great
draughtsmenuseonlyjustenoughtoexpresstheform,butnevertoattempttheexpressionoftone.Thinkofthehalftonesaspartofthelightsandnotaspartoftheshadows.
Therearemanydifferentmethodsofdrawinginline,andastudentofanyoriginalitywillfindonethatsuitshistemperament.ButIwilltryandillustrateonethatisatanyratelogical,andthatmayserveasafairtypeoflinedrawinggenerally.
Theappearanceofanobjectisfirstconsideredasaseriesofcontours,someformingtheboundariesoftheformagainstthebackground,andotherstheboundariesofthesubordinateformswithintheseboundinglines.Thelightandshadeanddifferencesoflocalcolour(likethe
lips,eyebrows,andeyesinahead)areconsideredtogetherastonesofvaryingdegreesoflightnessanddarkness,andsuggestedbymeansoflinesdrawnparallelacrossthedrawingfromlefttoright,andfrombelowupwards,orviceversa,darkerandclosertogetherwhendepthiswanted,andfainterandfurtherapartwheredelicacyisdemanded,andvaryinginthicknesswhengradationisneeded.Thisruleofparallelshadingisbrokenonlywhenstronglymarkedforms,suchastheswinglinesofhair,aprominentboneorstrainingmuscles,&c.,demandit.Thisparallelshadinggivesagreatbeautyofsurfaceandfleshinesstoadrawing.Thelinesfollowing,asitwere,thedirectionofthe
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lightacrosstheobjectratherthantheform,giveaunitythathasagreatcharm.Itismoresuitedtodrawingswhereextremedelicacyofformisdesired,andisusuallyusedinsilverpointwork,amediumcapableoftheutmostrefinement.
[Illustration:PlateXX.
STUDYFORTHEFIGUREOFLOVEINTHEPICTURE"LOVELEAVINGPSYCHE"ILLUSTRATINGAMETHODOFDRAWING
Thelinesofshadingfollowingaconvenientparalleldirectionunlessprominentformsdemandotherwise.]
Inthismethodthelinesofshadingnotbeingmuchvariedindirectionorcurvedatall,aminimumamountofthat"formstimulus"isconveyed.Thecurvingofthelinesinshadingaddsconsiderablytotheforceoftherelief,andsuggestsmuchstrongermodelling.Inthecaseofforeshortenedeffects,wheretheformsareseenattheirfullest,archingoneovertheother,somecurvatureinthelinesofshadingisofconsiderableadvantageinaddingtotheforeshortenedlook.
Linesdrawndowntheformsgiveanappearanceofgreatstrengthandtoughness,atenselook.Andthisqualityisveryusefulinsuggestingsuchthingsasjointsandsinews,rocks,hardground,orgnarled
tree-trunks,&c.Infiguredrawingitisaninterestingqualitytousesparingly,withtheshadingdoneontheacross-the-formprinciple;andtosuggestadifferenceoftextureorastrainingoftheform.Linesofshadingdrawnineverydirection,crossingeachotherandresolvingthemselvesintotoneeffects,suggestatmosphereandtheabsenceofsurfaceform.Thisismoreoftenusedinthebackgroundsofpenandinkworkandisseldomnecessaryinpencilorchalkdrawing,astheyaremoreconcernedwithformthanatmosphere.Penandinkismoreoftenusedforelaboratepictorialeffectsinillustrationwork,owingtotheeasewithwhichitcanbereproducedandprinted;anditisherethatonemoreoftenfindsthismuddledqualityoflinespotsbeingusedtofillupintersticesandmakethetoneeven.
Speakinggenerally,#linesofshadingdrawnacrosstheformssuggestsoftness,linesdrawnincurvesfulnessofform,linesdrawndowntheformshardness,andlinescrossinginalldirectionssothatonlyamysteryoftoneresults,atmosphere#.Andifthesefourqualitiesoflinebeusedjudiciously,agreatdealofexpressivepowerisaddedtoyourshading.And,aswillbeexplainedinthenextchapter,somewhatthesameprincipleappliestothedirectionoftheswingofthebrushinpainting.
Shadinglinesshouldneverbedrawnbackwardsandforwardsfromlefttoright(scribbled),exceptpossiblywhereamysteryofshadowiswantedandthelinesarebeingcrossedineverydirection;butneverwhenlinesarebeingusedtoexpressform.Theyarenotsufficientlyundercontrol,
andalsothelittleextrathicknessthatoccursattheturnisanuisance.
Thecrossingoflinesinshadinggivesamoreopaquelook.Thisisusefultosuggesttheopaqueappearanceofthedarkerpassagethatoccursinthatpartofashadownearestthelights;anditissometimesusedinthehalftonesalso.
Draughtsmenvaryverymuchintheirtreatmentofhair,anddifferentqualitiesofhairrequiredifferenttreatment.Theparticularbeautyof
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itthatbelongstopointdrawingistheswingandflowofitslines.Theseareespeciallyapparentinthelights.Intheshadowstheflowoflineoftenstops,tobereplacedbyamysteryofshadow.Sothataplayofswinginglinesalternatingwithshadowpassages,drawnlikealltheothershadowswithparallellinesnotfollowingtheform,isofteneffective,andsuggeststhequalityofhairinnature.Theswinginglinesshouldvaryinthicknessalongtheircourse,gettingdarkerastheypasscertainparts,andgradatingintolighterlinesatotherpartsaccordingtotheeffectdesired.(Seeillustration,page102[TranscribersNote:PlateXXI].)
[Illustration:PlateXXI.
STUDYINREDCHALK
Illustratingatreatmentofhairinline-work.]
Tosumup,inthemethodoflinedrawingwearetryingtoexplain(themethodemployedformostofthedrawingsbytheauthorinthisbook)thelinesofshadingaremadeparallelinadirectionthatcomeseasytothehand,unlesssomequalityintheformsuggeststheirfollowingotherdirections.Sothatwhenyouareindoubtastowhatdirectiontheyshouldfollow,drawthemontheparallelprinciple.Thispreservesaunityinyourwork,andallowsthelinesdrawninotherdirectionsfor
specialreasonstotellexpressively.Ashasalreadybeenexplained,itisnotsufficientindrawingtoconcentratetheattentiononcopyingaccuratelythevisualappearanceofanything,importantasthefacultyofaccurateobservationis.Formtobeexpressedmustfirstbeappreciated.Andherethescienceofteachingfails."Youcantakeahorsetothefountain,butyoucannotmakehimdrink,"andinartyoucantakethestudenttothepointofviewfromwhichthingsaretobeappreciated,butyoucannotmakehimsee.How,then,isthisappreciationofformtobedeveloped?Simplybyfeeding.Familiariseyourselfwithallthebestexamplesofdrawingyoucanfind,tryingtoseeinnaturethesamequalities.StudythesplendiddrawingbyPuvisdeChavannesreproducedonpage104[TranscribersNote:Plate
XXII].Notethewaythecontourshavebeensearchedforexpressivequalities.Lookhowtheexpressivelineofthebackoftheseatedfigurehasbeen"felt,"thepowerfulexpressionoftheupraisedarmwithitsrightangle(seelaterpage155[TranscribersNote:DiagramXII],chapteronlinerhythm).Andthenobservethedifferenttypesofthetwostandingfigures;thepracticalvigouroftheoneandthesoftgraceoftheother,andhowtheircontourshavebeenstudiedtoexpressthisfeeling,&c.Thereisamineofknowledgetobeunearthedinthisdrawing.
Thereneverwasanagewhensuchanamountofartisticfoodwasatthedisposalofstudents.Cheapmeansofreproductionhavebroughtthetreasuresoftheworld'sgalleriesandcollectionstoourverydoorsin
convenientformsforafewpence.Thedangerisnotfromstarvation,butindigestion.Studentsaresosurfeitedwithgoodthingsthattheyoftenfailtodigestanyofthem;butrushonfromoneexampletoanother,takingbutsnapshotviewsofwhatisoffered,untiltheirnaturalpowersofappreciationareinaperfectwhirlwindofconfusedideas.Whatthenistobedone?Youcannotavoidthegoodthingsthatarehurledatyouinthesedays,butwhenyoucomeacrossanythingthatstrikesyouasbeingaparticularlyfinething,feeddeeplyonit.Hangitupwhereyouwillseeitconstantly;inyourbedroom,forinstance,whereitwillentertainyoursleeplesshours,ifyouareunfortunateenoughtohave
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any.Youwillprobablylikeveryindifferentdrawingsatfirst,thepretty,thepicturesqueandthetrickywillpossiblyattractbeforethesublimityoffinerthings.Butbequitehonestandfeedonthebestthatyougenuinelylike,andwhenyouhavethoroughlydigestedandcomprehendedthat,youwillwearyofitandlongforsomethingbetter,andso,gradually,beledontoappreciatethebestyouarecapableofappreciating.
[Illustration:PlateXXII.
STUDYFORDECORATIONATAMIENS"REPOSE"BYPEUVISDECHAVANNES
Notehowthecontoursaresearchedforexpressiveforms,thepowergiventotheseatedfigurebytherightangleoftheraisedarm,andthecontrastbetweentheuprightvigouroftheright-handfigurewiththesofterlinesofthemiddleone.
_PhotoNeurdein_]
Beforeclosingthischapterthereareoneortwopointsconnectedwiththedrawingofaheadthatmightbementioned,asstudentsarenotalwayssufficientlyonthelookoutforthem.
Inourdiagramonpage107[TranscribersNote:DiagramVI],letFig.1
representanormaleye.AtFig.2wehaveremovedtheskinandmusclesandexposedthetwomainstructuralfeaturesintheformoftheeye,namelythebonyringofthesocketandtheglobecontainingthelensesandretina.Examiningthisopening,wefindfromAtoBthatitrunssmoothlyintothebonyprominenceatthetopofthenose,andthattherestoftheedgeissharp,andfrompointCtoEquitefree.ItisatpointA,startingfromalittlehole,thatthesharpedgebegins;andnearthispointthecorneroftheeyeissituated:A,Figs.1,2,3.FrompointsAtoFthebonyedgeoftheopeningisverynearthesurfaceandshouldbelookedfor.
ThenextthingtonoteisthefactthattheeyebrowatfirstfollowstheupperedgeofthebonyopeningfromBtoC,butthatfrompointCit
crossesthefreearchbetweenCandDandsoonends.Sothatconsideringtheundersideoftheeyebrow,whereasfrompointCtowardsBthereisusuallyacavernoushollow,fromCtowardsDthereisaprominence.Thecharacterofeyesvariesgreatly,andthiseffectisoftenmodifiedbythefleshyfulnessthatfillsinthespacebetweentheeyelidandthebrow,butsomeindicationofachangeisalmostalwaystobeobservedatapointsomewhereaboutC,andshouldbelookedoutfor.AnybonyprominencefromthispointtowardsDshouldbecarefullyconstructed.Lookoutforthebone,therefore,betweenthepointsCDandAF.
Neverforgetwhenpaintinganeyethatwhatwecallthewhiteoftheeyeispartofasphereandwillthereforehavethelightandshadeofasphere.Itwillseldombethesametoneallover;ifthelightiscoming
fromtheright,itwillbeinshadetowardstheleftandviceversa.Alsotheeyelidsarebandsoffleshplacedonthissphericalsurface.Theywillthereforepartakeofthemodellingofthesphereandnotbethesametoneallacross.Noteparticularlythesuddenchangeofplaneusuallymarkedbyafold,wheretheundereyelidmeetsthesurfacecomingfromthecheekbone.Theneglecttoconstructtheseplanesoftheundereyelidisaverycommonfaultinpoorlypaintedeyes.Notealsowheretheuppereyelidcomesagainstthefleshundertheeyebrow(usuallyastronglymarkedfold)andthedifferencesofplanesthatoccuratthisjuncture.Insomeeyes,whenthereislittlelooseflesh
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abovetheeyelid,thereisadeephollowhere,theeyelidrunningupunderthebonyprominence,CD.Thisisanimportantstructuralline,markingasitdoesthelimitofthesphericalsurfaceoftheeyeball,onwhichsurfacetheeyelidsareplaced.
Fig.4isaroughdiagramofthedirectionitisusualforthehairsformingtheeyebrowtotake.FromAafewscanthairsstartradiatingabovethenoseandquitesuddenlyreachtheirthickestandstrongestgrowthbetweenBandE.Theycontinue,stillfollowingaslightlyradiatingcourseuntilD.Thesehairsarenowmetbyanotherlot,startingfromabovedownwards,andgrowingfrom.BtoC.Aneyebrowisconsideredbythedraughtsmanasatoneofacertainshapeandqualitiesofedge.Andwhatinterestsushereistonotetheeffectofthisorderofgrowthuponitsappearanceastone.ThemeetingofthestronggrowthofhairupwardswiththedownwardgrowthbetweenpointsBandEcreateswhatisusuallythedarkestpartoftheeyebrowatthispoint.AndthecomingtogetherofthehairstowardsDoftenmakesanotherdarkpartinthisdirection.TheedgefromCtoBisnearlyalwaysasoftone,thetonemeltingintotheflesh,andthisshouldbelookedoutfor,givingasitdoesaprettyvarietytotherunoftheline.Anotherthingthattendstomakethisedgesoftisthefactthatabonyprominenceissituatedhereandhasusuallyahighlightuponitthatcrossestheeyebrow.FromCtoDyouusuallyfindasharperedge,thehairsrunningparalleltothelineoftheeyebrow,whilefromDtoB
andAtoBasofterboundarycanbelookedfor.ThechiefaccentwillgenerallybefoundatB,whereadarkmassoftencomessharplyagainstthetoneoftheforehead.
[Illustration:DiagramVI.
ILLUSTRATINGSOMEPOINTSCONNECTEDWITHTHEEYESNOTALWAYSOBSERVEDINDRAWINGAHEAD]
Theeyelashesdonotcountformuchindrawingahead,exceptinsofarastheyaffectthetoneimpression.Inthefirstplacetheyshadethewhiteoftheeyewhenthelightisabove,asisusuallythecase.Theyaremuchthickerontheouterthanontheinnersideoftheeyelids,and
haveatendencytogrowinanoutwarddirection,sothatwhenthelightcomesfromtheleft,asisshownbyarrow,Fig.5,thewhiteoftheeyeatA1willnotbemuchshaded,andthelighttonewillrunnearlyuptothetop.ButatB4,whichshouldbethelightsideofthiseye,thethickcropofeyelasheswillshadeitsomewhatandthelightwillnotrunfarupinconsequence,whileB3,A2willbeintheshadefromtheturningawayfromthedirectionofthelightofthesphericalsurfaceofthewhitesoftheeyes.
Thesemayseemsmallpointstomention,buttheobservanceofsuchsmallpointsmakesagreatdifferencetotheconstructionofahead.
Fig.6givesaseriesofblocksallexactlyalikeinoutline,withlines
showinghowthedifferentactionsoftheheadaffecttheguidelinesonwhichthefeatureshang;andhowtheseactionscanbesuggestedevenwhenthecontoursarenotvaried.Thesearchingsovershouldbecarefullylookedoutforwhentheheadisinanybutasimplefullfaceposition.
IX
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MASSDRAWING:PRACTICAL
Thisistheformofdrawingwithwhichpaintingintheoilmediumisproperlyconcerned.Thedistinctionbetweendrawingandpaintingthatissometimesmadeisawrongoneinsofarasitconveysanyideaofpaintingbeingdistinctfromdrawing.Paintingisdrawing(_i.e._theexpressionofform)withtheaddedcomplicationofcolourandtone.Andwithabrushfullofpaintasyourtool,someformofmassdrawingmustbeadopted,sothatatthesametimethatthestudentisprogressingwithlinedrawing,heshouldbegintoaccustom,himselftothisothermethodofseeing,byattemptingverysimpleexercisesindrawingwiththebrush.
Mostobjectscanbereducedbroadlyintothreetonemasses,thelights(includingthehighlights),thehalftones,andtheshadows.Andthehabitofreducingthingsintoasimpleequationofthreetonesasafoundationonwhichtobuildcomplexappearancesshouldearlybesoughtfor.
[Sidenote:ExerciseinMassDrawing.]
Hereisasimpleexerciseinmassdrawingwiththebrushthatis,asfar
asIknow,neverofferedtotheyoungstudent.Selectasimpleobject:someofthosecastsoffruithangingupthatarecommoninartschoolswilldo.Placeitinastronglightandshade,preferablybyartificiallight,asitisnotsosubtle,andthereforeeasier;thelightcomingfromeithertherightorlefthand,butnotfrominfront.Tryandarrangeitsothatthetoneofthegroundofyourcastcomesaboutequaltothehalftonesintherelief.
[Illustration:PlateXXIII.
SETOFFOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFTHESAMEPAINTINGFROMACASTINDIFFERENTSTAGES
No.1.Blockingouttheshapeofspacestobeoccupiedbymasses.
No.2.Amiddletonehavingbeenscumbledoverthewhole,thelightsarenowpainted.Theirshapesandtheplayoflost-and-foundnessontheiredgesbeingobserved.Gradationsaregotbythinnerpaint,whichismixedwiththewetmiddletoneoftheground,andisdarkened.]
[Illustration:PlateXXIV.
SETOFFOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFTHESAMEPAINTINGFROMACASTINDIFFERENTSTAGES
No.3.Thesameasthelast,withtheadditionofthedarks;variety
beinggotinthesamewayasinthecaseofthelights,onlyherethethinnerpartislighter,whereasinthecaseofthelightsitwasdarker.
No.4.Thefinishedwork,refinementsbeingaddedandmistakescorrected.]
Firstdrawintheoutlinesofthe#masses#stronglyincharcoal,notingtheshapesoftheshadowscarefully,takinggreatcarethatyougettheirshapesblockedoutinsquarelinesintrueproportionrelativeto
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eachother,andtroublingaboutlittleelse.Letthisbeasettingoutofthegrounduponwhichyouwillafterwardsexpresstheform,ratherthanadrawing--thesamescaffolding,infact,thatyouwereadvisedtodointhecaseofalinedrawing,only,inthatcase,thedrawingproperwastobedonewithapoint,andinthiscasethedrawingproperistobedonewithabrushfullofpaint.Fixthecharcoal#well#withaspraydiffuserandtheusualsolutionofwhiteshellacinspiritsofwine.
Takingrawumberandwhite(oilpaint),mixupatonethatyouthinkequaltothehalftonesofthecastbeforeyou.Extremecareshouldbetakeninmatchingthistone.Nowscumblethiswithabigbrushequallyoverthewholecanvas(orwhateveryouaremakingyourstudyon).Don'tusemuchmedium,butifitistoostifftogoonthinlyenough,putalittleoilwithit,butnoturpentine.Byscumblingismeantrubbingthecolourintothecanvas,workingthebrushfromsidetosiderapidly,andlayingjustthe#thinnestsolidtone#thatwillcoverthesurface.Ifthisisproperlydone,andyourdrawingwaswellfixed,youwilljustbeabletoseeitthroughthepaint.Nowmixupatoneequaltothehighestlightsonthecast,andmapoutsimplytheshapesofthelightmassesonyourstudy,leavingthescumbledtoneforthehalftones.Notecarefullywherethelightmassescomesharplyagainstthehalftonesandwheretheymergesoftlyintothem.
Youwillfindthatthescumbledtoneofyourgroundwillmixwiththe
toneofthelightswithwhichyouarepainting,anddarkenitsomewhat.Thiswillenableyoutogettheamountofvarietyyouwantinthetoneofthelights.Thethickeryoupaintthelighterwillbethetone,whilethethinnerpaintwillbemoreaffectedbytheoriginalhalftone,andwillconsequentlybedarker.Whenthisisdone,mixupatoneequaltothedarkestshadow,andproceedtomapouttheshadowsinthesamewayasyoudidthelights;notingcarefullywheretheycomesharplyagainstthehalftoneandwheretheyarelost.Inthecaseoftheshadowsthethickeryoupaintthedarkerwillbethetone;andthethinner,thelighter.
Whenthelightsandshadowshavebeenmappedout,ifthishasbeendonewithanyaccuracy,yourworkshouldbewelladvanced.Anditnowremains
tocorrectandrefineithereandthere,asyoufeelitwantsit.Placeyourworkalongsidethecast,andwalkbacktocorrectit.Faultsthatarenotapparentwhenclose,areeasilyseenatalittledistance.
Idon'tsuggestthatthisistherightoronlywayofpainting,butIdosuggestthatexercisesofthisdescriptionwillteachthestudentmanyoftherudimentaryessentialsofpainting,suchelementarythingsashowtolayatone,howtomanageabrush,howtoresolveappearancesintoasimplestructureoftones,andhowtomanipulateyourpaintsoastoexpressthedesiredshape.Thiselementarypaintdrawingis,asfarasIknow,nevergivenasanexercise,thestudyofdrawingatpresentbeingconfinedtopaperandcharcoalorchalkmediums.Drawingincharcoalisthenearestthingtothis"paintdrawing,"itbeingasortofmixed
method,halflineandhalfmassdrawing.Butalthoughalliedtopainting,itisaverydifferentthingfromexpressingformwithpaint,andnosubstituteforsomeelementaryexercisewiththebrush.Theuseofcharcoaltotheneglectoflinedrawingoftengetsthestudentintoasloppymannerofwork,andisnotsogoodatrainingtotheeyeandhandinclear,definitestatement.Itspopularityisnodoubtduetothefactthatyoucangetmucheffectwithlittleknowledge.Althoughthispaintingintoamiddletoneisnotbyanymeanstheonlymethodofpainting,Idofeelthatitisthebestmethodforstudyingformexpressionwiththebrush.
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But,whenyoucometocolour,thefactoftheopaquemiddletone(orhalftone)beingfirstpaintedoverthewholewillspoiltheclearnessandtransparencyofyourshadows,andmayalsointerferewiththebrilliancyofthecolourinthelights.Whencolourcomestobeconsidereditmaybenecessarytoadoptmanyexpedientsthatitisaswellnottotroubletoomuchaboutuntilafurtherstageisreached.Butthereisnonecessityforthehalftonetobepaintedovertheshadows.Inworkingincolourthehalftoneormiddletoneofthelightscanbemade,andamiddletoneoftheshadows,andthesetwofirstpaintedseparately,theedgeswheretheycometogetherbeingcarefullystudiedandfinished.Afterwardsthevarietyoftoneinthelightsandtheshadowscanbeadded.Bythismeansthedifferenceinthequalityofthecolourbetweenlightsandshadowsispreserved.Thisisanimportantconsideration,asthereisgenerallyastrongcontrastbetweenthem,theshadowsusuallybeingwarmifthelightsarecoolandviceversa;andsuchcontrastsgreatlyaffectthevitalityofcolouring.
Tryalwaystodoasmuchaspossiblewithonestrokeofthebrush;painthasavitalitywhenthetouchesaredeft,thatmuchhandlingandcontinualtouchingkills.Lookcarefullyattheshapeandvarietyofthetoneyouwishtoexpress,andtryandmanipulatetheswingofyourbrushinsuchawayastogetinonetouchasnearthequalityofshapeandgradationyouwant.Rememberthatthelightestpartofyourtouchwill
bewherethebrushfirsttouchesthecanvaswhenyouarepaintinglightsintoamiddletone;andthatastheamountofpaintinthebrushgetsless,sothetonewillbemoreaffectedbywhatyouarepaintinginto,andgetdarker.Andinpaintingtheshadows,thedarkestpartofyourstrokewillbewherethebrushfirsttouchesthecanvas;anditwillgraduallylightenasthepaintinyourbrushgetslessandthereforemoreaffectedbythetoneyouarepaintinginto.Ifyourbrushisveryfullitwillnotbeinfluencednearlysomuch.Andifonewantsatouchthatshallbedistinct,aswouldbethecaseinpaintingtheshinylightonaglazedpot,averyfullbrushwouldbeused.Butgenerallyspeaking,getyoureffectswithaslittlepaintaspossible.Thinnerpaintiseasiertorefineandmanipulate.Therewillbenofearofitsnotbeingsolidifyouarepaintingintoasolidlyscumbledmiddletone.
Manycharmingthingsaretobedonewithamixtureofsolidandtransparentpaint,butitiswellatfirstnottocomplicatetheproblemtoomuch,andthereforetoleavethisuntillateron,whenyouarecompetenttoattackproblemsofcolour.Keepyourearlyworkbothinmonochromeandcolour#quitesolid#,butasthinasyoucan,reservingthickerpaintforthoseoccasionswhenyouwishtoputatouchthatshallnotbeinfluencedbywhatyouarepaintinginto.
[Illustration:PlateXXV.
ILLUSTRATINGSOMETYPICALBRUSHSTROKESMADEWITHFOURCLASSESOFBRUSH
ClassA,round;ClassB,flat;ClassC,fullflatbrushwithroundedcorners;ClassD,filbertshape.]
Itwillperhapsbeaswelltoillustrateafewofthedifferentbrushstrokes,andsaysomethingaboutthedifferentqualitiesofeach.Theseareonlygivenastypicalexamplesoftheinnumerablewaysabrushmaybeusedasanaidtoveryelementarystudents;everyartistwill,ofcourse,developwaysofhisown.
Thetouchwillofnecessitydependinthefirstinstanceupontheshape
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ofthebrush,andtheseshapesareinnumerable.Buttherearetwoclassesintowhichtheycanroughlybedivided,flatandround.Theroundbrushesusuallysold,whichwewillcallClassA,haveratherasharppoint,andthis,althoughhelpfulincertaincircumstances,isagainsttheirgeneralusefulness.Butaroundbrushwitharoundpointisalsomade,andthisismuchmoreconvenientformassdrawing.Wherethereisasharppointthecentralhairsaremuchlonger,andconsequentlywhenthebrushisdrawnalongandpressedsothatallthehairsaretouchingthecanvas,thepressureinthecentre,wherethelonghairsaresituated,isdifferentfromthatatthesides.Thishastheeffectofgivingatouchthatisnotequalinqualityallacross,andthevarietythusgivenisdifficulttomanipulate.Ishouldthereforeadvisethestudenttotrytheblunt-endedroundbrushesfirst,astheygiveamuchmoreeventouch,andonemuchmoresuitedtopaintinginplanesoftone.
Themostextremeflatbrushes(ClassB)arethinandrathershort,withsharpsquareends,andhavebeenverypopularwithstudents.Theycanbereliedupontogiveaperfectlyflat,eventone,butwitharatherhardsharpedgeatthesides,andalsoatthecommencementofthetouch.Infact,theymaketoucheslikelittlesquarebricks.Butasthevarietythatcanbegotoutofthemislimited,andtheamountofpainttheycancarrysosmallthatonlyshortstrokescanbemade,theyarenotthebestbrushforgeneraluse.Theyareattimes,whengreatrefinementand
delicacyarewanted,veryuseful,butare,onthewhole,poortoolsforthedraughtsmaninpaint.Somevarietycanbegotbyusingoneorotheroftheirsharpcorners,bywhichmeansthesmallestpossibletouchcanbemadetobeginwith,whichcanbeincreasedinsizeasmorepressureisbroughttobear,untilthewholesurfaceofthebrushisbroughtintoplay.Theyarealsooftenusedtopaintacrosstheform,amannerillustratedinthesecondtouch,columns1and2oftheillustrationonpage114[TranscribersNote:PlateXXVI].
Amoreusefulbrush(ClassC)partakesofthequalitiesofbothflatandround.Itismadewithmuchmorehairthanthelast,islonger,andhasasquaretopwithroundedcorners.Thisbrushcarriesplentyofpaint,willlayaneventone,and,fromthefactthatthecornersarerounded
andthepressureconsequentlylessenedatthesides,doesnotleavesohardanedgeoneithersideofyourstroke.
Anotherbrushthathasrecentlycomeintofashioniscalledafilbertshape(ClassD)bythemakers.Itisafinebrushtodrawwith,asbeingflatitpaintsinplanes,andhavingaroundedtopiscapableofgettinginandoutofavarietyofcontours.Theyvaryinshape,somebeingmorepointedthanothers.Theblunt-endedformisthebestforgeneraluse.EitherthisclassofbrushorClassCareperhapsthebestfortheexercisesinmassdrawingwehavebeendescribing.ButClassAshouldalsobetried,andevenClassB,tofindoutwhichsuitstheparticularindividualityofthestudent.
Onpage114[TranscribersNote:PlateXXVI]avarietyoftoucheshavebeenmadeinturnbythesedifferentshapedbrushes.
Inallthestrokesillustrateditisassumedthatthebrushismoderatelyfullofpaintofaconsistencyalittlethinnerthanthatusuallyputupbycolourmen.Tothinit,mixalittleturpentineandlinseedoilinequalpartswithit;andgetitintoeasyworkingconsistencybeforebeginningyourwork,soasnottoneedanymedium.
Inthefirstcolumn(No.1),atouchfirmlypaintedwithanequal
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pressureallalongitscourseisgiven.Thisgivesyouaplaneoftonewithfirmedgesthewidthofyourbrush,gettinggraduallydarkerorlighterasyourbrushempties,accordingtothelengthofthestrokeandtowhetheryouarepaintingintoalighterordarkerground.
IncolumnNo.2adragtouchisillustrated.Thisisaveryusefulone.Thebrushisplacedfirmlyonthecanvasandthendraggedfromthepointlightlyaway,leavingagradatedtone.Agreatdealofthemodellinginroundobjectsistobeexpressedbythisvarietyofhandling.Thedangeristhatitsuseisapttoleadtoatoodexterousmannerofpainting;adexteritymoreconcernedwiththeclevermannerinwhichathingispaintedthanwiththetruthexpressed.
ColumnNo.3.Thisisastrokelightlyandquicklypainted,wherethebrushjustgrazesthesurfaceofthecanvas.Thepaintisputoninamannerthatisverybrilliant,andatthesametimeofasoftquality.Ifthebrushisonlymoderatelyfull,suchtoucheswillnothaveanyhardedges,butbeofalight,featherynature.Itisamostusefulmannerofputtingonpaintwhenfreshnessofcolouriswanted,asitpreventsonetonebeingchurnedupwithanotherandlosingitspurity.Andinthepaintingofhair,wherethetonesneedtobekeptveryseparate,andatthesametimenothard,itisveryuseful.Butinmonochromepaintingfromthecastitisofverylittleservice.
Anothermethodofusingabrushishatching,thedrawingofrowsofparallellinesineitherequalorvaryingthicknesses.Thismethodwilllightenordarkenatoneinvaryingdegree,accordingtowhetherthelinesarethick,thin,orgradated--somewhatinthesamewaythatlinesofshadingaredrawninlinework.Incaseswherethecorrectionofintricatemodellingisdesiredandwhereitwouldbeverydifficulttoalterapartaccuratelybyadeftstrokeofthebrush,thismethodisusefultoemploy.Adrybrushcanbedrawnacrossthelinestounitethemwiththerestoftheworkafterwards.Thismethodofpaintinghaslatelybeenmuchusedbythoseartistswhohaveattemptedpaintinginseparate,purecolours,aftertheso-calledmannerofClaudeMonet,althoughsomechanicalamethodisseldomusedbythatmaster.
Asyourpowerofdrawingincreases(fromthelinedrawingyouhavebeendoing),castsofhandsandheadsshouldbeattemptedinthesamemannerashasbeendescribed.Illustrationsaregivenofexercisesofthisdescriptiononpages110and122.Unfortunatelythephotographs,whichweretakenfromthesamestudyatdifferentstagesduringthepainting,arenotallalike,thefirstpaintingofthelightsbeingtoodarklyprintedinsomecases.Buttheyshowhowmuchcanbeexpressedwiththeonetone,whenvarietyisgotbyusingthemiddletonetopaintinto.Thetwotonesusedarenotedintheright-handlowercorner.
Trytotrainyourselftodothesestudiesatonesitting.Butifyoufindyoucannotmanagethis,useslowerdryingcolours,saybonebrownandzincwhite,whichwillkeepwetuntilthenextday.
Whenyoubeginstudyingfromthelife,proceedinthesamewaywithmonochromestudiespaintedintoamiddletone.
Andwhatareyoutodoifyoufind,whenyouhavefinished,thatitisallwrong?Ishouldadviseyoutoletitdry,andthenscumbleamiddletonerightoverthewholething,asyoudidatfirst,whichwillshowtheoldworkthrough,andyoucanthencorrectyourdrawingandproceedtopaintthelightsandshadowsasbefore.Andifonlyapartofitiswrong,whenitisquitedryrubalittle,poppyoilthinnedwith
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turpentineoverthework,aslittleaswillservetocoverthesurface.Ifitisfounddifficulttogetittocover,breatheonthecanvas,theslightestmoisturewillhelpittobite.Whenthisisdone,wipeitoffwiththepalmofyourhandoranoldpieceofcleanlinen.Nowpaintamiddletonerightoverthepartyouwishtoretouch,beingcarefulaboutjoiningituptothesurroundingwork,andproceedasbefore,drawinginthelightandshadowmasses.
Thisformofdrawingyouwillprobablyfindmoredifficultatfirst.Forthereasonalreadyexplaineditseemsnaturaltoobserveobjectsasmadeupofoutlines,notmasses.Theframewithcottonsacrossitshouldbeusedtoflattentheappearance,asinmakingoutlinedrawings.Andbesidesthisablackglassshouldbeused.Thiscaneasilybemadebygettingasmallpieceofglass--aphotographicnegativewilldo--andstickingsomeblackpaperontheback;turningitoverthefronttokeeptherawedgesoftheglassfromcuttingthefingers.Ortheglasscanbepaintedonthebackwithblackpaint.Standingwithyourbacktotheobjectandyourpainting,holdthisglasscloseinfrontofoneofyoureyes(theotherbeingclosed),sothatyoucanseebothyourpaintingandtheobject.Seeingthetonesthusreducedandsimplified,youwillbeenabledmoreeasilytocorrectyourwork.
Ishouldliketoemphasisetheimportanceofthesetting-outworknecessaryforbrush-drawing.Whileitisnotnecessarytoputexpressive
workintothispreparatorywork,theutmostcareshouldbetakentoensureitsaccuracyasfarasitgoes.Itisagreatnuisanceif,afteryouhaveputupsomeofyourfairstructure,youfindthefoundationsareinthewrongplaceandthewholethinghastobetorndownandshifted.Itisoftheutmostnecessitytohavetheproportionsandthemainmassessettledatthisearlystage,andeverydeviceofblockingoutwithsquarelinesandmeasuringwithyourknitting-needle,&c.,shouldbeadoptedtoensuretheaccuracyoftheselargeproportions.Thevariationsandemphasesthatfeelingmaydictatecanbedoneinthepaintingstage.Thisinitialstageisnotreallyadrawingatall,butaspeciesofmappingout,andassuchitshouldberegarded.Theonlyexcuseformakingtheelaboratepreparatorydrawingsoncanvasstudentssometimesdo,isthatitenablesthemtolearnthesubject,sothatwhen
theycometopaintit,theyalreadyknowsomethingaboutit.Butthedangerofmakingthesepreparatorydrawingsinterestingisthatthestudentfearstocoverthemupandloseanoutlinesocarefullyandlovinglywrought;andthisalwaysresultsinapoorpainting.Whenyoutakeupabrushtoexpressyourself,itmustbewithnofearofhurtingacarefuldrawing.Yourdrawingisgoingtobedonewiththebrush,andonlythegeneralsettingoutofthemasseswillbeofanyusetoyouintheworkofthisinitialstage.Neverpaintwiththepoorspiritofthestudentwhofearstolosehisdrawing,oryouwillneverdoanyfinethingsinpainting.Drawing(expressingform)isthethingyoushouldbedoingallthetime.Andinart,"hethatwouldsavehisworkmustoftenloseit,"ifyouwillexcusetheparaphraseofaprofoundsayingwhich,likemostprofoundsayings,isapplicabletomanythingsinlifebesides
whatitoriginallyreferredto.Itisoftennecessarywhenapaintingis#nearly#righttodestroythewholethinginordertoaccomplishtheapparentlylittlethatstilldividesitfromwhatyouconceiveitshouldbe.Itislikeamanrushingahillthatisjustbeyondthepowerofhismotor-cartoclimb,hemusttakealongrunatit.Andifthefirstattemptlandshimnearlyupatthetopbutnot#quite#,hehastogobackandtakethelongrunalloveragain,togivehimtheimpetusthatshallcarryhimrightthrough.
Anothermethodofjudgingtonedrawingisouroldmethodofhalfclosing
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theeyes.This,byloweringthetoneandwideningthefocus,enablesyoutocorrecttheworkmoreeasily.
Intonedrawingthereisnotonlytheshapeofthemassestobeconsidered,buttheirvalues--thatis,theirpositioninanimaginedscalefromdarktolight.Therelationofthedifferenttonesinthisway--thevalues,asitiscalled--isanextremelyimportantmatterinpainting.Butitmoreproperlybelongstotheotherdepartmentofthesubject,namelyColour,andthisneedsavolumetoitself.ButsomethingmorewillbesaidonthissubjectwhentreatingofRhythm.
Wesaw,inspeakingoflinedrawing,howthecharacterofalinewasfoundbyobservingitsflatnessesanditsrelationtostraightlines.Inthesameway#thecharacterofmodellingisfoundbyobservingitsplanes#.Sothatinbuildingupacomplicatedpieceofform,likeaheadorfigure,theplanes(orflattones)shouldbesoughtforeverywhere.Asacarverinstoneblocksouthisworkinsquaresurfaces,themodellingofafigureoranycomplexsurfacethatisbeingstudiedshouldbesetoutinplanesoftone,paintinginthefirstinstancethelargerones,andthen,tothese,addingthesmaller;whenitwillbeseenthattheroundnesseshave,withalittlefusingofedgeshereandthere,beenarrivedat.Goodmodellingisfulloftheseplanessubtlyfusedtogether.Nothingissocharacteristicofbadmodellingas"grossroundnesses."Thesurfaceofasphereisthesurfacewiththeleast
character,likethecurveofacircle,andtheonemosttobeavoidedingoodmodelling.
Inthesearchforformtheknowledgeofanatomy,andparticularlythebonystructures,isoftheutmostimportance.Duringtherageforrealismandnaturalismmanyhardthingsweresaidaboutthestudyofanatomy.Andcertainly,wereittobeusedtooverstepthemodestyofnatureintheserespectsandtobeparadedtotheexclusionofthecharmandcharacteroflife,itwouldbeaswellleftalone.Butifwearetomakeadrawingthatshallexpresssomethingconcrete,wemustknowsomethingofitsstructure,whateveritis.Inthecaseofthehumanfigureitisimpossibleproperlytounderstanditsactionanddrawitinawaythatshallgiveapowerfulimpressionwithoutaknowledgeof
themechanicsofitsconstruction.ButIhardlythinkthecaseforanatomyneedsmuchstatingatthepresenttime.Neverletanatomicalknowledgetemptyouintoexaggeratedstatementsofinternalstructure,unlesssuchexaggerationhelpstheparticularthingyouwishtoexpress.Indrawingafigureinviolentactionitmight,forinstance,beessentialtothedrawing,whereasindrawingafigureatrestoraportrait,itwouldcertainlybeoutofplace.
[Illustration:PlateXXVI.
SETOFFOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFTHESAMESTUDYFROMTHELIFEINDIFFERENTSTAGES
No.1.Blockingoutthespacesoccupiedbydifferentmassesincharcoal.]
[Illustration:PlateXXVII.
SETOFFOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFTHESAMESTUDYFROMTHELIFEINDIFFERENTSTAGES
No.2.Amiddletonehavingbeenscumbledoverthewhole,thelightsarepaintedintoit;varietybeinggotbyvaryingthethicknessofthe
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paint.Thedarksareduetothecharcoallinesofinitialdrawingshowingthroughmiddletone.]
[Illustration:PlateXXVIII.
SETOFFOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFTHESAMESTUDYFROMTHELIFEINDIFFERENTSTAGES
No.3.Thesameasthelast,butwiththeshadowsadded;varietybeinggotbyvaryingthicknessofpaintasbefore.]
[Illustration:PlateXXIX.
SETOFFOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFTHESAMESTUDYFROMTHELIFEINDIFFERENTSTAGES
No.4.Thecompletedhead.]
Inthechapteronlineworkitwasstatedthat:"Linesofshadingdrawnacrosstheformssuggestsoftness,linesdrawnincurvesfulnessofform,linesdrawndowntheformshardness,andlinescrossingineverydirectionatmosphere,"andtheserulesapplyequallywelltothedirectionofthebrushstrokes(thebrushwork)inapainting.
#Thebrushswingingroundtheformssuggestsfore-shortening,andfulnessofformgenerally,andacrosstheformssoftness,whilethebrushfollowingdowntheformssuggeststoughnessandhardness,andcrossingineverydirectionatmosphere#.Agreatdealofaddedforcecanbegiventoformexpressioninthisway.IntheforeshortenedfigureonthegroundattheleftofTintoretto's"FindingoftheBodyofSt.Mark,"theforeshortenedeffecthelpedbythebrushworkswingingroundcanbeseen(seeillustration,page236[TranscribersNote:PlateXLIX]).TheworkofHennerinFranceisanextremeinstanceofthequalityofsoftnessandfleshinessgotbypaintingacrosstheform.ThelookoftoughnessandhardnessgivenbythebrushworkfollowingdowntheformsiswellillustratedinmuchoftheworkofJamesWard,theanimalpainter.InhispictureintheNationalGallery,"Harlech
Castle,"No.1158,thiscanbeseeninthepaintingofthetree-trunks,&c.
Thecrossingofthebrushworkineverydirection,givingalookofatmosphere,isnaturallyoftenusedinpaintingbackgroundsandalsosuchthingsastheplanesurfacesofskyandmist,&c.
Itisofteninconvenienttopaintacrosstheformwhensoftnessiswanted.Itisonlypossibletohaveonecolourinyourbrushsweep,andthecolourchangesacross,muchmorethandowntheformasarule.Fortheshadows,halftonesandlights,besidesvaryingintone,varyalsoincolour;sothatitisnotalwayspossibletosweepacrossthemwithonecolour.Itisusuallymoreconvenienttopaintdownwherethe
colourscanbelaidinoverlappingbandsofshadow,halftoneandlight,&c.Nevertheless,ifthisparticularlookofsoftnessandfleshinessisdesired,eitherthepaintingmustbesothinorthetonessofusedtogetherthatnobrushstrokesshow,oradryflatbrushmustafterwardsbedrawnlightlyacrosswhenthepaintingisdone,todestroythedownwardbrushstrokesandsubstituteothersgoingacross,greatcarebeingtakentodragonlyfromlighttodark,andtowipethebrushcarefullyaftereachtouch;andalsonevertogooverthesameplacetwice,orthepaintwilllosevitality.Thisisamethodmuchemployedbyartistswhodelightinthisparticularquality.
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Butwhenastrong,toughlookisdesired,suchasoneseeswhenamuscleisinviolentaction,orinthetendonabovethewristorabovetheheelintheleg,orgenerallywhereabonecomestothesurface,inallthesecasesthebrushworkshouldfollowdowntheforms.Itisnotnecessaryandisofteninadvisableforthebrushworktoshowatall,inwhichcasetheseprincipleswillbeoflittleaccount.Butwheninvigorouslypaintedworktheydo,Ithinkitwillgenerallybefoundtocreatetheeffectsnamed.
DrawingontonedpaperwithwhitechalkorChinesewhiteandblackorredchalkisanotherformofmassdrawing.Andforstudiesitisintendedtopaintfrom,thisisaquickandexcellentmanner.Therapiditywithwhichthefactsofanappearancecanbenotedmakesitaboveallothersthemethodfordraperystudies.Thelightsaredrawnwithwhite,thetonedpaperbeingallowedtoshowthroughwhereadarkertoneisneeded,thewhite(eitherchalkorChinesewhite)beingputonthicklywhenabrightlightiswantedandthinlywhereaquieterlightisneeded.Sowiththeshadows,thechalkisputonheavilyinthedarksandlessheavilyinthelightershadows.SincethedaysoftheearlyItaliansthishasbeenafavouritemethodofdrawingdraperystudies(seeillustrations,page260[TranscribersNote:PlateLIV]).
Someartistshaveshadedtheirlightswithgoldandsilverpaint.The
lateSirEdwardBurne-Joneswasveryfondofthis,anddrawingswithmuchdecorativecharmhavebeendonethisway.Theprincipleisthesameasindrawingwithwhitechalk,thehalftonebeinggivenbythepaper.
Keepthelightsseparatefromtheshadows,letthehalftonepaperalwayscomeasabufferstatebetweenthem.Getasmuchinformationintothedrawingofyourlightsandshadowsaspossible;don'tbesatisfiedwithasmudgeeffect.Usethesideofyourwhitechalkwhenyouwantamass,orworkinparallellines(hatching)ontheprincipledescribedinthechapteronlinedrawing.
X
RHYTHM
ThesubjectofRhythminwhatarecalledtheFineArtsissovague,andhasreceivedsolittleattention,thatsomecourage,orperhapsfoolhardiness,isneededtoattackit.Andinofferingthefollowingfragmentaryideasthathavebeenstumbledoninmyownlimitedpractice,Iwantthemtobeacceptedonlyforwhattheyareworth,asIdonotknowofanyproperauthorityforthem.Buttheymayserveasastimulus,andoffersomelinesonwhichthestudentcanpursuethesubjectfor
himself.
Thewordrhythmishereusedtosignifythepowerpossessedbylines,tones,andcolours,bytheirorderingandarrangement,toaffectus,somewhatasdifferentnotesandcombinationsofsounddoinmusic.Andjustasinmusic,wheresoundsaffectuswithouthavinganydirectrelationwithnature,butappealdirectlytoourowninnerlife;soinpainting,sculpture,andarchitecture#thereisamusicthatappealsdirectlytousapartfromanysignificancethatmaybeassociatedwiththerepresentationofnaturalphenomena#.Thereis,asitwere,an
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abstractmusicofline,tone,andcolour.
Thedangerofthenaturalisticmovementinpaintinginthenineteenthcenturyhasbeenthatithasturnedourattentionawayfromthisfundamentalfactofarttothecontemplationofinterestingrealisationsofappearances--realisationsoftenfullofpoeticsuggestivenessduetoassociationsconnectedwiththeobjectspaintedasconcretethings,butnotalwaysmadedirectlysignificantasartisticexpression;whereas#itisthebusinessoftheartisttorelatetheform,colour,andtoneofnaturalappearancestothisabstractmusicalquality,withwhichheshouldneverlosetoucheveninthemosthighlyrealiseddetailofhiswork#.Foronlythus,whenrelatedtorhythm,dotheform,tone,andcolourofappearancesobtaintheirfullexpressivepowerandbecomeameansofvitallyconveyingthefeelingoftheartist.
Inquiryastotheoriginofthispowerandofrhythmgenerallyisaprofoundlyinterestingsubject;andnowthatrecentadvancesinsciencetendtoshowthatsound,heat,light,andpossiblyelectricityandevennerveforcearebutdifferentrhythmicformsofenergy,andthatmatteritselfmaypossiblyberesolvedeventuallyintodifferentrhythmicmotions,itdoeslookasifrhythmmayyetbefoundtocontaineventhesecretoflifeitself.Atanyrateitisveryintimatelyassociatedwithlife;andprimitivemanearlybegantogiveexpressioninsomeformofarchitecture,sculpture,orpaintingtothedeeperfeelingsthatwere
movinghim;foundsomecorrespondencebetweenthelinesandcoloursofarchitecture,sculpture,andpaintingandtheemotionallifethatwasawakeningwithinhim.Thus,lookingbackattheremainsoftheirworkthathavecomedowntous,weareenabledtojudgeofthenatureofthepeoplefromtheexpressionwefindinhewnstoneandonpaintedwalls.
Itisinprimitiveartgenerallythatweseemoreclearlythedirectemotionalsignificanceoflineandform.Artappearstohavedevelopedfromitsmostabstractposition,towhichbitbybithavebeenaddedthetruthsandgracesofnaturalappearance,untilasmuchofthisnaturalistictruthhasbeenaddedastheabstractsignificanceatthebaseoftheexpressioncouldstandwithoutlossofpower.Atthispoint,ashasalreadybeenexplained,aschoolisattheheightofits
development.Theworkafterthisusuallyshowsanincreasedconcernwithnaturalistictruth,whichisalwaysverypopular,tothegradualexclusionofthebackboneofabstractlineandformsignificancethatdominatedtheearlierwork.Andwhentheseprimitiveconditionsarelosttouchwith,adecadencesetsin.Atleast,thisisroughlythetheorytowhichastudyofthetwogreatartdevelopmentsofthepast,inGreeceandItaly,wouldseemtopoint.Andthistheoryistheexcuseforalltheattemptsatprimitivismofwhichwehavelatelyseensomuch.
Arthavinglosttouchwithitsprimitivebaseowingtotheover-dosesofnaturalismithashad,wemust,thesenewapostlessay,findanewprimitivebaseonwhichtobuildthenewstructureofart.Thetheoryhasitsattractions,butthereisthisdifferencebetweentheprimitive
archaicGreekorearlyItalianandthemodernprimitive;theearlymenreverentlyclothedtheabstractideatheystartedwithinthemostnaturalandbeautifulformwithintheirknowledge,everseekingtodiscovernewtruthsandgracesfromnaturetoenrichtheirwork;whilethemodernartist,withthearttreasuresofallperiodsoftheworldbeforehim,canneverbeinthepositionofthesesimple-mindedmen.Itisthereforeunlikelythatthefuturedevelopmentofartwillbeonlinessimilartothatofthepast.Thesameconditionsofsimpleignoranceareneverlikelytooccuragain.Meansofcommunicationandprolificreproductionmakeitveryunlikelythattheartoftheworld
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willagainbelostforaseason,aswasGreekartintheMiddleAges.Interestingintellectuallyasisthetheorythattheimpressionistpointofview(theacceptingoftheflatretinapictureasapatternofcoloursensations)offersanewfieldfromwhichtoselectmaterialforanewbasisofartisticexpression,sofartheevidenceofresultshasnotshownanythinglikelyseriouslytothreatentheestablishedprinciplesoftraditionaldesign.Andanythingmoredifferentinspiritfromthegenuineprimitivethantheirreverentanarchyandfloutingofallrefinementintheworkofsomeofthesenewprimitives,itwouldbedifficulttoimagine.Butmuchoftheworkofthemovementhasundoubtedartisticvitality,andinitsinsistenceondesignandselectionshoulddomuchtokill"realism"andthe"copyingnature"theoryofafewyearsback.
Althoughitisperfectlytruethatthefeelingsandideasthatimpeltheartistmaysoonerorlaterfindtheirownexpression,thereareagreatmanyprinciplesconnectedwiththearrangingoflines,tones,andcoloursinhispicturethatitisdifficulttotransgresswithoutcalamity.Atanyratetheknowledgeofsomeofthemwillaidtheartistingainingexperience,andpossiblysavehimsomeneedlessfumbling.
Butdon'tforonemomentthinkthatanythinginthenatureofrulesisgoingtotaketheplaceoftheinitialartisticimpulsewhichmustcomefromwithin.Thisisnotamatterforteaching,arttrainingbeingonly
concernedwithperfectingthemeansofitsexpression.[Illustration:PlateXXX.
ASTUDYFORAPICTUREOF"ROSALINDANDORLANDO"
_Ros._"Hecallsusback;mypridefellwithmyfortunes."]
Itisproposedtotreatthesubjectfromthematerialsideoflineandtoneonly,withoutanyreferencetosubjectmatter,withtheideaoftryingtofindoutsomethingabouttheexpressivequalitieslineandtonearecapableofyieldingunassociatedwithvisualthings.Whatusecanbemadeofanysuchknowledgetogiveexpressiontotheemotional
lifeoftheartistisnotourconcern,andisobviouslyamatterfortheindividualtodecideforhimself.
*****
Thereisatthebasisofeverypictureastructureoflinesandmasses.Theymaynotbeveryobvious,andmaybehiddenunderthemostbrokenoftechniques,buttheywillalwaysbefoundunderlyingtheplanningofanypainting.Somemaysaythatthelinesareonlytheboundariesofthemasses,andothersthatthemassesareonlythespacesbetweenthelines.Butwhicheverwayyoucaretolookatit,thereareparticularemotionalqualitiesanalogoustomusicthataffectusinlinesandlinearrangementsandalsointoneormassarrangements.Andanypowera
picturemayhavetomoveuswillbelargelyduetotherhythmicsignificanceofthisoriginalplanning.Thesequalities,ashasalreadybeenstated,affectusquiteapartfromanyassociationtheymayhavewithnaturalthings:arrangementsofmeregeometricallinesaresufficienttosuggestthem.Butofcourseotherassociationsconnectedwiththeobjectsrepresentedwilllargelyaugmenttheimpression,whenthelineandtonearrangementsandthesentimentoftheobjectareinsympathy.Andiftheyarenot,itmayhappenthatassociationsconnectedwiththerepresentationwillcutinandobscureorentirelydestroythislineandtonemusic.Thatistosay,ifthelineandtonearrangement
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intheabstractisexpressiveofthesublime,andtheobjectswhoserepresentationtheysupportsomethingridiculous,sayadonkeybraying,theassociationsarousedbysoridiculousanappearancewilloverridethoseconnectedwiththelineandtonearrangement.Butitisremarkablehowseldomthisoccursinnature,thesentimentofthelineandtonearrangementsthingspresentbeingusuallyinharmonywiththesentimentoftheobjectitself.Asamatteroffact,thelineeffectofadonkeyinreposeismuchmoresublimethanwhenheisbraying.
[Sidenote:UnityandVariety.]
Therearetwoqualitiesthatmaybeallowedtodividetheconsiderationofthissubject,twopointsofviewfromwhichthesubjectcanbeapproached:#Unity#and#Variety#,qualitiessomewhatopposedtoeachother,asareharmonyandcontrastintherealmofcolour.Unityisconcernedwiththerelationshipofallthepartstothatonenessofconceptionthatshouldcontroleverydetailofaworkofart.Allthemoreprofoundqualities,thedeeperemotionalnotes,areonthissideofthesubject.Ontheotherhand,varietyholdsthesecretsofcharm,vitality,andthepicturesque,itisthe"dither,"theplaybetweenthelargerparts,thatmakesforlifeandcharacter.#Withoutvarietytherecanbenolife#.
Inanyconceptionofaperfectunity,liketheperfectedlifeofthe
Buddhist,NirvanaorNibbana(literally"dyingout"or"extinction"asofanexpiringfire),thereisnoroomforvariety,fortheplayoflife;allsuchfretfulnessceases,tobereplacedbyanall-pervadingcalm,beautiful,ifyoulike,butlifeless.Thereisthisdeadnessaboutanyconceptionofperfectionthatwillalwaysmakeitanunattainableidealinlife.Thosewho,liketheIndianfakirorthehermitsoftheMiddleAges,havestakedtheirallonthisidealofperfection,havefounditnecessarytosuppresslifeineverywaypossible,thefakirsoftenremainingmotionlessforlongperiodsatatime,andoneofthemediaevalsaintsgoingsofarastoliveonthetopofahighcolumnwherelifeandmovementwerewell-nighimpossible.
Andinartitisthesame;allthosewhohaveaimedatanabsolute
perfectionhaveusuallyendedinadeadness.TheGreeksknewbetterthanmanyoftheirimitatorsthisvitalnecessityinart.Intheirmostidealworkthereisalwaysthatvarietythatgivescharacterandlife.Noformulaorcanonofproportionsorothermechanicaldevicefortheattainmentofperfectionwasallowedbythisvitalpeopleentirelytosubduetheirloveoflifeandvariety.Andhoweverneartheymightgotowardsaperfecttypeintheiridealheadsandfigures,theyneverwentsofarastokilltheindividualinthetype.Itisthelackofthissubtledistinctionthat,Ithink,hasbeenthecauseofthefailureofsomuchartfoundedonso-calledGreekideals.MuchRomansculpture,ifyouexcepttheirportraitbusts,illustratesthis.ComparedwithGreekworkitlacksthatsubtlevarietyinthemodellingthatgivesvitality.Thedifferencecanbefeltinstinctivelyinthemerestfragmentofa
brokenfigure.ItisnotdifficulttotellGreekfromRomanfragments,theypulsatewithalifethatitisimpossibletodescribebutthatoneinstinctivelyfeels.Andthisvitalitydepends,Ithinkitwillbefound,onthegreateramountoflife-givingvarietyinthesurfacesofthemodelling.Intheirarchitecturalmouldings,thedifferenceofwhichwearespeakingcanbemoreeasilytraced.ThevivacityandbrilliancyofaGreekmouldingmakesaRomanworklookheavyanddull.AnditwillgenerallybefoundthattheRomansusedthecurveofthecircleinthesectionsoftheirmouldings,acurvepossessingtheleastamountofvariety,asisexplainedlater,wheretheGreeksusedthelinesofconic
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sections,curvespossessedofthegreatestamountofvariety.
Butwhileunitymustneverexistwithoutthislife-givingvariety,varietymustalwaysbeunderthemoralcontrolofunity,oritwillgetoutofhandandbecomeextravagant.Infact,themostperfectwork,likethemostperfectengineofwhichwespokeinaformerchapter,hastheleastamountofvariety,astheenginehastheleastamountof"dither,"thatiscompatiblewithlife.Onedoesnothearsomuchtalkinthesedaysaboutaperfecttypeaswasthefashionatonetime;andcertainlythepursuitofthisidealbyaprocessofselectingthebestfeaturesfrommanymodelsandconstructingafigureoutofthemasanidealtype,wasproductiveofverydeadandlifelesswork.Noaccountwastakenofthevarietyfromacommontypenecessaryinthemostperfectwork,iflifeandindividualinterestarenottobelost,andthethingisnottobecomeadeadabstraction.Butthedangerisrathertheotherwayatthemoment.Artistsrevelintheoddestofindividualforms,andthetypeideaisfloutedonallhands.Ananarchyofindividualismisuponus,andthevitalityofdisorderedvarietyismorefashionablethanthecalmbeautyofanorderedunity.
ExcessofvariationsfromacommontypeiswhatIthinkwerecogniseasuglinessintheobjectiveworld,whereasbeautyisonthesideofunityandconformitytotype.Beautypossessesbothvarietyandunity,andisneverextreme,erringratheronthesideofunity.
Burkeinhisessayon"TheSublimeandtheBeautiful"wouldseemtousethewordbeautifulwhereweshouldusethewordpretty,placingitattheoppositepolefromthesublime,whereasIthinkbeautyalwayshassomeelementsofthesublimeinit,whilethemerelyprettyhasnot.Mereprettinessisalittledifficulttoplace,itdoesnotcomebetweeneitherofourextremes,possessinglittlecharacterortype,varietyorunity.Itisperhapscharmwithouteitherofthesestrengtheningassociates,andinconsequenceisalwaysfeeble,andthefavouritedietofweakartisticdigestions.
ThesculptureofancientEgyptisaninstanceofgreatunityinconception,andthesuppressionofvarietytoapointatwhichlife
scarcelyexists.ThelinesoftheEgyptianfiguresaresimpleandlong,thesurfacessmoothandunvaried,noactionisallowedtogivevarietytothepose,theplacingofonefootalittleinfrontoftheotherbeingalonepermittedinthestandingfigures;thearms,whennothangingstraightdownthesides,areflexedstifflyattheelbowatrightangles;theheadsstarestraightbeforethem.Theexpressionofsublimityiscomplete,andthiswas,ofcourse,whatwasaimedat.Buthowcoldandterribleisthelackofthatplayandvarietythataloneshowlife.Whatareliefitis,attheBritishMuseum,togointotheElginMarbleroomandbewarmedbythenoblelifepulsatingintheGreekwork,aftervisitingthecoldEgyptianrooms.
Inwhatwecallaperfectfaceitisnotsomuchtheperfectregularity
ofshapeandbalanceinthefeaturesthatcharmsus,notthethingsthatbelongtoanidealtype,butratherthesubtlevariationsfromthistypethatareindividualtotheparticularheadweareadmiring.Aperfecttypeofhead,ifsuchcouldexist,mightexciteourwonder,butwouldleaveuscold.Butitcanneverexistinlife;theslightestmovementofthefeatures,whichmustalwaysaccompanylifeandexpression,willmarit.Andtheinfluenceofthesehabitualmovementsontheformofthefeaturesthemselveswillinvariablymouldthemintoindividualshapesawayfromtheso-calledperfecttype,whatevermayhavebeennature'sintentioninthefirstinstance.
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Ifwecallthesevariationsfromacommontypeinthefeaturesimperfections,asitisusualtodo,itwouldseemtobetheimperfectionsofperfectionthatcharmandstirus;andthatperfectionwithouttheseso-calledimperfectionsisacold,deadabstraction,devoidoflife:thatunitywithoutvarietyislifelessandincapableoftouchingus.
Ontheotherhand,varietywithoutunitytogovernitisariotousexuberanceoflife,lackingallpowerandrestraintandwastingitselfinamadnessofexcess.
Sothatinartabalancehastobestruckbetweenthesetwoopposingqualities.Ingoodworkunityisthedominatingquality,allthevarietybeingdoneinconformitytosomelargeideaofthewhole,whichisneverlostsightof,eveninthesmallestdetailofthework.Goodstyleinarthasbeendefinedas"varietyinunity,"andHogarth'sdefinitionofcompositionastheartof"varyingwell"issimilar.AndIamnotsurethat"contrastsinharmony"wouldnotbeasuggestivedefinitionofgoodcolour.
Letusconsiderfirstvarietyandunityastheyarerelatedtolinedrawing,andafterwardstomassdrawing.
XI
RHYTHM:VARIETYOFLINE
Linerhythmormusicdependsontheshapeofyourlines,theirrelationtoeachotherandtheirrelationtotheboundariesofyourpanel.Inallgoodworkthismusicoflineisinharmonywiththesubject(theartisticintention)ofyourpictureordrawing.
Thetwolineswiththeleastvariationareaperfectlystraightlineandacircle.Aperfectlystraightlinehasobviouslynovarietyatall,whileacircle,bycurvingatexactlythesameratioallalong,hasnovariationofcurvature,itisofallcurvestheonewiththeleastpossiblevariety.Thesetwolinesare,therefore,twoofthedullest,andareseldomusedinpicturesexcepttoenhancethebeautyandvarietyofothers.Andeventhen,subtlevariations,someamountofplay,isintroducedtorelievetheirbaldness.Butusedinthisway,verticalandhorizontallinesareoftheutmostvalueinrectangularpictures,unitingthecompositiontoitsboundinglinesbytheirparallelrelationshipwiththem.Andfurther,asacontrasttotherichnessandbeautyofcurvestheyareofgreatvalue,andareconstantlyusedforthispurpose.Thegroupofmouldingscuttingagainsttheheadina
portrait,orthelinesofacolumnusedtoaccentuatethecurvedformsofafaceorfigure,arewell-knowninstances;andtheportraitpainterisalwaysonthelookoutforanobjectinhisbackgroundthatwillgivehimsuchstraightlines.Youmaynotice,too,howthelinesdrawnacrossastudyinordertocopyit(squaringitout,asitiscalled)improvethelookofadrawing,givingagreaterbeautytothevarietyofthecurvesbycontrastwiththevarietylackinginstraightlines.
Theperfectcurveofthecircleshouldalwaysbeavoidedinthedrawingofnaturalobjects(evenafullmoon),andinvitaldrawingsofanysort
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somevarietyshouldalwaysbelookedfor.Neithershouldthemodellingofthesphereeveroccurinyourwork,thedullestofallcurvedsurfaces.
Althoughthecurveoftheperfectcircleisdullfromitslackofvariety,itisnotwithoutbeauty,andthisisduetoitsperfectunity.Itisofallcurvesthemostperfectexampleofstaticunity.Withouttheexcitementoftheslightestvariationitgoesonandonforever.Thisis,nodoubt,thereasonwhyitwasearlychosenasasymbolofEternity,andcertainlynomoreperfectsymbolcouldbefound.
Thecircleseeninperspectiveassumesthemorebeautifulcurveoftheellipse,acurvehavingmuchvariety;butasitsfourquartersarealike,notsomuchasasymmetricalfigurecanhave.
Perhapsthemostbeautifulsymmetricallycurvedfigureofallistheso-calledeggofthewell-knownmouldingfromsuchatempleastheErechtheum,calledtheegganddartmoulding.Herewehaveaperfectbalancebetweenvarietyandunity.Thecurvatureisvariedtoaninfinitedegree,atnopointisitscurvingatthesameratioasatanyotherpoint;perhapsthemaximumamountofvarietythatcanbegotinasymmetricalfigure,preserving,asitdoes,itsalmostperfectcontinuity,foritapproachesthecircleintheevenflowofitscurvature.Thisis,roughly,thelineofthecontourofaface,andyou
maynotehowmuchpainterswhohaveexcelledingracehaveinsistedonitintheirportraits.GainsboroughandVandykearestriking,instances.
[Illustration:DiagramVII.
EGGANDDARTMOULDINGFROMONEOFTHECARYATIDESFROMTHEERECHTHEUMINTHEBRITISHMUSEUM]
Thelineofaprofileisoftenoneofgreatbeauty,onlyherethevarietyisapttooverbalancetheunityorrunoftheline.Themostbeautifulprofilesareusuallythoseinwhichvarietyissubordinatedtotheunityofthecontour.IfancytheGreeksfeltthiswhentheydidawaywiththehollowabovethenose,makingthelineoftheforehead
run,withbutlittleinterruption,tothetipofthenose.Theunityoflineisincreased,andthevarietymademoreinteresting.TheideathatthiswasthecommonGreektypeis,Ishouldimagine,untrue,fortheirportraitstatuesdonotshowit.Itdoesoccurinnatureatrareintervals,andinmostWesternnationalities,butIdonotthinkthereismuchevidenceofitseverhavingbeenacommontypeanywhere.
[Illustration:DiagramVIII.
ILLUSTRATINGVARIETYINSYMMETRY
NotehowthehollowsmarkedAareopposedbyfullnessesmarkedB.]
Indrawingorpaintingaprofilethisrunorunityofthelineisthethingtofeel,ifyouwouldexpressitsparticularbeauty.Thisisbestdoneinthecaseofapaintingbyfinallydrawingitwiththebrushfromthebackgroundside,afterhavingpaintedallthevarietythereisoftoneandcolouronthefacesideoftheline.Asthebackgroundusuallyvarieslittle,theswingofthebrushisnothamperedonthissideasitisontheother.Ihaveseenstudentsworriedtodistractiontryingtopainttheprofilelinefromthefaceside,fearingtolosethedrawingbygoingovertheedge.Withtheedgeblurredoutfromthefaceside,itiseasytocomewithabrushfullofthecolourthebackgroundis
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immediatelyagainsttheface(adifferentcolourusuallyfromwhatitisfurtheraway),anddrawitwithsomedecisionandconviction,carebeingtakentonoteallthevariationsontheedge,wherethesharpnessescomeandwheretheedgeismorelost,&c.
[Sidenote:VarietyinSymmetry.]
Thecontoursofthelimbsillustrateanotherformoflinevariety--whatmaybecalled"VarietyinSymmetry."Whileroughlyspeakingthelimbsaresymmetrical,eachsidenotonlyhasvarietyinitself,butthereisusuallyvarietyofopposition.Supposingthereisaconvexcurveontheoneside,youwilloftenhaveaconcaveformontheother.Alwayslookoutforthisindrawinglimbs,anditwilloftenimproveapoorlydrawnpartifmoreofthisvariationonsymmetryisdiscovered.
Thewholebody,youmaysay,issymmetrical,butevenherenaturalconditionsmakeforvariety.Thebodyisseldom,exceptinsoldiering,heldinasymmetricalposition.Theslightestactionproducesthevarietywearespeakingabout.Theaccompanyingsketcheswillindicatewhatismeant.
[Illustration:DiagramIX.
ILLUSTRATINGVARIETYINSYMMETRY
NotehowthehollowsmarkedAareopposedbythefullnessesmarkedB.]
Ofcoursethestudent,ifhehasanynaturalability,instinctivelylooksoutforallthesevariationsthatgivetheplayoflifetohisdrawing.Itisnotforhiminthefullvigourofinspirationthatbookssuchasthisarewritten.Buttheremaycomeatimewhenthings"won'tcome,"anditisthenthatitisusefultoknowwheretolookforpossibleweakspotsinyourwork.
[Sidenote:VarietyofThicknessandAccent.]
Alineofequalthicknessisaverydeadandinexpressivethingcompared
withonevariedandstressedatcertainpoints.Ifyouobserveanyoftheboundariesinnatureweusealinetoexpress,youwillnoticesomepointsareaccentuated,attracttheattention,morethanothers.Theonlymeansyouhavetoexpressthisinalinedrawingisbydarkeningandsharpeningtheline.Atotherpoints,wherethecontourisalmostlost,thelinecanbesoftandblurred.
Itisimpossibletowriteoftheinfinitequalitiesofvarietythatafinedraughtsmanwillgetintohislinework;theymustbestudiedfirsthand.Butonthisplayofthicknessandqualityoflinemuchofthevitalityofyourdrawingwilldepend.
XII
RHYTHM:UNITYOFLINE
Unityoflineisabiggerqualitythanvariety,andasitrequiresalargermentalgrasp,ismorerarelymetwith.Thebiggerthingsindrawinganddesigncomeunderitsconsideration,including,asitdoes,
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therelationofthepartstothewhole.ItsproperconsiderationwouldtakeusintothewholefieldofComposition,asubjectneedingfarmoreconsiderationthanitcanbegiveninthisbook.
Inalmostallcompositionsarhythmicflowoflinescanbetraced.Notnecessarilyaflowofactuallines(althoughtheseoftenexist);theymaybeonlyimaginarylineslinkingupormassingcertainparts,andbringingthemintoconformitywiththerhythmicconceptionofthewhole.Oragain,onlyacertainstressandflowintheforms,suggestinglinemovements.Buttheselinemovementsflowingthroughyourpanelareoftheutmostimportance;theyarelikethemelodiesandsubjectsofamusicalsymphony,weavingthroughandlinkingupthewholecomposition.
Often,thelineofacontouratonepartofapictureispickedupagainbythecontourofsomeobjectatanotherpartofthecomposition,andalthoughnoactuallineconnectsthem,aunityisthussetupbetweenthem.(Seediagrams,pages166and168,illustratinglinecompositionsofpicturesbyBotticelliandPaoloVeronese).Thisimaginaryfollowingthroughofcontoursacrossspacesinacompositionshouldalwaysbelookedoutforandsoughtafter,asnothingservestouniteapicturelikethisrelationshipofremoteparts.Theflowoftheselineswilldependonthenatureofthesubject:theywillbemoregraciousandeasy,ormorevigorousandpowerful,accordingtothedemandsofyoursubject.
Thislinkingupofthecontoursappliesequallywelltothedrawingofasinglefigureorevenaheadorhand,andthestudentshouldalwaysbeonthelookoutforthisunitingquality.Itisaqualityofgreatimportanceingivingunitytoacomposition.
[Sidenote:Parallelism]
Whengroupsoflinesinapictureoccurparalleltoeachothertheyproduceanaccentuationoftheparticularqualitythelinemaycontain,asortofsustainedeffect,likeasustainedchordonanorgan,theeffectofwhichismuchbiggerthanthatofthesamechordstruckstaccato.Thissustainedqualityhasawonderfulinfluenceinsteadying
andunitingyourwork.
Thisparallelismcanonlybeusedsuccessfullywiththesimplestlines,suchasastraightlineorasimplecurve;itisneveradvisableexceptindecorativepatternstobeusedwithcomplicatedshapes.Blakeisveryfondofthesustainedeffectparallelismgives,andusestherepetitionofcurvedandstraightlinesveryofteninhiscompositions.NoteinPlateIoftheJobseries,page146[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXI],theusemadeofthissustainingqualityintheparallelismofthesheep'sbacksinthebackgroundandtheparallelupwardflowofthelinesofthefigures.InPlateIIyouseeitusedinthecurvedlinesofthefiguresoneithersideofthethroneabove,andinthetwoangelswiththescrollattheleft-handcorner.Behindthesetwofiguresyou
againhaveitsuseaccentuatingbyrepetitionthepeacefullineofthehacksofthesheep.ThesamethingcanbeseeninPlateXXXI,B,wheretheparallelismofthebacklinesofthesheepandthelegsoftheseatedfiguresgivesalookofpeacecontrastingwiththeviolenceofthemessengercometotellofthedestructionofJob'ssons.TheemphasisthatparallelismgivestothemusicofparticularlinesiswellillustratedinallBlake'swork.Heisamineofinformationonthesubjectoflinerhythm.CompareAwithPlateXXXI,C;notehowtheemotionalqualityisdependentinbothcasesontheparallelismoftheupwardflowofthelines.HowalsoinPlateIhehascarriedthe
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verticalfeelingevenintothesheepinthefront,introducinglittlebandsofverticalshadingtocarrythroughtheverticallinesmadebythekneelingfigures.Andinthelastplate,"SotheLordblessedthelatterendofJobmorethanthebeginning,"notehowthegreatercompletenesswithwhichtheparallelismhasbeencarriedouthasgivenamuchgreateremphasistotheeffect,expressingagreaterexaltationandpeacethaninPlateXXXI,A.NoticeinPlateXXXI,D,where"Thejust,uprightmanislaughedtoscorn,"howthispowerofemphasisisusedtoincreasethelookofscornhurledatJobbythepointingfingersofhisthreefriends.
Oftheuseofthisprincipleincurvedforms,therepetitionofthelineofthebackinstoopingfiguresisafavouritedevicewithBlake.TherewillbefoundinstancesofthisinPlateXXXII,EandG.(FurtherinstanceswillbefoundonreferencetoPlatesVII,VIII,XIII,andXVII,inBlake'sJob.)Inthelastinstanceitisinterestingtonotehowhehasbalancedthecomposition,whichhasthreefigureskneelingontherightandonlyoneontheleft.Bylosingtheoutlineofthethirdfigureontherightandgettingadoublelineoutofthesinglefigureontheleftbymeansoftheoutlineofthemassofhair,andalsobyshadingthissinglefiguremorestrongly,hehascontrivedtokeepaperfectbalance.TheheadofJobisalsoturnedtotheleft,whilehestandsslightlyonthatside,stillfurtherbalancingthethreefiguresontheright.(Thisdoesnotshowsowellintheillustrationhere
reproducedasintheoriginalprint.)[Illustration:PlateXXXI.
ThusdidJobcontinually.(_PlateI,Blake'sJob_)
AndIonlyamescapedalonetotellthee.(_PlateIV,Blake'sJob_)
SotheLordblessedthelatterendofJobmorethanthebeginning.(_PlateXXI,Blake'sJob_)
Thejustuprightmanislaughedtoscorn.(_PlateX,Blake'sJob_)]
Somerudethingsweresaidaboveaboutthestraightlineandthecircle,onaccountoftheirlackofvariety,anditistruethatamathematicallystraightline,oramathematicallyperfectcircle,areneverfoundingoodartisticdrawing.Forwithoutvarietyisnocharmorlife.Buttheselinespossessotherqualities,duetotheirmaximumamountofunity,thatgivethemgreatpowerinacomposition;andwheretheexpressionofsublimityoranyofthedeeperandmoreprofoundsentimentsareinevidence,theyareoftentobefound.
TherowsofcolumnsinaGreektemple,theclustersofverticallinesinaGothiccathedralinterior,areinstancesofthesublimityandpowertheypossess.Thenecessaryplaythatmakesforvitality--the"dither"aswecalledthisqualityinaformerchapter--isgiveninthecaseof
theGreektemplebythesubtlecurvingofthelinesofcolumnsandsteps,andbytherichvarietyofthesculpture,andinthecaseoftheGothiccathedralbyaroughercuttingofthestoneblocksandthevarietyinthecolourofthestone.Butgenerallyspeaking,inGothicarchitecturethisparticularqualityof"dither"ortheplayoflifeinallthepartsisconspicuous,thebalancebeingonthesideofvarietyratherthanunity.Theindividualworkmanwasgivenalargeamountoffreedomandallowedtoexercisehispersonalfancy.Thecapitalsofcolumns,thecuspingofwindows,andtheornamentswereseldomrepeated,butvariedaccordingtothetasteofthecraftsman.Veryhighfinishwas
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seldomattempted,themarksofthechiseloftenbeingleftshowinginthestonework.AllthisgaveawarmthandexuberanceoflifetoafineGothicbuildingthatmakesaclassicalbuildinglookcoldbycomparison.ThefreedomwithwhichnewpartswerebuiltontoaGothicbuildingisanotherproofofthefactthatitisnotintheconceptionoftheunityofthewholethattheirchiefcharmconsists.
Ontheotherhand,afineclassicbuildingistheresultofonelargeconceptiontowhicheveryparthasrigorouslytoconform.Anyadditiontothisinafteryearsisusuallydisastrous.Ahighfinishisalwaysattempted,notoolmarksnoranyindividualityofthecraftsmanisallowedtomartheperfectsymmetryofthewhole.Itmaybecolder,buthowperfectinsublimity!Thebalancehereisonthesideofunityratherthanvariety.
ThestrengthandsublimityofNormanarchitectureisduetotheuseofcircularcurvesinthearches,combinedwithstraightlinesandtheuseofsquareformsintheornaments--linespossessedofleastvariety.
Allobjectswithwhichoneassociatesthelookofstrengthwillbefoundtohavestraightlinesintheircomposition.Thelookofstrengthinastrongmanisduetothesquarelinesofthecontours,sodifferentfromtheroundedformsofafatman.Andeveryoneknowsthelookofmentalpowerasquareforeheadgivestoaheadandthelookofphysical
powerexpressedbyasquarejaw.Thelookofpowerinarockylandscapeorrangeofhillsisduetothesamecause.
[Illustration:PlateXXXII.
WhentheAlmightywasyetwithme,whenmychildrenwereaboutme.(_PlateII,Blake'sJob_)
WithdreamsuponmybedThouscarestme,andaffrightestmewithvisions.(_PlateXI,Blake'sJob_)
Printedthewrongwayupinordertoshowthatthelookofhorrorisnotsolelydependentonthethingsrepresentedbutbelongsto
therhythm,thepatternofthecomposition.
AndmyservantJobshallprayforyou.(_PlateXVIII,Blake'sJob_)
Whenthemorning-starssangtogether,andallthesonsofGodshoutedforjoy.(_PlateXIV,Blake'sJob_)]
[Sidenote:TheHorizontalandtheVertical]
Thehorizontalandtheverticalaretwoveryimportantlines,thehorizontalbeingassociatedwithcalmandcontemplationandtheverticalwithafeelingofelevation.Aswassaidabove,theirrelationtothesidesofthecompositiontowhichtheyareparallelinrectangular
picturesisofgreatimportanceinunitingthesubjecttoitsboundinglinesandgivingitawell-knitlook,conveyingafeelingofgreatstabilitytoapicture.
Howimpressiveandsuggestiveofcontemplationisthelonglineofthehorizononacalmdayatsea,orthelong,horizontallineofadesertplain!Thelackofvariety,withalltheenergyandvitalitythataccompanyit,givesoneasenseofpeaceandrest,atouchofinfinitythatnootherlinescanconvey.Thehorizontallineswhichthebreezemakesonstillwater,andwhichtheskyoftenassumesatsunset,affect
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usfromthesameharmoniccause.
Thestonepineandthecypressaretypicalinstancesofthesublimeassociatedwiththeverticalinnature.Evenafactorychimneyrisingaboveadistanttown,inspiteofitsunpleasantassociations,isimpressive,nottospeakofthebeautifulspiresofsomeofourGothiccathedrals,pointingupwards.HowwellConstablehasusedtheverticalsublimityofthespireofSalisburyCathedralcanbeseeninhispicture,attheVictoriaandAlbertMuseum,wherehehascontrasteditwiththegaytraceryofanarchofelmtrees.Gothiccathedralsgenerallydependmuchonthisverticalfeelingoflinefortheirimpressiveness.
TheRomansknewtheexpressivepoweroftheverticalwhentheysetupalonelycolumnasamonumenttosomegreatdeedorperson.Andasenseofthissublimitymaybeanunconsciousexplanationofthecrazeforputtingtowersandobelisksonhighplacesthatonecomesacrossindifferentpartsofthecountry,usuallycalledsomeone's"folly."
Intheaccompanyingdiagrams,A,B,CandD,E,F,pages152[TranscribersNote:DiagramX]and153[TranscribersNote:DiagramXI],areexamplesoftheinfluencetobeassociatedwiththehorizontalandverticallines.Aisnothingbutsixstraightlinesdrawnacrossarectangularshape,andyetIthinktheyconveysomethingofthe
contemplativeandpeacefulsensegivenbyasunsetovertheseaonacalmevening.Andthisisentirelyduetotheexpressivepowerstraightlinespossess,andthefeelingstheyhavethepowertocallupinthemind.InBalittlemoreincidentandvarietyhasbeenintroduced,andalthoughthereisacertainlossofcalm,itisnotyetenoughtodestroytheimpression.Thelinesuggestingafigureisverticalandsoplaysuptothesamecalmfeelingasthehorizontallines.Thecirculardiscofthesunhasthesamestaticquality,beingthecurvemostdevoidofvariety.Itisthelinesofthecloudsthatgivesomeexcitement,buttheyareonlyenoughtosuggestthedyingenergyofdepartingday.
Nowletusbutbendthefigureinaslightcurve,asatC,anddestroyitsverticaldirection,partlycoverthediscofthesunsoasto
destroythecompletecircle,andallthisisimmediatelyaltered,ourcalmeveninghasbecomeawindyone,ourlinesnowbeingexpressiveofsomeenergy.
[Illustration:PLATEXXXIII.
FÃTECHAMPÃTRE.GIORGIONI(LOUVRE)
Notethestraightlineintroducedinseatedfemalefigurewithflutetocounteractrichforms.]
Totakeasimilarinstancewithverticallines.LetDrepresentarowofpinetreesinawideplain.Suchlinesconveyasenseofexaltationand
infinitecalm.Nowifsomefoliageisintroduced,asatE,givingaswingingline,andifthisswinginglineiscarriedonbyacorrespondingoneinthesky,wehaveintroducedsomelifeandvariety.Ifweentirelydestroytheverticalfeelingandbendourtrees,asatF,theexpressionofmuchenergywillbetheresult,andafeelingofthestressandstruggleoftheelementsintroducedwheretherewasperfectcalm.
Itisthealoofnessofstraightlinesfromallthefussandflurryofvarietythatgivesthemthiscalm,infiniteexpression.Andtheirvalue
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asasteadyinginfluenceamongthemoreexuberantformsofacompositionisverygreat.TheVenetiansknewthisandmadegreatuseofstraightlinesamongthericherformstheysodelightedin.
ItisinterestingtonotehowGiorgioneinhis"FêteChampêtre"oftheLouvre(seeillustration,page151[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXIII]),wentoutofhiswaytogetastraightlinetosteadyhispictureandcontrastwiththecurves.Notwantingitinthelandscape,hehasboldlymadethecontouroftheseatedfemaleconformtoarigidstraightline,accentuatedstillfurtherbythefluteinherhand.Ifitwerenotforthisandotherstraightlinesinthepicture,andacertainsquarenessofdrawinginthedraperies,therichnessofthetreesinthebackground,thefullformsofthefleshanddraperywouldbetoomuch,andtheeffectbecomesickly,ifnotpositivelysweet.VanDyck,also,usedtogooutofhiswaytointroduceahardstraightlineneartheheadinhisportraitsforthesamereason,oftenendingabruptly,withoutanyapparentreason,adarkbackgroundinahardline,andshowingadistantlandscapebeyondinordertogetalightmasstoaccentuatethestraightline.
[Illustration:DiagramX.
ILLUSTRATING,A,CALMRHYTHMICINFLUENCEOFHORIZONTALLINESSUCHASASUNSETOVERTHESEAMIGHTGIVE;B,INTRODUCTIONOFLINESCONVEYINGSOME
ENERGY;C,SHOWINGDESTRUCTIONOFREPOSEBYFURTHERCURVINGOFLINES.THECALMEVENINGHASBECOMEAWINDYONE.]
[Illustration:DiagramXI.
ILLUSTRATING,D,RHYTHMICINFLUENCEOFVERTICALLINES;E,THEINTRODUCTIONOFSOMEVARIETY;F,THEDESTRUCTIONOFTHEVERTICALANDCONSEQUENTLOSSOFREPOSE.]
Therichmodellingandswinginglinesofthe"BacchusandAriadne"ofTitianintheNationalGallery,herereproduced,page154[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXIV],wouldbetoogross,wereitnotforthesteadyinginfluenceofthehorizontallinesintheskyandtheverticallinesof
thetree-trunks.
Whilespeakingofthispicture,itmightnotbeoutofplacetomentionanideathatoccurredtomeastothereasonforthesomewhataggressivestandinglegofthefemalefigurewiththecymbalsleadingtheprocessionofrevellers.Iwillnotattemptanyanalysisofthiscomposition,whichisablygoneintoinanotherbookofthisseries.Butthestandinglegofthisfigure,givensuchprominenceinthecomposition,hasalwaysratherpuzzledme.IknewTitianwouldnothavegivenitthatvigorousstandwithoutagoodreason.Itcertainlydoesnothelptherunofthecomposition,althoughitmaybeusefulinsteadyingit,anditisnotaparticularlybeautifulthinginitself,asthepositionisonebettersuitedtoaman'slegthantoawoman's.But
ifyoucoveritoverwithyourfingerandlookatthecompositionwithoutit,Ithinkthereasonofitsprominencebecomesplainer.Titianevidentlyhadsometrouble,aswellhemighthave,withtheforwardlegoftheBacchus.Hewishedtogivethelookofhissteppingfromthecarlightlytreadingtheair,asgodsmaybepermittedtodo.Butthewheelofthecarthatcomesbehindthefootmadeitdifficulttoevadetheideathathewassteppingonit,whichwouldbethewayanordinarymortalwouldalight.IthinkthedutyoftheaggressivestandinglegoftheleadingBacchante,withitsgreatlookofweight,istogivealookoflightnesstothisforwardlegofBacchus,bycontrast--whichit
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certainlydoes.Onexaminingthepicturecloselyinagoodlight,youwillseethathehashadthefootofBacchusinseveralpositionsbeforehegotitright.Anotherfootcandistinctlybeseenaboutacoupleofinchesorsoabovethepresentone.Thegeneralverticaldirectionofthislegisalsoagainstitslookoflightnessandmotion,tendingrathertogiveitastationary,staticlook.Icouldnotatfirstseewhyhedidnotbringthefootfurthertotheright,whichwouldhaveaidedthelightnessofthefigureandincreaseditsmovement.Butyouwillobservethatthiswouldhavehurledthewholeweightofthemassoffiguresontheright,forwardontothesinglefigureofAriadne,andupsetthebalance;asyoucanseebycoveringthislegwithyourfingerandimaginingitswingingtotheright.SothatTitian,havingtoretaintheverticalpositionforBacchus'forwardleg,usedtheaggressivestandinglegofthecymballadytoaccentuateitsspringandlightness.
[Illustration:PlateXXXIV.
BACCHUSANDARIADNE.TITIAN
_PhotoHanfstaengl_]
Afeelingofstraight-up-nessinafigureorofthehorizontalplaneinanythingwillproducethesameeffectasaverticalorhorizontallinewithoutanyactuallinebeingvisible.Blake's"MorningStarsSinging
Together"isaninstanceoftheverticalchord,althoughthereisnoactualuprightlineinthefigures.Buttheyallhaveavigorousstraight-up-nessthatgivesthemthefeelingofpeaceandelevationcoupledwithaflame-likelinerunningthroughthemthatgivesthemtheirjoyousenergy.
[Illustration:DiagramXII.
A,B,C]
[Sidenote:TheRightAngle]
Thecombinationoftheverticalwiththehorizontalproducesoneofthe
strongestandmostarrestingchordsthatyoucanmake,anditwillbefoundtoexistinmostpicturesanddrawingswherethereistheexpressionofdramaticpower.Thecrossisthetypicalexampleofthis.Itisacombinationoflinesthatinstantlyrivetstheattention,andhasprobablyamorepowerfuleffectuponthemind--quiteapartfromanythingsymbolisedbyit--thananyothersimplecombinationsthatcouldhavebeendevised.Howpowerfulistheeffectofaverticalfigure,orevenapost,seencuttingthelonghorizontallineofthehorizononthesea-shore.Oratelegraphpostbythesideoftheroad,seenagainstthelonghorizontallineofahillatsunset.Thelookofpowergivenbytheverticallinesofacontractedbrowisduetothesamecause.Theverticalfurrowsofthebrowcontinuingthelinesofthenose,makeacontinuousverticalwhichthehorizontallinesofthebrowcross(see
Fig.Aintheillustration).Thesamecausegivestheprofileapowerfullookwhentheeyebrowsmakeahorizontallinecontrastingwiththeverticallineoftheforehead(Fig.B).Everybodyknowsthelookofpowerassociatedwithasquarebrow:itisnotthatthesquareforeheadgivesthelookofalargerbraincapacity,foriftheforeheadprotrudesinacurvedline,asatC,thelookofpowerislost,althoughthereisobviouslymoreroomforbrains.
ThispoweroftherightangleiswellexemplifiedinWatts'"LoveandDeath,"herereproduced,page158[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXV].In
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thisnoblecomposition,inthewriter'sopiniononeofthemostsublimeexpressionsproducedbynineteenth-centuryart,theirresistiblepowerandmajestyoftheslowlyadvancingfigureofDeathislargelyduetotherightanglefeltthroughthepose.Notgettingitinthecontour,Wattshasboldlyintroduceditbymeansofshadingthefartherarmandinsistingonthelightupperedgeoftheoutstretchedarmandhand,whilelosingsomewhatthe,outlineoftheheadbeyond.Notealsothelookofpowertheinsistenceonsquareformsinthedraperygivesthisfigure.Theexpressionisstillfurtheremphasisedbythehardsquareformsofthesteps,andparticularlybythestronghorizontallineofthefirststepsoinsistedon,atrightanglestotheverticalstandofthefigure;andalsotheuprightlinesofthedoorwayabove.IncontrastwiththeawfulsublimityofthisfigureofDeath,howtouchingistheexpressionofthelittlefigureofLove,tryingvainlytostoptheinevitableadvance.Andthisexpressionisduetothecurvedlinesonwhichtheactionofthefigureishung,andthesoftundulatingformsofitsmodelling.WhereasthefigureofDeathisallsquarelinesandflatcrispplanes,thewholehangingonadramaticrightangle;thisfigureisallsubtlefullnessbothofcontourandmodellingmeltingoneintotheother,thewholehunguponarichfullcurvestartingatthestandingfootoftheadvancingfigure.AndwhereastheexpressionofDeathissupportedandemphasisedbythehard,squareformsandtextureofthestonesteps,theexpressionofLoveissupportedandemphasisedbytheroundedformsandsofttextureoftheclusteringroses.Onthis
contrastoflineandform,soinsympathywiththeprofoundsentimenttowhichthispictureowesitsorigin,theexpressivepowerofthiscompositionwillbefoundtodepend.
[Illustration:DiagramXIII.
ILLUSTRATINGSOMEOFTHELINESONWHICHTHERHYTHMICPOWEROFTHISPICTUREDEPENDS.]
[Illustration:PlateXXXV.
LOVEANDDEATH.BYG.F.WATTS
Anoblecomposition,foundedonthepoweroftherightangleinthefigureofDeath,incontrastwiththecurvedlinesinthefigureofLove.(Seediagramopposite.)
_PhotoHollyer_]
InthediagramaccompanyingthereproductionofthispictureIhavetriedtoindicateindiagrammaticalformsomeofthechieflinesofitsanatomy.
Inthesediagramsoftheanatomyofcompositionsthelinesselectedarenotalwaysveryobviousintheoriginalsandarejustlymuchbrokenintobytruthsofnaturalappearance.Butanemotionalsignificancedepending
onsomearrangementofabstractlinesistobefoundunderlyingtheexpressionineverygoodpicture,carefullyhiddenasitisbyallgreatartists.Andalthoughsomeapologyisperhapsnecessaryfortheuglinessofthesediagrams,itisanuglinessthatattendsallanatomydrawings.Ifthestudentwilltracethemandputhistracingoverthereproductionsoftheoriginals,theywillhelphimtoseeonwhatthingsinthearrangementtherhythmicforceofthepicturedepends.
Otherlines,asimportantasthoseselected,mayhavebeenoverlooked,buttheoneschosenwillsufficetoshowthegeneralcharacterofthem
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all.
*****
Thereisoneconditioninacomposition,thatislaiddownbeforeyoubegin,andthatistheshapeofyourpanelorcanvas.Thisisusuallyarectangularform,andallthelinesofyourdesignwillhavetobeconsideredinrelationtothisshape.Verticalandhorizontallinesbeingparalleltotheboundariesofrectangularpictures,arealwaysrightandimmediatelysetuparelationship,aswehaveseen.
Thearrestingpoweroftherightangleexistsateachcornerofarectangularpicture,wheretheverticalsidesmeetthehorizontalbase,andthispresentsadifficulty,becauseyoudonotwishthespectator'sattentiondrawntothecorners,andthisdramaticcombinationoflinesalwaysattractstheeye.Afavouritewayofgettingridofthisistofillthemwithsomedarkmass,orwithlinesswingingroundandcarryingtheeyepastthem,sothattheattentioniscontinuallyswungtothecentreofthepicture.Forlineshaveapowerofdirectingtheattention,theeyeinstinctivelyrunningwiththem,andthispowerisofthegreatestserviceindirectingthespectatortotheprincipalinterest.
Itisthistroublewiththecornersthatmakestheproblemoffillinga
squaresoexacting.Inanordinaryrectangularpanelyouhaveacertainamountoffreespaceinthemiddle,andthedifficultyoffillingthecornerscomfortablydoesnotpresentitselfuntilthisspaceisarrangedfor.Butinasquare,themomentyouleavethecentreyouareinoneorotherofthecorners,andthefillingofthemgovernstheproblemmuchmorethaninthecaseofothershapes.Itisagoodexerciseforstudentstogivethemselvesasquaretofill,inordertounderstandthisdifficultyandlearntoovercomeit.
Otherlinesthatpossessadirectrelationtoarectangularshapearethediagonals.Manycompositionsthatdonothangonaverticalorhorizontalbasisarebuiltonthisline,andarethusrelatedtotheboundingshape.
[Illustration:PlateXXXVI.
THESURRENDEROFBREDAVELAZQUEZ(PRADO)
_PhotoAnderson_]
Whenvertical,horizontal,ordiagonallinesarereferredto,itmustnotbeassumedthatonemeansinallcasesnakedlines.Thereisnopureverticallineinastonepineorcypresstree,norpurehorizontallineinastretchofcountry,butthewholeswingoftheirlinesisverticalorhorizontal.Andinthesameway,whenonespeaksofacompositionbeinghunguponadiagonal,itisseldomthatanaked
diagonallineexistsinthecomposition,butthegeneralswingisacrossthepanelinharmonywithoneorotherdiagonal.Andwhenthisisso,thereisaunitysetupbetweenthedesignanditsboundaries.Agoodinstanceofvertical,horizontal,anddiagonallinestouniteapictureisVelazquez's"TheSurrenderofBreda,"herereproduced.Notetheverticalchordinthespearsontheleft,continuedinthelegofthehorseandfrontlegofthefigurereceivingthekey,andthehorizontallinemadebythedarkmassofdistantcity,tobecontinuedbytheguncarriedovertheshoulderofthefigurewiththeslouchhatbehindtheprincipalgroup.Velazquezhasgoneoutofhiswaytogetthisline,as
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itcouldhardlyhavebeenthefashiontocarryaguninthisposition,pointingstraightattheheadofthemanbehind.Horizontallinesalsooccurintheskyanddistantlandscape,onerunningrightthroughthegroupofspears.Theuseofthediagonalisanotherremarkablethinginthelinesofthispicture.Ifyouplacearulerontheslantinglineoftheflagbehindthehorse'sheadtotheright,youfinditisexactlyparalleltoadiagonaldrawnfromthetopright-handcornertothelowerleft-handcorner.Anotherlinepracticallyparalleltothisdiagonalisthelineoftheswordbelongingtothefigureofferingthekey,thefeelingofwhichiscontinuedinthehandandkeyofthissamefigure.Itmaybenotedalsothatthebackrightlegofthehorseinthefrontisparalleltotheotherdiagonal,theundersideofitbeingactuallyonthediagonalandthusbroughtintorelationwiththeboundinglinesofthepicture.Andalltheselines,withouttheartificebeingtooapparent,givethatwell-knit,dignifiedlooksoinharmonywiththenatureofthesubject.
[Sidenote:CurvedLines]
Curvedlineshavenotthemoralintegrityofstraightlines.Theirsisnotsomuchtoministertotheexpressionofthesublimeastowooustothebeauteousjoysofthesenses.Theyholdthesecretsofcharm.Butwithoutthesteadyingpowerofstraightlinesandflatnesses,curvesgetoutofhandandlosetheirpower.Inarchitecturetherococostyleisan
exampleofthisexcess.Whileallexpressionsofexuberantlifeandenergy,ofcharmandgracedependoncurvedlinesfortheireffect,yetintheirmostrefinedandbeautifulexpressiontheyerronthesideofthesquareformsratherthanthecircle.Whentheuncontrolleduseofcurvesapproachingthecircleandvoluteareindulgedin,unrestrainedbythesteadyinginfluenceofanystraightlines,theeffectisgross.Thefinestcurvesarefullofrestraint,andexcessivecurvatureisathingtobeavoidedingooddrawing.Werecognisethisintegrityofstraightlineswhenwesayanybodyis"anuprightman"oris"quitestraight,"wishingtoconveytheimpressionofmoralworth.
Rubenswasapainterwhogloriedintheunrestrainedexpressionofthezealtoliveanddrinkdeeplyoflife,andgloriousasmuchofhiswork
is,andwonderfulasitallis,theexcessiveuseofcurvesandroundedformsinhislaterworkrobsitofmuchofitspowerandoffendsusbyitsgrossness.Hisbestworkisfullofsquarerdrawingandplanes.
#Alwaysbeonthelookoutforstraightnessesincurvedformsandforplanesinyourmodelling.#
Letustakeoursimplestformofcompositionagain,astretchofseaandsky,andapplycurvedlineswhereweformerlyhadstraightlines.YouwillseehowthelinesatA,page164[TranscribersNote:DiagramXIV],althoughbutslightlycurved,expresssomeenergy,wherethestraightlinesofourformerdiagramexpressedrepose,andthenhowinBandCtheincreasingcurvatureofthelinesincreasestheenergyexpressed,
untilinD,wherethelinessweeproundinonevigorousswirl,aperfecthurricaneisexpressed.Thislast,isroughlytherhythmicbasisofTurner's"HannibalCrossingtheAlps"intheTurnerGallery.
Oneofthesimplestandmostgracefulformsthetyinglinesofacompositionmaytakeisacontinuousflow,onelineevolvingoutofanotheringracefulsequence,thusleadingtheeyeonfromoneparttoanotherandcarryingtheattentiontotheprincipalinterests.
TwogoodinstancesofthisarrangementareBotticelli's"BirthofVenus"
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andthe"RapeofEuropa,"byPaoloVeronese,reproducedonpages166[TranscribersNote:DiagramXV,PlateXXXVII]and168[TranscribersNote:DiagramXVI,PlateXXXVIII].TheVenetianpicturedoesnotdependsomuchontheclarityofitslinebasisastheFlorentine.AnditisinterestingtonotehowmuchnearertothecurvesofthecirclethelinesofEuropaapproachthandothoseoftheVenuspicture.WerethesameprimitivetreatmentappliedtothelaterworkpaintedintheoilmediumashasbeenusedbyBotticelliinhistemperapicture,therobustnessofthecurveswouldhaveoffendedandbeentoogrossforthesimpleformula;whereasoverlaidandhiddenundersucharichabundanceofnaturaltruthasitisinthisgorgeouspicture,wearetoomuchdistractedandentertainedbysuchwealthtohavetimetodwellonthepurityofthelinearrangementatitsbase.Andtherichfullnessoflinearrangement,althoughratherexcessive,seendetached,isinkeepingwiththesumptuousluxuriancetheVenetianlovedsowelltoexpress.ButforpurelinebeautythegreaterrestraintofthecurvesinBotticelli'spictureisinfinitelymoresatisfying,thoughherewehavenotanythinglikethesamewealthandrichnessofnaturalappearancetoengageourattention,andtheinnocentsimplicityofthetechniqueleavesmuchmoreexposedthestructureoflines,whichinconsequenceplayagreaterpartintheeffectofthepicture.
[Illustration:DiagramXIV.
ILLUSTRATINGPOWEROFCURVEDLINESTOCONVEYENERGY.A,B,C,D.][Illustration:DiagramXV.
ILLUSTRATINGTHEFLOWOFLINESONWHICHTHERHYTHMICUNITYOFTHISPICTUREDEPENDS.]
[Illustration:PlateXXXVII.
THEBIRTHOFVENUS.BOTTICELLI(FLORENCE)
AbeautifulexampleofBotticelli'srefinedlinerhythm.(Seediagramonoppositepageforanalysis.)
_PhotoAnderson_]
Inbothcasesnotethewaythelinesleaduptotheprincipalsubject,andthesteadyingpowerintroducedbymeansofhorizontal,vertical,andotherstraightlines.Veronesehascontentedhimselfwithkeepingacertainhorizontalfeelinginthesky,culminatinginthestraightlinesofthehorizonandoftheseaedge.Andhehasalsointroducedtwopyramids,givingstraightlinesinamongthetrees,themostpronouncedofwhichleadstheeyestraightontotheprincipalhead.
Botticellihasfirstthelonglineofthehorizonechoedinthegroundattheright-handlowercorner.Andthenhehasmadeadeterminedstand
againsttheflowoflinescarryingyououtofthepictureontheright,byputtingstraight,uprighttreesandinsistingupontheirstraightness.
[Illustration:DiagramXVI.
ILLUSTRATINGSOMEOFTHEMAINLINESONWHICHTHERHYTHMICUNITYOFTHISPICTUREDEPENDS.]
[Illustration:PlateXXXVIII.
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THERAPEOFEUROPA.BYPAOLOVERONESE(VENICE)
Acompositionofrichfullformsandrichfullcolour.(Seethediagramonoppositepageforanalysisoflinerhythm.)
_PhotoAnderson_]
Anotherrhythmicformthelinesatthebasisofacompositionmaytakeisaflame-likeflowoflines;curvedlinesmeetingandpartingandmeetingagain,orevencrossinginonecontinualmovementonwards.AstrikinginstanceoftheuseofthisqualityistheworkoftheremarkableSpanishpainterusuallycalledElGreco,twoofwhoseworksarehereshown(page172[TranscribersNote:PlateXL]).Whatevermaybesaidbytheacademicallymindedastotheincorrectnessofhisdrawing,therecanbenotwoopinionsastotheremarkablerhythmicvitalityofhiswork.Theupwardflowofhislinesandtheflame-likeflickerofhislightmassesthrillsoneinmuchthesamewayaswatchingaflaringfire.Thereissomethingexaltingandstimulatinginit,although,usedtoexcessashesometimesusesit,itisapttosufferfromlackofrepose.Twoexamplesofhispicturesarereproducedhere,andillustratehisuseofthisformofmovementinthelinesandmassesofhiscompositions.Nowheredoeshelettheeyerest,butkeepsthesameflickeringmovementgoingthroughoutallhismassesandedges.The
extraordinarythingaboutthisremarkablepainteristhatwhilethisrestless,unrestrainedformofcompositionmakeshisworkakintotherococoworkofalaterperiod,thereisafieryearnestnessandsincerityinallhedoes,onlytobematchedamongtheprimitivepaintersofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,andverydifferentfromthefalsesentimentofthelaterschool.
Blakewasalsofondofthisflameline,butusuallyuseditincombinationwithmorestraightlinesthantheenergeticSpaniardallowedhimself.PlatesIIIandVintheJobseriesaregoodexamplesofhisuseofthisform.Inbothcasesitwillbeseenthatheusesitincombinationwiththesteadyinginfluenceofstraightlines,whichhelptokeepthebalanceandreposenecessaryinthetreatmentofeventhe
mostviolentsubjectsinart.
Acontinualinterruptionintheflowoflines,andaharshjarringofoneagainstanotherinanangular,jaggedfashion,producesafeelingofterrorandhorror.Astreakofforklightningisanaturalexampleofthis.TheplateofBlake'sNo.XI,p.148[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXII],reproducedhere,isalsoagoodexample.Ihavehaditputsidewaysonsothatyoumayseethatthelookofhorrorisnotonlyinthesubjectbutbelongstotheparticularmusicoflineinthepicture.Theeffectoftheharshcontrastsinthelinesisfurtheraddedtobytheharshcontrastsoftone:everywherehardlightsarebroughtupagainstharddarks.Harshcontrastsoftoneproducemuchthesamelookofterrorasharshcontrastsofline.Battlepicturesareusually,when
good,fulloftheseclashesoflineandtone,andthrillingdramaticeffectsinwhichatouchofhorrorentersareusuallyfoundedonthesameprinciple.InthepicturebyPaoloUccellointheNationalGallery,reproducedonpage170[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXIX],amildereditionofthiseffectisseen.Theartisthasbeenmoreinterestedinthepageantryofwarandadesiretoshowoffhisnewly-acquiredknowledgeofperspective,thananythingveryterrible.Thecontrastsoflineareherebutconfinedtothesmallerparts,andtherearenocontrastsoflightandshade,chiaroscuronotbeingyetinvented.However,itwillbeseenbytheaccompanyingdiagramhowconsistently
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theharshcontrastsoflinewerecarriedoutintheplanningofthispicture.Noticetheunconscioushumouroftheforeshortenedspearsandfigurecarefullyarrangedonthegroundtovanishtotherecentlydiscoveredvanishingpoint.
[Illustration:DiagramXVII.
SHOWINGTHECLASHOFLINESINSYMPATHYWITHTHEMARTIALNATUREOFTHISSUBJECT.]
[Illustration:PlateXXXIX.
BATTLEOFST.EGIDIO.PAOLOUCCELLO(NATIONALGALLERY)
Illustratingtheeffectofjarringlinesincomposition.(Seediagramonoppositepage.)
_PhotoMorelli_]
*****
Linesradiatinginsmoothcurvesfromacommoncentreareanotherformemployedtogiveunityinpictorialdesign.Thepointfromwhichtheyradiateneednotnecessarilybewithinthepicture,andisoften
considerablyoutsideit.Butthefeelingthattheywouldmeetifproducedgivesthemaunitythatbringsthemintoharmoniousrelationship.
Thereisalsoanotherpointaboutradiatinglines,andthatistheirpowerofsettinguparelationshipbetweenlinesotherwiseunrelated.Letustryandexplainthis.InPanelA,page174[TranscribersNote:DiagramXVIII],aredrawnsomelinesatrandom,withtheideaoftheirbeingaslittlerelatedtoeachotheraspossible.InB,bytheintroductionofradiatinglinesinsympathywiththem,theyhavebeenbroughtintosomesortofrelationship.Theline1-2hasbeenselectedasthedominatingline,andanassortmentofradiatingonesdrawnaboutit.Now,bydrawing7-8,wehavesetuparelationshipbetweenlines
3-4,5-6,and1-2,forthislineradiateswithallofthem.Line9-10accentuatesthisrelationshipwith1-2.Theothersechothesamething.Itisthisechoingoflinesthroughacompositionthatunitesthedifferentpartsandgivesunitytothewhole.
Thecrossingoflinesatanglesapproachingtherightangleisalwaysharshandsomewhatdiscordant,usefulwhenyouwanttodrawattentiondramaticallytoaparticularspot,buttobeavoidedorcoveredupatothertimes.Thereisanuglyclashofcrossinglinesinouroriginalscribble,andatCwehaveintroducedamasstocoverthisup,andalsotheanglesmadebyline3-4asitcrossestheradiatinglinesabove1-2.Withasmallmassat11tomakethebalanceright,youhaveabasisforacomposition,DiagramC,notatallunpleasinginarrangement,although
basedonagroupofdiscordantlinesdrawnatrandom,butbroughtintoharmonybymeansofsympatheticradiation.
[Illustration:PlateXL.
THEASCENSIONOFCHRIST.BYDOMINICOTHEOTOCOPULICALLEDELGRECO.
Notetheflame-likeformandflowofthelightmasses,andtheexaltedfeelingthisconveys.
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_PhotoAnderson_]
[Illustration:PlateXLI.
THEBAPTISMOFCHRIST.BYDOMINICOTHEOTOCOPULICALLEDELGRECO
Anotherexampleofhisrestless,flame-likecomposition.
_PhotoAnderson_]
InPanelDthesamegroupistaken,butthistimeline3-4isusedasthedominantone.Line7-8introduces3-4to1-2,asitisrelatedtoboth.Lines9-10and11-12introduce3-4to5-6,astheyarerelatedtoboth,andtheothersfollowonthesameprinciple.Byintroducingsomemassescoveringupthecrossings,arhythmicbasisforacomposition(DiagramE)entirelydifferentfromCisobtained,basedonthesamerandomgroup.
InPanelF,1-2hasbeentakenasthedominantline,andsympatheticlinesdrawnonthesameprincipleasbefore.Byagaincoveringthecrossingsandintroducingbalancingmassesweobtainyetanotherarrangementfromthesamerandomscribble.
Iwouldsuggestthisasanewgametostudents,onegivinganothertwo
orthreelinesdrawninapanelatrandom,theproblembeingtomakeharmoniousarrangementsbytheintroductionofothersradiatinginsympathy.
Ofteninapicturecertainconditionsarelaiddowntostartwith;somethingasuglyasouroriginalgroupoflinesdrawnatrandomhastobetreatedpictorially,anditisbymeanssuchasheresuggestedthatitsdiscordancycanbesubduedandthewholebroughtintoharmonywiththeshapeofyourpanel.Thesameprinciplesapplyincolour,discordantnotescanbebroughtintoharmonybytheintroductionofothersrelatedtoboththeoriginalcolours,thusleadingtheeyefromonetotheotherbyeasystagesanddestroyingtheshock.Somewhatinthewayamusicianwilltakeyoufromonekeyintoanotherveryremotebymeansofafew
chordsleadingfromtheonetotheother;whereas,hadhetakenyoustraightthere,theshockwouldhavebeenterrible.Asitis,thesetransitionsfromonekeyintoanotherpleaseandsurpriseone,andareveryeffective.
[Illustration:DiagramXVIII.
SHOWINGHOWLINESUNRELATEDCANBEBROUGHTINTOHARMONYBYTHEINTRODUCTIONOFOTHERSINSYMPATHYWITHTHEM.
A.LINESDRAWNATRANDOM.
B.TAKINGLINE1-2ASDOMINANTLINE.
C.ASATBBUTWITHADDITIONOFMASSESTOCOVERLINESCROSSINGANDRESTOREBALANCE
D.TAKINGLINE3-4ASDOMINANTLINE
E.ASATDBUTWITHADDITIONOFMASSESTOCOVERLINESCROSSINGANDGIVEBALANCE
F.TAKINGLINE5-6ASDOMINANTLINE
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G.ASATFBUTWITHMASSESTOCOVERLINESCROSSING&TOGIVEBALANCE]
[Illustration:DiagramXIX.
SHOWINGHOWLINESUNRELATEDCANBEBROUGHTINTOHARMONYBYTHEINTRODUCTIONOFOTHERSINSYMPATHYWITHTHEM.
H.LINESDRAWNATRANDOM.
I.LINESDRAWNATRANDOM.
J.ADDITIONALLINESDRAWNTORELATEORIGINALLINESANDBRINGTHEWHOLEINTOHARMONYTAKINGLINE1-2,ASDOMINANT.
K.ADDITIONALLINESDRAWNTORELATEORIGINALLINESTAKING1-2ASDOMINANT.
L.THESAMEASJWITHADDITIONOFMASSESTOCOVERCROSSINGOFLINES.
M.THESAMEASATKWITHADDITIONOFMASSESTOCOVERCROSSINGLINES.]
InH,Ihaveintroducedastraightlineintoourinitialscribble,andthissomewhatincreasesthedifficultiesofrelatingthem.Butby
drawing7-8and9-10radiatingfrom1-2,wehaveintroducedthisstraightlineto5-6.Foralthough5-6and9-10donotradiatefromthesamepoint,theyareobviouslyinsympathy.Itisonlyashortpartofthelineattheendmarked5thatisoutofsympathy,andhad5-6takenthecourseofthedottedline,itwouldhaveradiatedfromthesamepointas9-10.Westillhaveline3-4toaccountfor.Butbydrawing11-12webringitintorelationshipwith5-6,andsobystagesthrough9-10and7-8totheoriginalstraightline1-2.Line13-14,bybeingrelatedto3-4,11-12,andalso5-6,stillfurtherharmonisesthegroup,andtheremainderecho5-6andincreasethedominantswing.AtLmasseshavebeenintroduced,coveringcrossinglines,andwehaveabasisforacomposition.
InDiagramIlineshavebeendrawnasbefore,atrandom,buttwoofthemarestraightandatrightangles,thelongerbeingacrossthe-centreofthepanel.Thefirstthingtodoistotricktheeyeoutofknowingthatthislineisinthecentrebydrawingothersparalleltoit,leadingtheeyedownwardstoline9-10,whichisnowmuchmoreimportantthan1-2andinbetterproportionwiththeheightofthepanel.Theverticalline3-4isratherstarkandlonely,andsowe'introducetwomoreverticalsat11-12and13-14,whichmodifythis,andwithanothertwolinesinsympathywith5-6andleadingtheeyebacktothehorizontaltopofthepanel,somesortofunityissetup,theintroductionofsomemassescompletingtheschemeatM.
Thereisaqualityofsympathysetupbycertainlinerelationships
aboutwhichitisimportanttosaysomething.Ladieswhohavetheinstinctforchoosingahatordoingtheirhairtosuittheirfaceinstinctivelyknowsomethingofthis;knowthatcertainthingsintheirfaceareemphasisedbycertainformsintheirhatsorhair,andthecarethathastobetakentoseethatthethingsthusdrawnattentiontoaretheirbestandnottheirworstpoints.
Theprincipleismoregenerallyunderstoodinrelationtocolour;everybodyknowshowthebluenessofblueeyesisemphasisedbyasympatheticbluedressortouchofblueonahat,&c.Butthesame
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principleappliestolines.Thequalitiesoflineinbeautifuleyesandeyebrowsareemphasisedbythelongsympatheticcurveofapicturehat,andthebecomingeffectofanecklaceispartlyduetothesamecause,thelinesbeinginsympathywiththeeyesortheovaloftheface,accordingtohowloworhightheyhang.Theinfluenceoflonglinesisthusto"pickout"fromamongthelinesofafacethosewithwhichtheyareinsympathy,andthustoaccentuatethem.
Toillustratethis,onpage178[TranscribersNote:PlateXLII]isreproduced"ThePortraitoftheArtist'sDaughter,"bySirEdwardBurne-Jones.
Thetwothingsthatarebroughtoutbythelinearrangementinthisportraitarethebeautyoftheeyesandtheshapeoftheface.Insteadofthepicturehatyouhavethemirror,thewideningcirclesofwhichswingroundinsympathywiththeeyesandconcentratetheattentiononthem.Thatontheleft(lookingatthepicture)beingnearestthecentre,hasthegreatestattentionconcentrateduponit,thelinesofthemirrorbeingmoreinsympathywiththisthantheothereye,asitisnearerthecentre.Ifyoucaretotakethetrouble,cutaholeinapieceofopaquepaperthesizeoftheheadandplacingitovertheillustrationlookatthefacewithouttheinfluenceoftheseoutsidelines;andnotehowmuchmoreequallydividedtheattentionisbetweenthetwoeyeswithouttheemphasisgiventotheonebythemirror.This
helpstheunityofimpression,whichwithbotheyesrealisedtosointenseafocusmighthavesuffered.Thismirrorformsasortofechoofthepupiloftheeyewithitsreflectionofthewindowintheleft-handcornercorrespondingtothehighlight,greatlyhelpingthespelltheseeyeshold.
[Illustration:DiagramXX.
INDICATINGTHESYMPATHETICFLOWOFLINESTHATGIVEUNITYTOTHISCOMPOSITION.]
[Illustration:PlateXLII.
PORTRAITOFTHEARTIST'SDAUGHTERSIREDWARDBURNE-JONES,BART.
Anexampleofsympatheticrhythm.(Seediagramonoppositepage.)
_PhotoHollyer_]
Theotherformaccentuatedbythelinearrangementistheovaloftheface.Thereisthenecklacethelinesofwhichleadontothoseontherightinthereflection.Itisnomereaccidentthatthischainissoinsympathywiththelineoftheface:itwouldhardlyhaveremainedwhereitisforlong,andmusthavebeenputinthispositionbytheartistwiththeintention(consciousorinstinctive)ofaccentuatingthefaceline.Thelineofthereflectionontheleftandthelinesofthemirror
arealsosympathetic.Othersinthefoldsofthedress,andthoseformingthemassofthehandsandarms,echostillfurtherthislineofthefaceandbringthewholecanvasintointensesympatheticunityofexpression.
Theinfluencethatdifferentwaysofdoingthehairmayhaveonafaceisillustratedintheaccompanyingscribbles.Thetwoprofilesareexactlyalike--Itookgreattroubletomakethemso.Itisquiteremarkablethedifferencethetwowaysofdoingthehairmaketothelookofthefaces.TheupwardswingofthelinesinAsympathisewith
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thelineofthenoseandthesharperprojectionsofthefacegenerally(seedottedlines),whilethefulldownwardcurvesofBsympathisewiththefullercurvesofthefaceandparticularlyemphasisethefullnessunderthechinsodreadedbybeautypastitsfirstyouth(seedottedlines).Itisonlyaverysharply-cutfacethatcanstandthislowknotatthebackofthehead,inwhichcaseitisoneofthesimplestandmostbeautifulwaysofdoingthehair.Thehairdraggeduphighatthebacksharpensthelinesoftheprofileasthelowknotbluntsthem.
[Illustration:DiagramXXI.
ILLUSTRATINGTHEEFFECTONTHEFACEOFPUTTINGTHEHAIRUPATTHEBACK.HOWTHEUPWARDFLOWOFLINESACCENTUATESTHESHARPNESSESOFTHEFEATURES.]
[Illustration:DiagramXXII.
ILLUSTRATINGTHEEFFECTONTHESAMEFACEASDIAGRAMXXI,OFPUTTINGTHEHAIRLOWATTHEBACK.HOWTHEFULLERLINESTHUSGIVENACCENTUATETHEFULLNESSESOFTHEFEATURES.]
Theillustrationstothischapterhavebeendrawnindiagrammaticalforminordertotryandshowthatthemusicalqualityoflinesandtheemotionstheyarecapableofcallinguparenotdependentupontruthto
naturalformsbutareinherentinabstractarrangementsthemselves.Thatistosay,wheneveryougetcertainarrangementsoflines,nomatterwhattheobjectsinnaturemaybethatyieldthem,youwillalwaysgettheparticularemotionalstimulusbelongingtosucharrangements.Forinstance,wheneveryougetlonguninterruptedhorizontallinesrunningthroughapicturenotopposedbyanyviolentcontrast,youwillalwaysgetanimpressionofintensequietandrepose;nomatterwhetherthenaturalobjectsyieldingtheselinesareawidestretchofcountrywithlonghorizontalcloudsinthesky,apoolwithagentlebreezemakinghorizontalbarsonitssurface,orapileofwoodinatimberyard.Andwheneveryougetlongverticallinesinacomposition,nomatterwhetheritbeacathedralinterior,apineforest,orarowofscaffoldpoles,youwillalwayshavetheparticularfeelingassociatedwithrowsof
verticallinesintheabstract.Andfurther,wheneveryougettheswinginglinesofthevolute,animpressionofenergywillbeconveyed,nomatterwhetheritbeabreakingwave,rollingclouds,whirlingdust,oronlyamassoftangledhoopironinawheelwright'syard.Aswassaidabove,theseeffectsmaybegreatlyincreased,modified,orevendestroyedbyassociationsconnectedwiththethingsrepresented.Ifinpaintingthetimberyardtheartististhinkingmoreaboutmakingitlooklikeastackofrealwoodwithitscommercialassociationsandlessaboutusingtheartisticmaterialitsappearancepresentsforthemakingofapicture,hemaymisstheharmonicimpressionthelonglinesofthestacksofwoodpresent.Ifrealwoodisthefirstthingyouareledtothinkofinlookingathiswork,hewillobviouslyhavemissedtheexpressionofanyartisticfeelingthesubjectwascapableof
producing.Andthesamemaybesaidofthescaffoldpolesorthehoopironinthewheelwright'syard.
Thisstructureofabstractlinesatthebasisofapicturewillbemoreorlessoverlaidwiththetruthsofnature,andalltherichvarietyofnaturalforms,accordingtotherequirementsofthesubject.Thus,inlargedecorativework,wherethepaintinghastotakeitsplaceaspartofanarchitecturalscheme,theseverityofthisskeletonwillbenecessarytounitetheworktothearchitecturalformsaroundit,ofwhichithastoformapart;andverylittleindulgenceinthe
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realisationofnaturaltruthshouldbepermittedtoobscureit.Butinthepaintingofasmallcabinetpicturethatexistsforcloseinspection,thesupportingpowerofthislinebasisisnotnearlysoessential,andafullindulgenceinalltherichvarietyofnaturaldetailispermissible.Andthisishowithappensthatpainterswhohavegloriedinrichdetailshavealwayspaintedsmallpictures,andpainterswhohavepreferredlargertruthspicturesofbiggerdimensions.Itsoundsratherparadoxicaltosaythesmallerthepicturethemoredetailitshouldcontain,andthelargertheless,butitisneverthelesstrue.Foralthoughalargepicturehasnotofnecessitygottobepartofanarchitecturalscheme,ithastobelookedatfromadistanceatwhichsmalldetailcouldnotbeseen,andwheresuchdetailwouldgreatlyweakenitsexpressivepower.Andfurther,thesmallpictureeasilycomeswithinthefieldofvision,andthewholeimpressioncanbereadilygraspedwithoutthemainlinesbeing,asitwere,underlined.Butinabigpictureoneofthegreatestdifficultiesistogetittoreadsimply,tostriketheeyeasoneimpression.Itssizemakingitdifficultforittobegotcomfortablywithinthefieldofvision,everyartificehastobeusedtogiveit"breadthoftreatment,"asitiscalled,andnothinginterfereswiththislikedetail.
XIIIVARIETYOFMASS
Themassesthatgotomakeupapicturehavevarietyintheir#shape#,their#tonevalues#,their#edges#,in#texture#_or_#quality#,andin#gradation#.Quiteaformidablelist,buteachoftheseparticularshassomerhythmicqualityofitsownaboutwhichitwillbenecessarytosayaword.
[Sidenote:VarietyofShape.]
Astovarietyofshape,manythingsthatweresaidaboutlinesapplyequallytothespacesenclosedbythem.Itisimpossibletowriteoftherhythmicpossibilitiesthattheinfinitevarietyofshapespossessedbynaturalobjectscontain,excepttopointouthownecessarythestudyofnatureisforthis.Varietyofshapeisoneofthemostdifficultthingstoinvent,andoneofthecommonestthingsinnature.Howeverimaginativeyourconception,andnomatterhowfaryoumaycarryyourdesign,workingfromimagination,therewillcomeatimewhenstudiesfromnaturewillbenecessaryifyourworkistohavethevarietythatwillgivelifeandinterest.Tryanddrawfromimaginationarowofelmtreesofaboutthesameheightanddistanceapart,andgetthevarietyofnatureintothem;andyouwillseehowdifficultitistoinvent.Onexaminingyourworkyouwillprobablydiscovertwoorthreepetforms
repeated,ortheremaybeonlyone.Ortryanddrawsomecumuluscloudsfromimagination,severalgroupsofthemacrossasky,andyouwillfindhowoftenagainyouhaverepeatedunconsciouslythesameforms.Howtiredonegetsofthepetcloudortreeofapainterwhodoesnotoftenconsultnatureinhispictures.Natureisthegreatstorehouseofvariety;evenapieceofcoalwillsuggestmoreinterestingrock-formsthanyoucaninvent.Anditisfascinatingtowatchtheinfinitevarietyofgracefulformsassumedbythecurlingsmokefromacigarette,fullofsuggestionsforbeautifullinearrangements.Ifthisvarietyofforminyourworkisallowedtobecomeexcessiveitwilloverpowertheunityof
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yourconception.Itisinthelargerunityofyourcompositionthattheimaginativefacultywillbewanted,andvarietyinyourformsshouldalwaysbesubordinatedtothisidea.
Naturedoesnotsoreadilysuggestaschemeofunity,forthesimplereasonthatthefirstconditionofyourpicture,thefourboundinglines,doesnotexistinnature.Youmaygetinfinitesuggestionsforarrangements,andshouldalwaysbeonthelookoutforthem,butyourimaginationwillhavetorelatethemtotherigorousconditionsofyourfourboundinglines,andnaturedoesnothelpyoumuchhere.Butwhenvarietyintheformsiswanted,sheispre-eminent,anditisneveradvisabletowasteinventivepowerwhereitissounnecessary.
Butalthoughnaturedoesnotreadilysuggestadesignfittingtheconditionsofapanelhertendencyisalwaystowardsunityofarrangement.Ifyoutakeabunchofflowersorleavesandhaphazardstuffthemintoavaseofwater,youwillprobablygetaverychaoticarrangement.Butifyouleaveitforsometimeandletnaturehaveachanceyouwillfindthattheleavesandflowershavearrangedthemselvesmuchmoreharmoniously.Andifyoucutdownoneofagroupoftrees,whataharshdiscordantgapisusuallyleft;butintimenaturewill,bythrowingaboughhereandfillingupagapthere,asfaraspossiblerectifymattersandbringallintounityagain.Iampreparedtobetoldthishasnothingtodowithbeautybutisonlytheresultof
nature'sattemptstoseekforlightandair.Butwhateverbethephysicalcause,thefactisthesame,thatnature'slawstendtopictorialunityofarrangement.
[Sidenote:VarietyofToneValues]
Itwillbeaswelltotryandexplainwhatismeantbytonevalues.Allthemassesortones(forthetermsareoftenusedinterchangeably)thatgotothemakingofavisualimpressioncanbeconsideredinrelationtoanimaginedscalefromwhite,torepresentthelightest,toblack,torepresentthedarkesttones.Thisscaleofvaluesdoesnotrefertolightandshadeonly,butlightandshade,colour,andthewholevisualimpressionareconsideredasonemosaicofmassesofdifferentdegrees
ofdarknessorlightness.Adarkobjectinstronglightmaybelighterthanawhiteobjectinshadow,orthereverse:itwilldependontheamountofreflectedlight.Colouronlymattersinsofarasitaffectsthepositionofthemassinthisimaginedscaleofblackandwhite.Thecorrectobservationofthesetonevaluesisamostimportantmatter,andoneofnolittledifficulty.
Thewordtoneisusedintwosenses,inthefirstplacewhenreferringtotheindividualmassesastotheirrelationsinthescaleof"tonevalues";andsecondlywhenreferringtothemusicalrelationshipofthesevaluestoaonenessoftoneideagoverningthewholeimpression.Inverymuchthesamewayyoumightrefertoasinglenoteinmusicasatone,andalsotothetoneofthewholeorchestra.Thewordvalues
alwaysreferstotherelationshipoftheindividualmassesortonesinourimaginedscalefromblacktowhite.Wesayapictureisoutofvalueoroutoftonewhensomeofthevaluesaredarkerorlighterthanoursenseofharmonyfeelstheyshouldbe,inthesamewayasweshouldsayaninstrumentinanorchestrawasoutoftoneortunewhenitwashigherorlowerthanoursenseofharmonyallowed.Toneissointimatelyassociatedwiththecolourofapicturethatitisalittledifficulttotreatofitapart,anditisoftenusedinasensetoincludecolourinspeakingofthegeneraltone.Wesayithasawarmtoneoracoldtone.
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Thereisaparticularrhythmicbeautyaboutawell-orderedarrangementoftonevaluesthatisaveryimportantpartofpictorialdesign.Thismusicoftonehasbeenpresentinartinarudimentarywaysincetheearliesttime,buthasrecentlyreceivedamuchgreateramountofattention,andmuchnewlightonthesubjecthasbeengivenbytheimpressionistmovementandthestudyoftheartofChinaandJapan,whichisnearlyalwaysverybeautifulinthisrespect.
#Thisqualityoftonemusicismostdominantwhenthemassesarelargeandsimple#,whenthecontemplationofthemisnotdisturbedbymuchvariety,andtheyhavelittlevariationoftextureandgradation.Aslightmistwilloftenimprovethetoneofalandscapeforthisreason.Itsimplifiesthetones,massesthemtogether,obliteratingmanysmallervarieties.Ihaveevenheardofthetoneofapicturebeingimprovedbysuchamistscrambledorglazedoverit.
[Illustration:PlateXLIII.
MONTESOLAROCAPRI
Studyonbrownpaperincharcoalandwhitechalk.]
Thepowderonalady'sface,whennotover-done,isanimprovementforthesamereason.Itsimplifiesthetonesbydestroyingthedistressing
shininglightsthatwerecuttingupthemasses;anditalsodestroysalargeamountofhalftone,broadeningthelightsalmostuptothecommencementoftheshadows.
#Tonerelationshipsaremostsympatheticwhenthemiddlevaluesofyourscaleonlyareused,thatistosay,whenthelightsarelowintoneandthedarkshigh.#
#Theyaremostdramaticandintensewhenthecontrastsaregreatandthejumpsfromdarktolightsudden.#
Thesympatheticcharmofhalf-lighteffectsisduelargelytothetonesbeingofthismiddlerangeonly;whereasthestrikingdramaticeffectof
astormclearing,inwhichyoumaygetalandscapebrilliantlylitbythesuddenappearanceofthesun,seenagainstthedarkcloudsoftheretreatingstorm,owesmuchofitsdramaticqualitytocontrast.Thestrongcontrastsoftonevaluescoupledwiththestrongcolourcontrastbetweenthewarmsunlitlandandthecoldangryblueofthestorm,givessuchascenemuchdramaticeffectandpower.
Thesubjectofvalueswillbefurthertreatedindealingwithunityoftone.
[Sidenote:VarietyinQualityandTexture]
Varietyinqualityandnatureisalmosttoosubtletowriteaboutwith
anyprospectofbeingunderstood.Theplayofdifferentqualitiesandtexturesinthemassesthatgotoformapicturemustbeappreciatedatfirsthand,andlittlecanbewrittenaboutit.Oilpaintiscapableofalmostunlimitedvarietyinthisway.Butitisbettertoleavethestudyofsuchqualitiesuntilyouhavemasteredthemediuminitsmoresimpleaspects.
Theparticulartonemusicofwhichwewerespeakingisnothelpedbyanygreatuseofthisvariety.Aonenessofqualitythroughouttheworkisbestsuitedtoexhibitit.Mastersoftone,likeWhistler,preservethis
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onenessofqualityverycarefullyintheirwork,relyingchieflyonthegrainofaroughcanvastogivethenecessaryvarietyandpreventadeadnessinthequalityofthetones.
Butwhenmoreforceandbrilliancyarewanted,someuseofyourpaintinacrumbling,brokenmannerisnecessary,asitcatchesmorelight,thusincreasingtheforceoftheimpression.ClaudeMonetandhisfollowersintheirsearchforbrilliancyusedthisqualitythroughoutmanyoftheirpaintings,withnewandstrikingresults.Butitisatthesacrificeofmanybeautifulqualitiesofform,asthisroughnessofsurfacedoesnotlenditselfreadilytoanyfinesseofmodelling.InthecaseofClaudeMonet'swork,however,thisdoesnotmatter,asformwithallitssubtletiesisnotathinghemadeanyattemptatexploiting.Natureissufficientlyvastforbeautifulworktobedoneinseparatedepartmentsofvision,althoughonecannotplacesuchworkonthesameplanewithsuccessfulpicturesofwiderscope.Andtheparticularvisualbeautyofsparklinglightandatmosphere,ofwhichhewasoneofthefirsttomakeaseparatestudy,couldhardlyexistinaworkthataimedalsoatthesignificanceofbeautifulform,theappealofform,aswasexplainedinanearlierchapter,notbeingentirelyduetoavisualbuttoamentalperception,intowhichthesenseoftouchentersbyassociation.Thescintillationandglitteroflightdestroysthistouchidea,whichisbetterpreservedinquieterlightings.
Thereisanotherpointinconnectionwiththeuseofthickpaint,thatIdon'tthinkissufficientlywellknown,andthatis,itsgreaterreadinesstobediscolouredbytheoilinitscompositioncomingtothesurface.FifteenyearsagoIdidwhatitwouldbeadvisableforeverystudenttodoassoonaspossible,namely,makeachartofthecoloursheislikelytouse.Getagoodwhitecanvas,andsetuponitincolumnsthedifferentcolours,verymuchasyouwoulddoonyourpalette,writingthenamesininkbesidethem.Thentakeapalette-knife,anivoryonebypreference,anddragitfromtheindividualmassesofpaintsoastogetagradationofdifferentthicknesses,fromthethinnestpossiblelayerwhereyourknifeendstothethickmasswhereitwassqueezedoutofthetube.Itisalsoadvisabletohavepreviouslyruledsomepencillineswithahardpointdownthecanvasinsuchamanner
thatthestripsofpaintwillcrossthelines.Thischartwillbeofthegreatestvaluetoyouinnotingtheeffectoftimeonpaint.Tomakeitmorecomplete,thecoloursofseveralmakersshouldbeputdown,andatanyratethewhitesofseveraldifferentmakesshouldbeonit.Aswhiteenterssolargelyintoyourpaintingitishighlynecessarytouseonethatdoesnotchange.
ThetwothingsthatIhavenoticedarethatthethinendsofthestripsofwhitehaveinvariablykeptwhiterthanthethickend,andthatallthepaintshavebecomealittlemoretransparentwithtime.Thepencillinesherecomeinuseful,astheycanbeseenthroughthethinnerportion,andshowtowhatextentthistransparencyhasoccurred.ButthepointIwishtoemphasiseisthatatthethickendthelargerbody
ofoilinthepaint,whichalwayscomestothesurfaceasitdries,hasdarkenedandyellowedthesurfacegreatly;whilethesmallamountofoilatthethinendhasnotdarkenedittoanyextent.
ClaudeMonetevidentlyknewthis,andgotoverthedifficultybypaintingonanabsorbentcanvas,whichsucksthesurplusoiloutfrombelowandthuspreventsitscomingtothesurfaceanddiscolouringtheworkintime.Whenthisthickmannerofpaintingisadopted,anabsorbentcanvasshouldalwaysbeused.Italsohastheadvantageofgivingadulldrysurfaceofmorebrilliancythanashinyone.
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Althoughnotsomuchaswithpainting,varietiesoftextureenterintodrawingsdonewithanyofthemediumsthatlendthemselvestomassdrawing;charcoal,contécrayon,lithographicchalk,andevenredchalkandleadpencilarecapableofgivingavarietyoftextures,governedlargelybythesurfaceofthepaperused.Butthisismoretheprovinceofpaintingthanofdrawingproper,andcharcoal,whichismorepaintingthandrawing,istheonlymediuminwhichitcanbeusedwithmucheffect.
[Sidenote:VarietyofEdges.]
Thereisaverybeautifulrhythmicqualityintheplayfromsoftnesstosharpnessontheedgesofmasses.Amonotonoussharpnessofedgeishard,stern,andunsympathetic.Thisisausefulqualityattimes,particularlyindecorativework,wherethemoreintimatesympatheticqualitiesarenotsomuchwanted,andwheretheharderformsgobetterwiththearchitecturalsurroundingsofwhichyourpainteddecorationshouldformapart.Ontheotherhand,amonotonoussoftnessofedgeisveryweakandfeeble-looking,andtooentirelylackinginpowertobedesirable.Ifyoufindanysuccessfulworkdonewiththisqualityofedgeunrelievedbyanysharpnesses,itwilldependoncolour,andnotform,foranyqualitiesitmaypossess.
Someamountofsoftnessmakesforcharm,andisextremelypopular:"#Ido#likethatbecauseit'ssoniceandsoft"isaregularshow-dayremarkinthestudio,andisalwaysmeantasagreatcompliment,butisseldomtakenassuchbythesufferingpainter.Butabalanceofthesetwoqualitiesplayingaboutyourcontoursproducesthemostdelightfulresults,andtheartistisalwaysonthelookoutforsuchvariations.Heseldomletsasharpnessofedgerunfarwithoutlosingitoccasionally.Itmaybenecessaryforthehangofthecompositionthatsomeleadingedgesshouldbemuchinsistedon.Butevenhereamonotonoussharpnessistoodeadathing,andalthoughafirmnessofrunwillbeallowedtobefelt,subtlevariationswillbeintroducedtopreventdeadness.TheVenetiansfromGiorgione'stimeweregreatmastersofthismusicofedges.Thestructureoflinessurroundingthemasseson
whichtheircompositionsarebuiltwerefusedinthemostmysteriousanddelightfulway.Butalthoughmeltingintothesurroundingmass,theyarealwaysfirmandneversoftandfeeble.StudytheedgeinsuchagoodexampleoftheVenetianmannerasthe"BacchusandAriadne"attheNationalGallery,andnotewheretheyarehardandwherelost.
ThereisoneratherremarkablefacttobeobservedinthispictureandmanyVenetianworks,andthisisthatthe#mostaccentededgesarereservedforunessentialparts#,likethepieceofwhitedraperyonthelowerarmofthegirlwiththecymbals,andthelittlewhiteflowerontheboy'sheadinfront.Theedgesonthefleshareeverywherefusedandsoft,thedraperiesbeingmuchsharper.YoumaynoticethesamethinginmanypicturesofthelaterVenetianschools.Thegreatestaccentsonthe
edgesarerarelyinthehead,exceptitmaybeoccasionallyintheeyes.Buttheylovetogetsomestrongly-accentedfeature,suchasacrisply-paintedshirtcomingagainstthesoftmodellingoftheneck,tobalancethefusededgesintheflesh.IntheheadofPhilipIVinourNationalGallerytheonlyplacewhereVelazquezhasallowedhimselfanythinglikeasharpedgeisinthehighlightsonthechainhangingroundtheneck.Thesofteredgesoftheprincipalfeaturesinthesecompositionslendalargenessandmysterytotheseparts,andtorestorethebalance,sharpnessesareintroducedinnon-essentialaccessories.
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InthefigurewiththewhitetunicfromVelazquez's"SurrenderofBreda,"herereproduced,notethewonderfulvarietyontheedgesofthewhitemassesofthecoatandthehorse'snose,andalsothatthesharpestaccentsarereservedforsuchnon-essentialsasthebowsonthetunicandtheloosehaironthehorse'sforehead.Velazquez'sedgesarewonderful,andcannotbetoocarefullystudied.Heworkedlargelyinflattonesorplanes;butthisrichnessandvarietyofhisedgeskeepshisworkfromlookingflatanddull,likethatofsomeofhisfollowers.Iamsorrytosaythisvarietydoesnotcomeoutsowellinthereproductiononpage194[TranscribersNote:PlateXLIV]asIcouldhavewished,thehalf-toneprocesshavingatendencytosharpenedgesrathermonotonously.
Thisqualityiseverywheretobefoundinnature.Ifyouregardanyscenepictorially,lookingatitasawholeandnotlettingyoureyefocusonindividualobjectswanderingfromonetoanotherwhilebeingbutdimlyconsciousofthewhole,butregardingitasabeautifulensemble;youwillfindthattheboundariesofthemassesarenothardcontinuousedgesbutplaycontinuallyalongtheircourse,heremeltingimperceptiblyintothesurroundingmass,andthereaccentuatedmoresharply.Evenalongcontinuousline,likethehorizonatsea,hassomeamountofthisplay,whichyoushouldalwaysbeonthelookoutfor.Butwhenthepartsonlyofnatureareregardedandeachisseparatelyfocussed,hardedgeswillbefoundtoexistalmosteverywhere,unless
thereisapositivemistenvelopingtheobjects.Andthisistheusualwayoflookingatthings.Butapicturethatisacatalogueofmanylittlepartsseparatelyfocussedwillnothangtogetherasonevisualimpression.
[Illustration:PlateXLIV.
PARTOFTHESURRENDEROFBREDA.BYVELAZQUEZ
Notethevariedquantityoftheedgeinwhitemassoftunic.(Thereproductiondoesnotunfortunatelyshowthisaswellastheoriginal.)
_PhotoAnderson_]
Innaturalisticworkthenecessityforpaintingtoonefocalimpressionisasgreatasthenecessityofpaintingintrueperspective.Whatperspectivehasdonefordrawing,theimpressionistsystemofpaintingtooneall-embracingfocushasdonefortone.Beforeperspectivewasintroduced,eachindividualobjectinapicturewasdrawnwithaseparatecentreofvisionfixedoneachobjectinturn.Whatperspectivedidwastoinsistthatallobjectsinapictureshouldbedrawninrelationtoonefixedcentreofvision.Andwhereasformerlyeachobjectwaspaintedtoahardfocus,whetheritwasintheforegroundorthedistance,impressionismteachesthatyoucannothavethefocusinapictureatthesametimeontheforegroundandthedistance.
Ofcoursetherearemanymannersofpaintingwithmoreprimitiveconventionsinwhichtheconsiderationoffocusdoesnotenter.Butinallpaintingthataimsatreproducingtheimpressionsdirectlyproducedinusbynaturalappearances,thisquestionoffocusanditsinfluenceonthequalityofyouredgesisofgreatimportance.
Somethingshouldbesaidabouttheserratededgesofmasses,likethoseoftreesseenagainstthesky.Theseareverydifficulttotreat,andalmosteverylandscapepainterhasadifferentformula.Thehard,fussy,cut-out,photographicappearanceoftreesmissesalltheirbeautyand
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sublimity.
Therearethreeprincipaltypesoftreatmentthatmayserveasexamples.InthefirstplacetherearethetreesoftheearlyItalianpainters,threeexamplesofwhichareillustratedonpage197[TranscribersNote:DiagramXXIII].Athintreeisalwaysselected,andarhythmicpatternofleavesagainsttheskypainted.Thistreatmentofadarkpatternonalightgroundisveryusefulasacontrasttothesoftertonesofflesh.Butthetreatmentismoreoftenappliednowadaystoasprayoffoliageintheforeground,thepatternofwhichgivesaveryricheffect.ThepoplartreesinMillais'"ValeofRest"arepaintedinmuchthesamemannerasthatemployedbytheItalians,andareexceptionalamongmoderntreepaintings,thetreesbeingtreatedasapatternofleavesagainstthesky.MillaishasalsogotaraisedqualityofpaintinhisdarksverysimilartothatofBelliniandmanyearlypainters.
Giorgioneaddedanothertreetolandscapeart:therich,full,solidly-massedformsthatoccurinhis"ConcertChampêtre"oftheLouvre,reproducedonpage151[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXIII].Inthispictureyoumayseebothtypesoftreatment.Therearethepatternsofleavesvarietyontheleftandthesolidly-massedtreatmentontheright.
[Illustration:DiagramXXIII.
EXAMPLESOFEARLYITALIANTREATMENTOFTREES
A.FrompicturesinOratoriodiS.Ansano."Iltrionfodell'Amore,"attributedtoBotticelli.
B.From"L'Annunziazione,"byBotticelli,Uffizi,Florence.
C.From"LaVergine,"byGiovanniBelliniintheAccademia,Venice.]
Corotinhislaterworkdevelopedatreatmentthathasbeenlargelyfollowedsince.Lookingattreeswithaverywidefocus,heignoredindividualleaves,andresolvedthemintomassesoftone,herelostand
herefoundmoresharplyagainstthesky.Thesubordinatemassesoffoliagewithinthesemainboundariesaretreatedinthesameway,resolvedintomassesofinfinitelyvaryingedges.Thisplay,thislost-and-foundnessathisedgesisoneofthegreatdistinguishingcharmsofCorot'strees.Whentheyhavebeenpaintedfromthismasspointofview,asuggestionofafewleaveshereandaboughtheremaybeindicated,comingsharplyagainstthesky,butyouwillfindthisbasisoftonemusic,thiscrescendoanddiminuendothroughoutallhislaterwork(seeillustration,page215[TranscribersNote:DiagramXXVI]).
Thesearethreeofthemoreextremetypesoftreestobemetwithinart,butthevariationsonthesetypesareverynumerous.Whatever
treatmentyouadopt,thetreemustbeconsideredasawhole,andsomerhythmicformrelatedtothislargeimpressionselected.Andthisappliestoallformswithserratededges:somelargeordermustbefoundtowhichthefussinessoftheedgesmustconform.
Thesubjectofedgesgenerallyisaveryimportantone,andonemuchmoreworriedoverbyamasterthanbytheaveragestudent.Itisinterestingtonotehowallthegreatpaintershavebegunwithahardmanner,withedgesoflittlevariety,fromwhichtheyhavegraduallydevelopedaloosermanner,learningtomasterthedifficultiesofdesign
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thathardcontoursinsistonyourfacing,andonlywhenthisisthoroughlymasteredlettingthemselvesdevelopfreelythisplayontheedges,thislooserhandling.
Forunderthefreestpainting,ifitbegood,therewillbefoundabed-rockstructureofwell-constructedmassesandlines.Theymayneverbeinsistedon,buttheirsteadyinginfluencewillalwaysbefelt.Soerrinyourstudentworkonthesideofhardnessratherthanlooseness,ifyouwoulddisciplineyourselftodesignyourworkwell.Occasionallyonlyletyourselfgoatalooserhandling.
[Sidenote:VarietyofGradiation.]
Varietyofgradationwillnaturallybegovernedlargelybytheformandlightandshadeoftheobjectsinyourcomposition.Butwhilestudyingthegradationsoftonethatexpressformandgivethemodelling,youshouldneverneglecttokeepthemindfixedupontherelationthepartyouarepaintingbearstothewholepicture.Andnothingshouldbedonethatisoutofharmonywiththislargeconception.Itisoneofthemostdifficultthingstodecidetheamountofvarietyandemphasisallowableforthesmallerpartsofapicture,soastobringallinharmonywiththatonenessofimpressionthatshoulddominatethewhole;howmuchofyourscaleofvaluesitispermissibletouseforthemodellingofeachindividualpart.Inthebestworkthegreatesteconomyisexercisedin
thisrespect,sothatasmuchpowermaybekeptinreserveaspossible.Youhaveonlytheonescalefromblacktowhitetoworkwith,onlyoneoctavewithinthelimitsofwhichtocomposeyourtonesymphonies.Therearenohigherandloweroctavesasinmusictoextendyoureffect.Sobeverysparingwithyourtonevalueswhenmodellingthedifferentparts.
XIV
UNITYOFMASS
Whathasbeensaidaboutunityoflineappliesobviouslytotheoutlinesboundingthemasses,sothatweneednotsayanythingfurtheronthatsubject.Theparticularqualityofwhichsomethingshouldbesaid,istheunitythatisgiventoapicturebymeansofawell-arrangedandrhythmicallyconsideredschemeoftonevalues.
Themodificationsintherelativetonevaluesofobjectsseenunderdifferentaspectsoflightandatmosphereareinfiniteandevervarying;andthisisquiteaspecialstudyinitself.Natureisthegreatteacherhere,hertonearrangementsalwayspossessingunity.Howkindtotheeyeisherattempttocovertheuglinessofourgreattownsinanenvelopeofatmosphere,givingthemostwonderfultonesymphonies;thususing
man'sdesecrationofherairbysmoketocoveruphisotherdesecrationofhercountry-side,amanufacturingtown.Thisstudyofvaluesisadistinguishingfeatureofmodernart.
Butschemestakenfromnaturearenottheonlyharmoniousones.Theoldermasterswerecontentwithoneortwowell-triedarrangementsoftoneintheirpictures,whichwereoftennotatalltruetonaturalappearancesbutneverthelessharmonious.Thechiefinstanceofthisisthelow-tonedsky.Thepaintingoffleshhigherintonethantheskywasalmostuniversalatmanyperiodsofart,andinportraitsisstill
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oftenseen.Yetitisonlyinstrongsunlightthatthisiseversoinnature,asyoucaneasilyseebyholdingyourhandupagainstaskybackground.Thepossibleexceptiontothisruleisadarkstorm-cloud,inwhichcaseyourhandwouldhavetobestronglylitbysomebrightlightinanotherpartoftheskytoappearlightagainstit.
Thishightoneoftheskyisaconsiderabledifficultywhenonewishestheinterestcentredonthefigures.Theeyeinstinctivelygoestothelightmassesinapicture,andifthesemassesaresky,thefigureslosesomeimportance.Thefashionofloweringitstonehasmuchtobesaidforitonthescoreoftheaddedinterestitgivestothefigures.Butitisapttobringaheavystuffylookintotheatmosphere,andisonlyreallyadmissibleinfranklyconventionaltreatment,inwhichonehasnotbeenledtoexpectimplicittruthtonaturaleffect.Iftruthtonaturalappearancesiscarriedfarinthefigures,thesametruthwillbeexpectedinthebackground;butifonlycertaintruthsareselectedinthefigures,andthetreatmentdoesnotapproachthenaturalistic,muchmorelibertycanbetakenwiththebackgroundwithoutlossofverisimilitude.
Butthereisaunityaboutnature'stonearrangementsthatitisverydifficulttoimproveupon;anditisusuallyadvisable,ifyoucan,tobasetheschemeoftoneinyourpictureonagoodstudyofvaluesfromnature.
Sucheffectsastwilight,moonlight,orevensunlightwereseldomattemptedbytheolderpainters,atanyrateintheirfiguresubjects.Allthelovelytonearrangementsthatnaturepresentsinthesemoreunusualaspectsareanewstudy,andofferunlimitednewmaterialtotheartist.Manyartistsarecontenttousethissimplyforitself,thebeautyofararetoneeffectbeingsufficientwiththesimplestaccessoriestomakeapicture.Butinfigurecomposition,whatnewandwonderfulthingscanbeimaginedinwhichsomerareaspectofnature'stone-musiciscombinedwithafinefiguredesign.
Thesevaluesarenoteasilyperceivedwithaccuracy,althoughtheirinfluencemaybefeltbymany.Atrueeyefortheaccurateperceptionof
subtletonearrangementsisathingyoushouldstudyverydiligentlytoacquire.Howthenisthistobedone?Itisverydifficult,ifnotimpossible,toteachanybodytosee.Littlemorecanbesaidthanhasalreadybeenwrittenaboutthissubjectinthechapteronvarietyinmass.Everymasshastobeconsideredinrelationtoanimaginedtonescale,takingblackforyourdarkestandwhiteforyourhighestlightaswehaveseen.Ablackglass,byreducingthelight,enablesyoutoobservetheserelationshipsmoreaccurately;thedazzlingqualityofstronglightmakingitdifficulttojudgethem.Butthisshouldonlybeusedtocorrectone'seye,andthecomparisonshouldbemadebetweennatureseenintheglassandyourworkseenalsointheglass.Tolookinablackglassandthencomparewhatyousawwithyourworklookedatdirectisnotafaircomparison,andwillresultinlow-tonedworkwith
littlebrilliancy.
Now,torepresentthisscaleoftonesinpaintingwehavewhitepaintasourhighestandblackpaintasourlowestnotes.Itisneveradvisabletoplayeitheroftheseextremes,althoughyoumaygoveryneartothem.Thatistosay,thereshouldneverbepurewhiteorpureblackmassesinapicture.Thereisakindofscreaminesssetupwhenonegoesthewholegamutoftone,thatgivesalookofunrestraintandweakness;somewhatlikethefeelingexperiencedwhenavocalistsingshisorherveryhighestorverylowestnote.Inagoodsingeronealwaysfeelshe
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couldhavegonestillhigherorstilllower,asthecasemaybe,andthisgivesanaddedpowertotheimpressionofhissinging.Andinart,likewise,itisalwaysadvisabletokeepsomethingofthisreservepower.Also,thehighestlightsinnatureareneverwithoutcolour,andthiswilllowerthetone;neitherarethedeepestdarkscolourless,andthiswillraisetheirtone.Butperhapsthisisdogmatising,anditmaybethatbeautifulworkistobedonewithalltheextremesyoucan"clapon,"thoughIthinkitveryunlikely.
Inallthequieteraspectsoflightingthisrangefromblacktowhitepaintissufficient.Butwherestrong,brilliantlyliteffectsarewanted,somethinghastobesacrificed,ifthislookofbrilliancyistobemadetelling.
Inordertoincreasetherelationshipbetweensomeofthetonesothersmustbesacrificed.Therearetwowaysofdoingthis.Thefirst,whichwasthemethodearliestadopted,istobeginfromthelightendofthescale,and,takingsomethingverynearpurewhiteasyourhighestlight,togettherelationshipsbetweenthisandthenextmostbrillianttone,andtoproceedthus,tonebytone,fromthelightesttothedarkest.Butworkinginthiswayyouwillfindthatyouarriveatthegreatestdarkyoucanmakeinpaintbeforeyouhavecompletedthescaleofrelationshipsasinnature,ifthesubjecthappenstobebrilliantlylit.Anothermethodistoputdownthehighestlightandthedarkest
dark,andthenworkyourscaleoftonerelativelybetweenthem.Butitwillbefoundthatworkinginthisway,unlessthesubjectinnatureisveryquietlylit,youwillnotgetanythingliketheforcefulimpressionoftonethatnaturegives.
Thethirdway,andthisisthemoremodern,istobeginfromthedarkendofthescale,gettingthetruerelationshipfeltbetweenthegreatestdarkandthenextdarkesttonetoit,andsoon,proceedingtowardsthelight.Bythismethodyouwillarriveatyourhighestlightinpaintbeforethehighestlightinnaturehasbeenreached.Allvarietyoftoneatthelightendofthescalewillhavetobemodifiedinthiscase,insteadofatthedarkendasintheothercase.Inthepaintingofsunlightthelattermethodismuchthemoreeffective,a
lookofgreatbrilliancyandlightbeingproduced,whereasintheearliermethod,thescalebeingcommencedfromthelightend,somuchofthepicturewasdarkthattheimpressionoflightandairwaslostandadarkgloomylandtookitsplace,agloomaccentuatedratherthandispelledbythestreaksofluridlightwherethesunstruck.
Rembrandtisanexampleofbeginningthetonerelationshipsfromthelightsideofthescale,andalargepartofhiscanvasisinconsequencealwaysdark.
BastienLepageisanexampleofthesecondmethod,thatoffixingupontwoextremesandworking-relativelybetweenthem.Anditwillbenoticedthatheconfinedhimselfchieflytoquietgreydayeffectsoflighting,
therenderingofwhichwaswellwithintherangeofhispalette.Themethodofbeginningfromthedarkside,gettingthetruerelationsoftonesonthissideofthescale,andlettingthelightstakecareofthemselves,wasperhapsfirstusedbyTurner.Butitislargelyusednowwheneverastrongimpressionoflightisdesired.Thelightmassesinsteadofthedarkmassesdominatethepictures,whichhavegreatbrilliancy.
Thesetonevaluesareonlytobeperceivedintheirtruerelationshipbytheeyecontemplatingawidefieldofvision.Withtheordinaryhabitof
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lookingonlyatindividualpartsofnature,thegeneralimpressionbeingbutdimlyfelt,theyarenotobserved.Theartisthastoacquirethehabitofgeneralisinghisvisualattentionoverawidefieldifhewouldperceivethetruerelationofthepartstothisscaleofvalues.Halfclosingtheeyes,whichistheusualmethodofdoingthis,destroystheperceptionofagreatdealofcolour.Anothermethodofthrowingtheeyesoutoffocusandenablingonetojudgeoflargerelationships,istodilatethemwidely.Thisratherincreasesthandiminishesthecolour,butisnotsosafeamethodofjudgingsubtletonerelationships.
Itiseasierinapproachingthisstudyoutofdoorstobeginwithquieteffectsoflight.Someofthosesoftgreydaysinthiscountryareverybeautifulintone,andchangesolittlethatcarefulstudiescanbemade.Andwithindoorwork,placeyoursubjectratherawayfromthedirectlightandavoidmuchlightandshade;letthelightcomefrombehindyou.
Ifverystronglighteffects,suchassunlight,oradarkinteriorlitbyonebrilliantwindow,areattempted,thevalueswillbefoundtobemuchsimplerandmoreharsh,oftenresolvingthemselvesintotwomasses,abrilliantlightcontrastedwithadarkshadow.Thistonearrangementofstronglightincontrastwithdarkshadowwasafavouriteformulawithmanyschoolsofthepast,sinceLeonardodaVincifirstusedit.Greatbreadthandsplendourisgivenbyittodesign,anditis
oneofthemostimpressiveoftonearrangements.LeonardodaVinci's"OurLadyoftheRocks,"intheNationalGallery,isanearlyexampleofthistreatment.AndCorreggio's"Venus,Mercury,andCupid,"herereproduced,isanotherparticularlyfineexample.Reynoldsandmanyoftheeighteenth-centurymenusedthisschemeintheirworkalmostentirely.Thisstronglightandshade,byeliminatingtoalargeextentthehalftones,helpstopreserveinhighlycompleteworkasimplicityanddirectnessofstatementthatisverypowerful.Forcertainimpressionsitprobablywillneverbebettered,butitisaverywell-wornconvention.Manetamongthemodernshasgivennewlifetothisformula,althoughhedidnotderivehisinspirationdirectlyfromCorreggiobutthroughtheSpanishschool.Byworkinginastrong,ratherglaring,directlight,heeliminatedstillfurtherthehalftones,and
gotridtoagreatextentoflightandshade.Comingatatimewhentherealisticandplainairmovementsweredestroyingsimpledirectness,hisworkwasofgreatvalue,bringingback,asitdidwithitsinsistenceonlarge,simplemasses,asenseoffrankdesign.Hisinfluencehasbeenverygreatinrecentyears,asartistshavefeltthatitofferedanewformulafordesignandcolour.Lightandshadeandhalftonearethegreatenemiesofcolour,sullying,astheydo,itspurity;andtosomeextenttodesignalso,destroying,astheydo,theflatnessofthepicture.Butwiththestrongdirectlight,themassesarecutoutassimplyaspossible,andtheircolourislittlesulliedbylightandshade.ThepictureofManet'sreproducedisatypicalexampleofhismanner.Theaggressiveshapeofthepatternmadebythelightmassagainstthedarkbackgroundistypicalofhisrevolutionaryattitude
towardsallacceptedcanonsofbeauty.Butevenhereitisinterestingtonotethatmanyprinciplesofcompositionareconformedto.Thedesignisunitedtoitsboundariesbythehorizontallineofthecouchandtheverticallineofthescreenattheback,whilethewholeswinghangsonthediagonalfromtopleft-handcornertoright;lowercorner,towhichthestronglymarkededgeofthebed-clothesandpillowatthebottomofthepictureisparallel.
[Illustration:PlateXLV.
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CORREGGIO.VENUS.MERCURY,ANDCUPID(NATIONALGALLERY)
Afineexampleofoneofthemosteffectivetonearrangements;abrilliantly-lit,richly-modelledlightmassonadarkbackground.
_PhotoHanfstaengl_]
Largeflattonesgiveapowerandsimplicitytoadesign,andalargenessandbreadthofexpressionthatareveryvaluable,besidesshowingupeverylittlevarietyinthevaluesusedforyourmodelling;andthusenablingyoutomodelwiththeleastexpenditureoftones.Whateverrichnessofvariationyoumayultimatelydesiretoaddtoyourvalues,seetoitthatinplanningyourpictureyougetagoodbasicstructureofsimplydesigned,andasfaraspossibleflat,tones.
Inspeakingofvarietyinmasswesawhowthe#nearerthesetonesareinthescaleofvalues,themorereservedandquiettheimpressioncreated#,andthe#furtherapartorgreaterthecontrast,themoredramaticandintensetheeffect#.Andthesentimentoftoneinapicture,likethesentimentoflineandcolour,shouldbeinharmonywiththenatureofyoursubject.
Generallyspeaking#morevarietyoftoneandshapeinthemassesofyourcompositionispermissiblewhenasmallerrangeofvaluesisused
thanwhenyoursubjectdemandsstrongcontrasts#.Whenstrongcontrastsoftoneorwhatarecalledblackandwhiteeffectsaredesired,themassesmustbeverysimplydesigned.Werethisnotso,andwerethecompositionpatternedalloverwithsmallermassesinstrongcontrast,thebreadthandunityoftheeffectwouldbelost.Whilewhenthedifferenceofrelativevaluesbetweenonetoneandanotherisslight,theonenessofeffectisnotsomuchinterferedwithbytherebeingalargenumberofthem.Effectsofstrongcontrastsarethereforefarthemostdifficulttomanage,asitisnoteasytoreduceacompositionofanycomplexitytoasimpleexpressivepatternoflargemasses.
Thisprincipleappliesalsointhematterofcolour.Greatercontrastsandvarietyofcolourmaybeindulgedinwherethemiddlerangeonlyof
tonesisused,andwherethereislittletonecontrast,thanwherethereisgreatcontrast.Inotherwords,youcannotwithmuchhopeofsuccesshavestrongcontrastsofcolourandstrongcontrastsoftoneinthesamepicture:itistooviolent.
Ifyouhavestrongcontrastsofcolour,thecontrastsoftonebetweenthemmustbesmall.TheJapaneseandChineseoftenmakethemostsuccessfuluseofviolentcontrastsofcolourbybeingcarefulthattheyshallbeofthesametonevalue.
Andagain,whereyouhavestrongcontrastsoftone,suchasRembrandtwasfondof,youcannotsuccessfullyhavestrongcontrastsofcolouraswell.Reynolds,whowasfondbothofcolourandstrongtonecontrast,
hadtocompromise,ashetellsusinhislectures,bymakingtheshadowsallthesamebrowncolour,tokeepaharmonyinhiswork.
[Illustration:PlateXLVI.
OLYMPIA.MANET(Louvre)
AfurtherdevelopmentofthecompositionformulaillustratedbyCorreggio's"Venus".Addedforceisgivenbylightingwithlowdirectlighteliminationhalf-tones.
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_PhotoNeurdein_]
Thereissomeanalogybetweenstraightlinesandflattones,andcurvedlinesandgradatedtones.Andagreatdealthatwassaidabouttherhythmicsignificanceoftheselineswillapplyequallywellhere.Whatwassaidaboutlongverticalandhorizontallinesconveyingalookofreposeandtouchingtheseriousemotionalnotes,canbesaidoflargeflattones.Thefeelingofinfinitysuggestedbyawideblueskywithoutacloud,seenaboveawidebareplain,isanobviousinstanceofthis.Andforthesameharmoniccause,acalmeveninghassopeacefulandinfiniteanexpression.Thewaninglightdarkensthelandandincreasesthecontrastbetweenitandthesky,withtheresultthatallthelandscapetowardsthewestisreducedtopracticallyonedarktone,cuttingsharplyagainstthewidelightofthesky.
Andthegracefulcharmofcurvedlinesswinginginharmoniousrhythmthroughacompositionhasitsanalogyingradatedtones.WatteauandGainsborough,thosemastersofcharm,knewthis,andintheirmostalluringcompositionsthetone-musicisfoundedonaprincipleoftone-gradations,swingingandinterlacingwitheachotherinharmoniousrhythmthroughoutthecomposition.Large,flattones,withtheirmorethoughtfulassociationsareoutofplacehere,andareseldomifeverused.Intheirworkweseeaworldwherethesaddeninginfluencesof
profoundthoughtanditsexpressionarefaraway.Nodeepernotesareallowedtomarthegaietyofthisholidayworld.Watteaucreatedadreamcountryofhisown,inwhichatiredhumanityhasdelightedeversince,inwhichallseriousthoughtsarefarawayandthemindtakesrefreshmentinthecontemplationofdelightfulthings.Andagreatdealofthischarmisduetotheprettyplayfromacrescendotoadiminuendointhetonevaluesonwhichhiscompositionsarebased--sofarremovedfromthesimplestructureofflatmassestowhichmoreprimitiveandaustereartowesitspower.
[Illustration:DiagramXXIV.
SHOWINGTHEPRINCIPLEONWHICHTHEMASSORTONERHYTHMOFTHE
COMPOSITIONREPRODUCEDONTHEOPPOSITEPAGEISARRANGED]
[Illustration:PlateXLVII.
L'EMBARQUEMENTPOURCYTHÃRE.WATTEAU(LOUVRE)
Atypicalexampleofcompositionfoundedongradatedtones.(Seeanalysisonoppositepage.)
_PhotoHanfstaengl_]
ButWatteau'sgreataccomplishmentwasindoingthiswithoutdegeneratingintofeebleprettiness,andthishedidbyaninsistenceon
characterinhisfigures,particularlyhismen.Hisdraperiesalsoarealwaysbeautifullydrawnandfullofvariety,neverfeebleandcharacterless.Thelandscapebackgroundsaremuchmorelackinginthisrespect,nothingeverhappenedthere,nostormshaveeverbenthisgracefultree-trunks,andtheincessantgradationsmighteasilybecomewearisome.Butpossiblythecharminwhichwedelightwouldbelost,didthelandscapepossessmorecharacter.Atanyratethereisenoughinthefigurestopreventanysicklyprettiness,althoughIthinkifyouremovedthefiguresthelandscapewouldnotbetolerable.
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ButthefollowersofWatteauseizedupontheprettinessandgraduallygotoutoftouchwiththecharacter,andifyoucompareBoucher'sheads,particularlyhismen'sheads,withWatteau'syoumayseehowmuchhasbeenlost.
Thefollowingarethreeexamplesofthisgradatedtonecomposition(seepages210[TranscribersNote:DiagramXXIV],213[TranscribersNote:DiagramXXV],215[TranscribersNote:DiagramXXVI]):
Watteau:"EmbarquementpourL'ÃledeCythère."
ThisisatypicalWatteaucomposition,foundedonarhythmicplayofgradatedtonesandgradatededges.Flattonesandhardedgesareavoided.Beginningatthecentreofthetopwithastronglyaccentednoteofcontrast,thedarktoneofthemassoftreesgradatesintothegroundandonpastthelowerright-handcorneracrossthefrontofthepicture,until,whennearingthelowerleft-handcorner,itreversestheprocessandfromdarktolightbeginsgradatinglighttodark,endingsomewhatsharplyagainsttheskyintherockformtotheleft.Therichplayoftonethatisintroducedinthetreesandground,&c.,blindsoneatfirsttotheperceptionofthislargertonemotive,butwithoutittherichvarietywouldnotholdtogether.Roughlyspeakingthewholeofthisdarkframeoftonesfromtheaccentedpointofthetreesatthetoptothemassoftherockontheleft,maybesaidtogradateawayinto
thedistance;cutintobythewedge-shapedmiddletoneofthehillsleadingtothehorizon.
Breakingacrossthisisagracefullineoffigures,beginningontheleftwherethemassofrockisbrokenbythelittleflightofcupids,andcontinuingacrossthepictureuntilitisbroughtupsharplybythelightfigureunderthetreesontheright.Notetheprettyclatterofspotsthislineoffiguresbringsacrossthepicture,introducinglightspotsintothedarkermasses,endingupwiththestronglyaccentedlightspotofthefigureontheright;anddarkspotsintothelightermasses,endingupwiththefiguresofthecupidsdarkagainstthesky.
Steadyinginfluencesinallthisfluxoftoneareintroducedbythe
verticalaccentofthetree-stemandstatueinthedarkmassontheright,bythehorizontallineofthedistanceontheleft,theoutlineofthegroundinthefront,andthestraightstaffsheldbysomeofthefigures.
InthecharcoalscribbleillustratingthiscompositionIhavetriedcarefullytoavoidanydrawinginthefiguresortreestoshowhowthetone-musicdependsnotsomuchontruthtonaturalappearancesasontheabstractarrangementoftonevaluesandtheirrhythmicplay.
[Illustration:DiagramXXV.
SHOWINGTHEPRINCIPLEONWHICHTHEMASSORTONERHYTHMISARRANGEDIN
TURNER'SPICTUREINTHENATIONALGALLERYOFBRITISHART,"ULYSSESDERIDINGPOLYPHEMUS"]
Ofcoursenaturecontainseveryconceivablevarietyoftone-music,butitisnottobefoundbyunintelligentcopyingexceptinrareaccidents.Emersonsays,"Althoughyousearchthewholeworldforthebeautifulyou'llnotfinditunlessyoutakeitwithyou,"andthisistruetoagreaterextentofrhythmictonearrangements.
Turner:"UlyssesderidingPolyphemus."
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Turnerwasveryfondofthesegradatedtonecompositions,andcarriedthemtoalyricalheighttowhichtheyhadneverbeforeattained.His"UlyssesderidingPolyphemus,"intheNationalGalleryofBritishArt,isasplendidexampleofhisuseofthisprinciple.Agreatunityofexpressionisgivenbybringingthegreatestdarkandlighttogetherinsharpcontrast,asisdoneinthispicturebythedarkrocksandships'prowscomingagainsttherisingsun.Fromthispointthedarkandlightmassesgradateindifferentdirectionsuntiltheymergeabovetheships'sails.Thesesailscutsharplyintothedarkmassastherocksandshipontheextremerightcutsharplyintothelightmass.Notealsotheedgeswheretheyareaccentedandcomesharplyagainsttheneighbouringmass,andwheretheyarelost,andthepleasingqualitythisplayofedgesgives.
Stabilityisgivenbythelineofthehorizonandwavesinfront,andthemastsoftheships,theoars,and,intheoriginalpicture,afeelingofradiatinglinesfromtherisingsun.Withoutthesesteadyinginfluencesthesecompositionsofgradatedmasseswouldbesicklyandweak.
Corot:2470CollectionChauchard,Louvre.
ThisisatypicalexampleofCorot'stonescheme,andlittleneedbe
addedtothedescriptionalreadygiven.Infiniteplayisgotwiththesimplestmeans.Adarksilhouettedmassisseenagainstalightsky,theperfectbalanceoftheshapesandtheinfiniteplayoflost-and-foundnessintheedgesgivingtothissimplestructurearichnessandbeautyeffectthatisverysatisfying.NotehowCorot,likeTurner,bringshisgreatestlightanddarktogetherinsharpcontrastwheretherockontherightcutsthesky.
[Illustration:DiagramXXVI.
TYPICALEXAMPLEOFCOROT'SSYSTEMOFMASSRHYTHM,AFTERTHEPICTUREINTHELOUVRE,PARIS]
Stabilityisgivenbytheverticalfeelinginthecentralgroupoftreesandthesuggestionofhorizontaldistancebehindthefigure.
Itisnotonlyinthelargerdispositionofthemassesinacompositionthatthisprincipleofgradatedmassesandlostandfoundedgescanbeused.Wherevergraceandcharmareyourmotivetheyshouldbelookedforintheworkingoutofthesmallestdetails.
*****
InconcludingthischapterImustagaininsistthatknowledgeofthesematterswillnotmakeyoucomposeagoodpicture.Acompositionmaybeperfectasfarasanyrulesorprinciplesofcompositiongo,andyetbe
ofnoaccountwhatever.Thelife-givingqualityinartalwaysdefiesanalysisandrefusestobetabulatedinanyformula.Thisvitalqualityindrawingandcompositionmustcomefromtheindividualartisthimself,andnobodycanhelphimmuchhere.Hemusteverbeonthelookoutforthosevisionshisimaginationstirswithinhim,andendeavour,howeverhaltinglyatfirst,togivethemsomesincereexpression.Tryalwayswhenyourmindisfilledwithsomepictorialideatogetsomethingputdown,amerefumbledexpressionpossibly,butitmaycontainthegerm.Lateronthesameideamayoccurtoyouagain,onlyitwillbelessvaguethistime,andaprocessofdevelopmentwillhavetakenplace.It
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maybeyearsbeforeittakessufficientlydefiniteshapetojustifyapicture;theprocessofgerminationinthemindisaslowone.Buttryandacquirethehabitofmakingsomerecordofwhatpictorialideaspassinthemind,anddon'twaituntilyoucandrawandpaintwelltobegin.Qualitiesofdrawingandpaintingdon'tmatterabithere,itisthesensation,thefeelingforthepicture,thatiseverything.
Ifknowledgeoftherhythmicpropertiesoflinesandmasseswillnotenableyoutocomposeafinepicture,youmaywellaskwhatistheiruse?Theremaybethosetowhomtheyareofnouse.Theirartisticinstinctsaresufficientlystrongtoneednodirection.Butsuchnaturesarerare,anditisdoubtfuliftheyevergofar,whilemanyapaintermightbesavedalotofworryoversomethinginhispicturethat"won'tcome"didhebutknowmoreoftheprincipleofpictorialdesignhisworkistransgressing.Ifeelcertainthattheoldpainters,liketheVenetians,werefarmoresystematicandhadfarmorehardandfastprinciplesofdesignthanourselves.Theyknewthescienceoftheircraftsowellthattheydidnotsooftenhavetocallupontheirartisticinstincttogetthemoutofdifficulties.Theirartisticinstinctwasfreetoattendtohigherthings,theirknowledgeofthescienceofpicture-makingkeepingthemfrommanypettymistakesthatamodernartistfallsinto.Thedesireofsomanyartistsinthesedaystocutloosefromtraditionandstartalloveragainputsaveryseverestrainupontheirintuitivefaculties,andkeepsthemoccupied
correctingthingsthatmoreknowledgeofsomeofthefundamentalprinciplesthatdon'treallyalterandthatarethesameinallschoolswouldhavesavedthem.Knowledgeinartislikearailwaybuiltbehindthepioneerswhohavegonebefore;itoffersapointofdepartureforthosewhocomeafter,furtheronintotheunknowncountryofnature'ssecrets--ahelpnotlightlytobediscarded.
Butallartificeinartmustbeconcealed,#apictureobviouslycomposedisbadlycomposed#.Inagoodcompositionitisasthoughthepartshadbeencarefullyplacedinrhythmicrelationandthenthepicturejarredalittle,sothateverythingisslightlyshiftedoutofplace,thusintroducingour"dither"orplayoflifebetweentheparts.Ofcoursenomechanicaljoggingwillintroducethevitalqualityreferredto,which
mustcomefromthevitalityoftheartist'sintuition;althoughIhaveheardofphotographersjoggingthecamerainanendeavourtointroducesomeartistic"play"initsmechanicalrenderings.Butonemustsaysomethingtoshowhowinallgoodcompositionthemechanicalprinciplesatthebasisofthematteraresubordinatetoavitalprincipleonwhichthelifeintheworkdepends.
Thisconcealmentofallartifice,thisartlessnessandspontaneityofappearance,isoneofthegreatestqualitiesinacomposition,anyanalysisofwhichisfutile.Itiswhatoccasionallygivestotheworkoftheunletteredgeniussogreatacharm.Buttheartistinwhomthetruesparkhasnotbeenquenchedbyworldlysuccessorotherenervatinginfluence,keepsthesecretofthisfreshnessrighton,thecultureof
hisstudentdaysbeingusedonlytogiveitsplendourofexpression,butnevertostifleorsuppressitsnativecharm.
XV
BALANCE
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Thereseemstobeastrifebetweenopposingforcesatthebasisofallthings,astrifeinwhichaperfectbalanceisneverattained,orlifewouldcease.Theworldsarekeptontheircoursesbysuchopposingforces,theperfectequilibriumneverbeingfound,andsothevitalisingmovementiskeptup.Statesareheldtogetheronthesameprinciple,noStateseemingabletopreserveabalanceforlong;newforcesarise,thebalanceisupset,andtheStatetottersuntilanewequilibriumhasbeenfound.Itwouldseem,however,tobetheaimoflifetostriveafterbalance,anyviolentdeviationfromwhichisaccompaniedbycalamity.
Andinartwehavethesameplayofopposingfactors,straightlinesandcurves,lightanddark,warmandcoldcolouropposeeachother.Werethebalancebetweenthemperfect,theresultwouldbedullanddead.Butifthebalanceisverymuchout,theeyeisdisturbedandtheeffecttoodisquieting.Itwillnaturallybeinpicturesthataimatreposethatthisbalancewillbemostperfect.Inmoreexcitingsubjectslesswillbenecessary,butsomeamountshouldexistineverypicture,nomatterhowturbulentitsmotive;asingoodtragedythehorrorofthesituationisneverallowedtooverbalancethebeautyofthetreatment.
[Sidenote:BetweenStraightLinesandCurves]
Letusconsiderinthefirstplacethebalancebetweenstraightlines
andcurves.Thericherandfullerthecurves,themoresevereshouldbethestraightlinesthatbalancethem,ifperfectreposeisdesired.Butifthesubjectdemandsexcessofmovementandlife,ofcoursetherewillbelessnecessityforthebalancinginfluenceofstraightlines.Andontheotherhand,ifthesubjectdemandsanexcessofreposeandcontemplation,thebiaswillbeonthesideofstraightlines.Butapicturecomposedentirelyofrich,rollingcurvesistoodisquietingathingtocontemplate,andwouldbecomeveryirritating.Ofthetwoextremes,onecomposedentirelyofstraightlineswouldbepreferabletoonewithnosquarenesstorelievetherichnessofthecurves.Forstraightlinesaresignificantofthedeeperandmorepermanentthingsoflife,ofthepowersthatgovernandrestrain,andofinfinity;whiletherichcurves(thatis,curvesthefarthestremovedfromthestraight
line)seemtobeexpressiveofuncontrolledenergyandthemoreexuberantjoysoflife.Vicemaybeexcessinanydirection,butasceticismhasgenerallybeenacceptedasanoblervicethanvoluptuousness.Therococoartoftheeighteenthcenturyisaninstanceoftheexcessiveuseofcurvedforms,and,likeallexcessesinthejoysoflife,itisviciousandisthefavouritestyleofdecorationinvulgarplacesofentertainment.TheexcessiveuseofstraightlinesandsquareformsmaybeseeninsomeancientEgyptianarchitecture,butthisseveritywasoriginally,nodoubt,softenedbytheuseofcolour,andinanycaseitisnoblerandfinerthantheviciousclevernessofrococoart.
WehaveseenhowtheGreeksbalancedthestraightlinesoftheir
architecturalformswiththerichlinesofthesculpturewhichtheyusedsolavishlyontheirtemples.Butthebalancewasalwayskeptonthesideofthesquareformsandneveronthesideofundueroundness.Anditisonthissidethatthebalancewouldseemtobeinthefinestart.Eventhefinestcurvesarethosethatapproachthestraightlineratherthanthecircle,thaterronthesideofflatnessesratherthanroundnesses.
[Sidenote:BetweenFlatandGradatedTones]
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Whathasbeensaidaboutthebalanceofstraightlinesandcurvesappliesequallywelltotones,ifforstraightlinesyousubstituteflattones,andforcurvedlinesgradatedtones.Thedeeper,morepermanentthingsfindexpressioninthewider,flattertones,whileanexcessofgradationsmakesforprettiness,ifnotforthegrossroundnessesofviciousmodelling.
Oftenwhenapictureishopelesslyoutofgearand"muckedup,"astheysayinthestudio,itcanbegotontherightroadagainbyreducingittoabasisofflattones,goingoveritandpaintingoutthegradations,gettingitbacktoasimplerequationfromwhichtherightroadtocompletioncanbemorereadilyseen.Overmuchconcernwiththegradationsofthesmallermodellingisaverycommonreasonofpicturesanddrawingsgettingoutofgear.Thelessexpenditureoftonevaluesyoucanexpressyourmodellingwith,thebetter,asageneralrule.Thebalanceinthefinestworkisusuallyonthesideofflattonesratherthanonthesideofgradatedtones.Workthaterrsonthesideofgradations,likethatofGreuze,howeverpopularitsappeal,ismuchpoorerstuffthanworkthaterrsonthesideofflatnessintone,likeGiottoandtheItalianprimitives,orPuvisdeChavannesamongthemoderns.
[Sidenote:BetweenLightandDarkTones.]
Thereisabalanceoftonesetupalsobetweenlightanddark,betweenblackandwhiteinthescaleoftone.Picturesthatdonotgofarinthedirectionoflight,startingfromamiddletone,shouldnotgofarinthedirectionofdarkeither.InthisrespectnotethepicturesofWhistler,agreatmasterinmattersoftone;hislightsseldomapproachanywherenearwhite,and,ontheotherhand,hisdarksneverapproachblackintone.Whenthehighestlightsarelowintone,thedarkestdarksshouldbehighintone.PainterslikeRembrandt,whosepictureswhenfreshmusthaveapproachedverynearwhiteinthehighlights,alsoapproachblackinthedarks,andnearerourowntime,FrankHollforcedthewhitesofhispicturesveryhighandcorrespondinglythedarkswereveryheavy.Andwhenthisbalanceiskeptthereisarightnessaboutitthatisinstinctivelyfelt.Wedonotmeanthatthe#amount#oflight
tonesinapictureshouldbebalancedbythe#amount#ofdarktones,butthatthereshouldbesomebalancebetweentheextremesoflightanddarkusedinthetoneschemeofapicture.Theoldrulewas,Ibelieve,thatapictureshouldbetwo-thirdslightandone-thirddark.ButIdonotthinkthereisanyruletobeobservedhere:therearetoomanyexceptions,andnomentionismadeofhalftones.
Likeallso-calledlawsinart,thisruleiscapableofmanyapparentexceptions.Thereisthewhitepictureinwhichallthetonesarehigh.Butinsomeofthemostsuccessfuloftheseyouwillgenerallyfindspotsofintenselydarkpigment.Turnerwasfondoftheselightpicturesinhislatermanner,butheusuallyputinsomedarkspot,suchastheblackgondolasinsomeofhisVenetianpictures,thatillustratethelaw
ofbalancewearespeakingof,andareusuallyputinexcessivelydarkinproportionastherestofthepictureisexcessivelylight.
Thesuccessfulone-tonepicturesaregenerallypaintedinthemiddletones,andthusdonotinanywaycontradictourprincipleofbalance.
[Sidenote:BetweenWarmandColdColours.]
Oneistemptedatthispointtowanderalittleintotheprovinceofcolour,wheretheprincipleofbalanceofwhichwearespeakingismuch
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felt,thescaleherebeingbetweenwarmandcoldcolours.Ifyoudividethesolarspectrumroughlyintohalf,youwillhavethereds,oranges,andyellowsononeside,andthepurples,blues,andgreensontheother,theformerbeingroughlythewarmandthelatterthecoldcolours.Theclevermanipulationoftheoppositionbetweenthesewarmandcoldcoloursisoneofthechiefmeansusedingivingvitalitytocolouring.Butthepointtonoticehereisthatthefurtheryourcolouringgoesinthedirectionofwarmth,thefurtheritwillbenecessarytogointheoppositedirection,torightthebalance.ThatishowitcomesaboutthatpainterslikeTitian,wholovedawarm,glowing,goldencolouring,sooftenhadtoputamassofthecoldestblueintheirpictures.Gainsborough's"BlueBoy,"althoughdoneindefianceofReynolds'principle,isnocontradictionofourrule,foralthoughtheboyhasabluedressalltherestofthepictureiswarmbrownandsothebalanceiskept.Itisthefailuretoobservethisbalancethatmakessomanyofthered-coatedhuntsmenandsoldiers'portraitsinourexhibitionssoobjectionable.Theyaretoooftenpaintedonadark,hot,burntsiennaandblackbackground,withnothingbutwarmcoloursintheflesh,&c.,withtheresultthatthescreamingheatisintolerable.Withahotmassofredlikeahuntsman'scoatinyourpicture,thecoolestcolourshouldbelookedforeverywhereelse.SeeninaNovemberlandscape,howwellahuntsman'scoatlooks,butthen,howcoldandgreyisthecolouringofthelandscape.Therightthingtodoistosupportyourredwithasmanycoolandneutraltonesaspossibleandavoidhot
shadows.Withsostrongared,bluemightbetoomuchofacontrast,unlessyourcanvaswaslargeenoughtoadmitofitsbeingintroducedatsomedistancefromthered.
Mostpainters,ofcourse,arecontenttokeeptomiddlecourses,nevergoingveryfarinthewarmorcolddirections.And,undoubtedly,muchmorefreedomofactionispossiblehere,althoughtheresultsmaynotbesopowerful.Butwhenbeautyandrefinementofsentimentratherthanforcearedesired,themiddlerangeofcolouring(thatistosay,allcolourspartlyneutralisedbyadmixturewiththeiropposites)ismuchsafer.
[Sidenote:BetweenInterestandMass.]
Thereisanotherformofbalancethatmustbealthoughitisconnectedmorewiththesubjectmatterofart,asitconcernsthementalsignificanceofobjectsratherthanrhythmicqualitiespossessedbylinesandmasses;Irefertothebalancethereisbetweeninterestandmass.Theall-absorbinginterestofthehumanfiguremakesitoftenwhenquiteminuteinscalebalancetheweightandinterestofagreatmass.DiagramXXVIIisaroughinstanceofwhatismeant.Withoutthelittlefigurethecompositionwouldbeoutofbalance.Buttheweightofinterestcentreduponthatlonelylittlepersonisenoughtorightthebalanceoccasionedbythegreatmassoftreesontheleft.Figuresarelargelyusedbylandscapepaintersinthisway,andareofgreatuseinrestoringbalanceinapicture.
[Illustration:DiagramXXVII.
ILLUSTRATINGHOWINTERESTMAYBALANCEMASS]
[Sidenote:BetweenVarietyandUnity.]
Andlastly,theremustbeabalancestruckbetweenvarietyandunity.Agreatdealhasalreadybeensaidaboutthis,anditwillonlybenecessarytorecapitulateherethattovarietyisduealltheexpression
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orthepicturesque,ofthejoyousenergyoflife,andallthatmakestheworldsuchadelightfulplace,butthattounitybelongstherelatingofthisvarietytotheunderlyingbed-rockprinciplesthatsupportitinnatureandinallgoodart.Itwilldependonthenatureoftheartistandonthenatureofhisthemehowfarthisunderlyingunitywilldominatetheexpressioninhiswork;andhowfaritwillbeoverlaidandhiddenbehindarichgarmentofvariety.
Butbothideasmustbeconsideredinhiswork.Iftheunityofhisconceptionisallowedtoexcludevarietyentirely,itwillresultinadeadabstraction,andifthevarietyistobeallowednoneoftherestraininginfluencesofunity,itwilldevelopintoariotousextravagance.
XVI
RHYTHM:PROPORTION
Rulesandcanonsofproportiondesignedtoreducetoamathematicalformulathethingsthatmoveusinbeautifulobjects,havenotbeena
greatsuccess;thebeautifulwillalwaysdefysuchclumsyanalysis.Buthowevertrueitisthatbeautyofproportionmusteverbetheresultofthefinersensesoftheartist,itispossiblethatcanonsofproportion,suchasthoseofthehumanbody,maybeofservicetotheartistbyofferingsomestandardfromwhichhecandepartatthedictatesofhisartisticinstinct.Thereappearstobenodoubtthattheancientsculptorsusedsomesuchsystem.Andmanyoftherenaissancepainterswereinterestedinthesubject,LeonardodaVincihavingmuchtosayaboutitinhisbook.
Likeallscientificknowledgeinart,itfailstotraptheelusivesomethingthatisthevitalessenceofthewholematter,butsuchscientificknowledgedoeshelptobringone'sworkuptoahighpointof
mechanicalperfection,fromwhichone'sartisticinstinctcansoarwithabetterchanceofsuccessthanifnoscientificscaffoldinghadbeenusedintheinitialbuildingup.Yet,howeverperfectyoursystem,don'tforgetthatthelife,the"dither,"willstillhavetobeaccountedfor,andnosciencewillhelpyouhere.
Theideathatcertainmathematicalproportionsorrelationshipsunderliethephenomenawecallbeautyisveryancient,andtooabstrusetotroubleushere.Butundoubtedlyproportion,thequantitativerelationofthepartstoeachotherandtothewhole,formsaveryimportantpartintheimpressionworksofartandobjectsgiveus,andshouldbeasubjectofthegreatestconsiderationinplanningyourwork.Themathematicalrelationshipofthesequantitiesisasubjectthathas
alwaysfascinatedscholars,whohavemeasuredtheantiquestatuesaccuratelyandpainstakinglytofindthesecretoftheircharm.Science,byshowingthatdifferentsoundsanddifferentcoloursareproducedbywavesofdifferentlengths,andthatthereforedifferentcoloursandsoundscanbeexpressedintermsofnumbers,hascertainlyopenedthedoortoanewconsiderationofthissubjectofbeautyinrelationtomathematics.Andtheresultofsuchaninquiry,ifitisbeingorhasbeencarriedon,willbeofmuchinterest.
Butthereissomethingchillingtotheartistinanarrayofdead
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figures,forhehasaconsciousnessthatthelifeofthewholematterwillneverbecapturedbysuchmechanicalmeans.
Thequestionweareinterestedtoaskhereis:arethereparticularsentimentsconnectedwiththedifferentrelationsofquantities,theirproportions,aswefoundtherewereinconnectionwithdifferentarrangementsoflinesandmasses?Haveabstractproportionsanysignificanceinart,aswefoundabstractlineandmassarrangementshad?Itisadifficultthingtobedefiniteabout,andIcanonlygivemyownfeelingonthematter;butIthinkinsomedegreetheyhave.
Proportioncanbeconsideredfromourtwopointsofviewofunityandvariety.Insofarastheproportionsofanypictureorobjectresolvethemselvesintoasimple,easilygraspedunityofrelationship,asenseofreposeandsublimityisproduced.Insofarasthevarietyofproportioninthedifferentpartsisassertiveandpreventstheeyegraspingthearrangementasasimplewhole,asenseofthelivelyrestlessnessoflifeandactivityisproduced.Inotherwords,aswefoundinlinearrangements,unitymakesforsublimity,whilevarietymakesfortheexpressionoflife.Ofcoursethescaleoftheobjectwillhavesomethingtodowiththis.Thatistosay,themostsublimelyproportioneddog-kennelcouldnevergiveustheimpressionofsublimityproducedbyagreattemple.Inpicturesthescaleoftheworkisnotofsogreatimportance,apaintingordrawinghavingthepowerofgiving
theimpressionofgreatsizeonasmallscale.Theproportionthatismosteasilygraspedisthehalf--twoequalparts.Thisisthemostdevoidofvariety,andthereforeoflife,andisonlyusedwhenaneffectofgreatreposeandaloofnessfromlifeiswanted;andeventhen,neverwithoutsomevarietyintheminorpartstogivevitality.Thethirdandthequarter,andinfactanyequalproportions,areothersthatareeasilygraspedandpartakeinalesserdegreeofthesamequalitiesasthehalf.Sothatequalityofproportionshouldbeavoidedexceptonthoserareoccasionswheneffectsremotefromnatureandlifearedesired.Natureseemstoabhorequalities,nevermakingtwothingsalikeorthesameproportionifshecanhelpit.Allsystemsfoundedonequalities,asaresomanymodernsystemsofsocialreform,
areman'swork,theproductsofamachine-madeage.Forthisisthedifferencebetweennatureandthemachine:natureneverproducestwothingsalike,themachineneverproducestwothingsdifferent.Mancouldsolvethesocialproblemto-morrowifyoucouldproducehimequalunits.Butifallmenwerealikeandequal,wherewouldbethelifeandfunofexistence?itwoulddepartwiththevariety.Andinproportion,asinlife,varietyisthesecretofvitality,onlytobesuppressedwhereastaticeffectiswanted.Inarchitectureequalityofproportionismoreoftenmetwith,asthestaticqualitiesofreposeareofmoreimportanceherethaninpainting.Onemeetsitonallfinebuildingsinsuchthingsasrowsofcolumnsandwindowsofequalsizeanddistancesapart,orthecontinualrepetitionofthesameformsinmouldings,&c.Butevenhere,inthebestwork,somevarietyisallowedtokeeptheeffectfrombeing
quitedead,thecolumnsontheoutsideofaGreekpedimentbeingnearertogetherandleaningslightlyinwards,andtherepeatedformsofwindows,columns,andmouldingsbeinginfinitelyvariedinthemselves.Butalthoughyouoftenfindrepetitionsofthesameformsequidistantinarchitecture,itisseldomthatequalityofproportionisobservableinthemaindistributionofthelargemasses.
Letustakeoursimpletypeofcomposition,andinDiagramXXVIII,A,putthehorizonacrossthecentreandanuprightpostcuttingitinthemiddleofthepicture.Andletusintroducetwospotsthatmayindicate
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thepositionofbirdsintheupperspacesoneithersideofthis.
Herewehaveamaximumofequalityandthedeadestandmoststaticofresults.
Toseethesediagramsproperlyitisnecessarytocoveroverwithsomepiecesofnotepaperallbuttheonebeingconsidered,astheyaffecteachotherwhenseentogether,andthequalityoftheirproportionisnotsoreadilyobserved.
[Illustration:PlateXLVIII.
THEANSIDEIMADONNA.BYRAPHAEL(NATIONALGALLERY)
Atypicalexampleofstaticbalanceincomposition.
_PhotoHanfstaengl_]
InmanypicturesoftheMadonna,whenahushandreverencearedesiredratherthanexuberantlife,thefigureisputinthecentreofthecanvas,equalityofproportionexistingbetweenthespacesoneithersideofher.Buthavinggotthereposethiscentralisationgives,everythingisdonetoconcealthisequality,andvarietyinthecontoursoneitherside,andinanyfigurestheremaybe,iscarefullysought.
Raphael's"AnsideiMadonna,"intheNationalGallery,isaninstanceofthis(p.230).YouhavefirstthecentralisationofthefigureoftheMadonnawiththethroneonwhichshesits,exactlyinthemiddleofthepicture.Notonlyisthethroneinthecentreofthepicture,butitswidthisexactlythatofthespacesoneithersideofit,givingusthreeequalproportionsacrossthepicture.Thenyouhavethecircularlinesofthearchesbehind,curvespossessedoftheleastpossibleamountofvarietyandthereforethecalmestandmostreposeful;whilethehorizontallinesofthestepsandtheverticallinesofthethroneandarchitecture,andalsotherowsofhangingbeadsgivefurtheremphasistothisinfinityofcalm.Butwhenwecometothefiguresthissymmetryhasbeenvariedeverywhere.Alltheheadsswingtowardstheright,whilethelinesofthedraperiesswingfreelyinmanydirections.
Theswingoftheheadstowardstherightisbalancedandtheeyebroughtbacktoequilibriumbythestrongly-insisted-uponstaffofSt.Nicholasontheright.ThestaffofSt.Johnnecessarytobalancethislinesomewhat,isveryslightlyinsistedon,beingrepresentedtransparentasifmadeofglass,soasnottoincreasetheswingtotherightoccasionedbytheheads.Itisinterestingtonotethefruitintroducedatthelastmomentintheright-handlowercorner,draggedin,asitwere,torestorethebalanceoccasionedbythefigureoftheChristbeingontheleft.Inthewriter'shumbleopiniontheextremelyobviousartificewithwhichthelineshavebeenbalanced,andtheseverityoftheconventionofthiscompositiongenerally,areoutofharmonywiththeamountofnaturalisticdetailandparticularlyofsolidityallowedinthetreatmentofthefiguresandaccessories.Thesmallamountof
truthtovisualnatureintheworkofearliermenwentbetterwiththeformalityofsuchcompositions.Withsolittleofthevarietyoflifeintheirtreatmentofnaturalappearances,onewasnotledtodemandsomuchofthevarietyoflifeinthearrangement.ItisthesimplicityandremotenessfromthefulleffectofnaturalappearancesintheworkoftheearlyItalianschoolsthatmadetheirpaintingsuchareadymediumfortheexpressionofreligioussubjects.Thisatmosphereofother-worldlinesswherethemusicoflineandcolourwasuninterruptedbyanyaggressivelookofrealthingsisabetterconventionfortheexpressionofsuchideasandemotions.
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[Illustration:DiagramXXVIII(1).
A,D,G]
[Illustration:DiagramXXVIII(2).
B,E,H]
[Illustration:DiagramXXVIII(3).
C,F,I]
InBandCtheproportionsofthethirdandthequarterareshown,producingthesamestaticeffectasthehalf,althoughnotsocompletely.
AtD,E,FthesamenumberoflinesandspotsaswehaveatA,B,Chavebeenused,butvariedastosizeandposition,sothattheyhavenoobviousmechanicalrelationship.Theresultisanexpressionofmuchmorelifeandcharacter.
AtG,H,Imorelinesandspotshavebeenadded.AtGtheyareequidistantanddeadfromlackofvariety,whileatHandItheyare
variedtoadegreethatpreventstheeyegraspinganyobviousrelationshipbetweenthem.TheyhaveconsequentlyalookoflivelinessandlifeverydifferentfromA,B,C,orG.Itwillbeobservedthatastheamountofvarietyincreasessodoesthelifeandlivelinessoftheimpression.
Inthesediagramsacertainstaticeffectiskeptupthroughout,onaccountofourlinesbeingverticalandhorizontalonly,whichlines,aswesawinanearlierchapter,arethecalmestwehave.Butdespitethis,Ithinktheaddedlifeduetothevarietyintheproportionsissufficientlyapparentinthediagramstoprovethepointwewishtomake.
AsacontrasttotheinfinitecalmofRaphael's"Madonna,"wehavereproducedTintoretto's"FindingoftheBodyofSt.Mark,"intheBreraGallery,Milan.Hereallislifeandmovement.Theproportionsareinfinitelyvaried,nowheredoestheeyegraspanyobviousmathematicalrelationship.Wehavethesamesemi-circulararchesasintheRaphael,butnotsymmetricallyplaced,andtheirlineseverywherevaried,andtheircalmeffectdestroyedbytheflickeringlightsplayingaboutthem.NotethegreatemphasisgiventotheoutstretchedhandofthepowerfulfigureoftheApostleontheleftbythelinesofthearchitectureandthelineofarmofthekneelingfigureinthecentreofthepictureconvergingonthishandandleadingtheeyeimmediatelytoit.Thereisherenostaticsymmetry,allisenergyandforce.Startingwiththisarrestingarm,theeyeisleddownthemajesticfigureofSt.Mark,past
therecumbentfigure,andacrossthepicturebymeansofthebandoflightontheground,totheimportantgroupoffrightenedfiguresontheright.Andfromthemontothefiguresengagedinloweringacorpsefromitstomb.Or,followingthedirectionoftheoutstretchedarmofSt.Mark,weareledbythelinesofthearchitecturetothisgroupstraightaway,andbackagainbymeansofthegroupontherightandthebandoflightontheground.Thequantitiesarenotplacedinreposefulsymmetryaboutthecanvas,aswasthecaseintheRaphael,butarethrownoffapparentlyhaphazardfromlinesleadingtheeyeroundthepicture.Notealsothedramaticintensitygivenbythestrongly
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contrastedlightandshade,andhowTintorettohasenjoyedtheweirdeffectofthetwofigureslookingintoatombwithalight,theirshadowsbeingthrownonthelidtheyholdopen,atthefarendoftheroom.Thismusthavebeenanamazinglynewpieceofrealismatthetime,andiswonderfullyused,togiveaneerieeffecttothedarkenedendoftheroom.Withhisboundlessenergyandfullenjoymentoflife,Tintoretto'sworknaturallyshowsastrongleaningtowardsvariety,andhisamazingcompositionsarealiberaleducationintheinnumerableandunexpectedwaysinwhichapanelcanbefilled,andshouldbecarefullystudiedbystudents.
[Illustration:PlateXLIX.
THEFINDINGOFTHEBODYOFST.MARKTINTORETTO(BREDA,MILAN)
ComparewithRaphael'sAnsideiMadonna,andnotehowenergyandmovementtaketheplaceofstaticcalminthebalanceofthiscomposition.
_PhotoAnderson_]
Apleasingproportionthatoftenoccursinnatureandartisonethatmayberoughlystatedinfiguresasthatbetween5and8.Insuchaproportiontheeyeseesnomathematicalrelationship.Wereitlessthan5,itwouldbetooneartheproportionof4to8(orone-thirdthetotal
length),adullproportion;orwereitmore,itwouldbeapproachingtoonearequalityofproportiontobequitesatisfactory.
Ihaveseenaproportionalcompass,importedfromGermany,givingarelationshipsimilartothisandsaidtocontainthesecretofgoodproportion.Thereiscertainlysomethingremarkableaboutit,andintheAppendix,page289[TranscribersNote:APPENDIX],youwillfindsomefurtherinterestingfactsaboutthis.
Thevarietyofproportionsinabuilding,apicture,orapieceofsculptureshouldalwaysbeunderthecontrolofafewsimple,dominantquantitiesthatsimplifytheappearanceandgiveitaunitywhichisreadilygraspedexceptwhereviolenceandlackofreposearewanted.The
simplertheproportionis,themoresublimewillbetheimpression,andthemorecomplicated,thelivelierandmorevivacioustheeffect.Fromafewwell-chosenlargeproportionstheeyemaybeledontoenjoythesmallervarieties.Butingoodproportionthelesserpartsarenotallowedtoobtrude,butarekeptinsubordinationtothemaindispositionsonwhichtheunityoftheeffectdepends.
XVII
PORTRAITDRAWING
Thereissomethingineveryindividualthatislikelyforalongtimetodefytheanalysisofscience.Whenyouhavesummedupthetotalofatomsorelectronsorwhateveritisthatgoestothemakingofthetissuesandalsotheinnumerablecomplexfunctionsperformedbythedifferentparts,youhavenotyetgotonthetrackoftheindividualthatgovernsthewholeperformance.Theeffectofthispersonalityontheoutwardform,andtheinfluenceithasinmodifyingtheaspectofbodyandfeatures,arethethingsthatconcerntheportraitdraughtsman:the
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seizingonandexpressingforcefullytheindividualcharacterofthesitter,asexpressedbyhisoutwardappearance.
Thischaracterexpressioninformhasbeenthoughttobesomewhatantagonistictobeauty,andmanysittersareshyoftheparticularcharacteristicsoftheirownfeatures.Thefashionablephotographer,knowingthis,carefullystipplesoutofhisnegativeany#striking#characteristicsintheformofhissitterthenegativemayshow.Butjudgingbytheresult,itisdoubtfulwhetheranybeautyhasbeengained,andcertainthatinterestandvitalityhavebeenlostintheprocess.Whatevermaybethenatureofbeauty,itisobviousthatwhatmakesoneobjectmorebeautifulthananotherissomethingthatischaracteristicoftheappearanceoftheoneandnotoftheother:sothatsomeclosestudyofindividualcharacteristicsmustbetheaimoftheartistwhowouldseektoexpressbeauty,aswellastheartistwhoseekstheexpressionofcharacterandprofessesnointerestinbeauty.
Catchingthelikeness,asitiscalled,issimplyseizingontheessentialthingsthatbelongonlytoaparticularindividualanddifferentiatethatindividualfromothers,andexpressingtheminaforcefulmanner.Therearecertainthingsthatarecommontothewholespecies,likenesstoacommontype;theindividuallikenessisnotinthisdirectionbutattheoppositepoletoit.
Itisoneofthemostremarkablethingsconnectedwiththeamazingsubtletyofappreciationpossessedbythehumaneye,thatofthemillionsofheadsintheworld,andprobablyofallthathaveeverexistedintheworld,notwolookexactlyalike.Whenoneconsidershowaliketheyare,andhowveryrestrictedistherangeofdifferencebetweenthem,isitnotremarkablehowquicklytheeyerecognisesonepersonfromanother?Itismoreremarkablestillhowonesometimesrecognisesafriendnotseenformanyyears,andwhoseappearancehaschangedconsiderablyinthemeantime.Andthislikenessthatwerecogniseisnotsomuchasisgenerallythoughtamatteroftheindividualfeatures.Ifoneseestheeyealone,theremainderofthefacebeingcovered,itisalmostimpossibletorecogniseevenawell-knownfriend,ortellwhethertheexpressionisthatoflaughingor
crying.Andagain,howdifficultitistorecogniseanybodywhentheeyesaremaskedandonlythelowerpartofthefacevisible.
[Illustration:PlateL.
FROMADRAWINGINREDCHALKBYHOLBEININTHEBRITISHMUSEUMPRINTROOM
Notehoweverybitofvarietyissoughtfor,thedifferenceintheeyesandoneithersideofthemouth,etc.]
Ifyoutryandrecallawell-knownheaditwillnotbetheshapeofthefeaturesthatwillberecollectedsomuchasanimpression,theresultofallthesecombined,asortofchordofwhichthefeatureswill
bebutthecomponentelements.Itistherelationofthedifferentpartstothischord,thisimpressionofthepersonalityofahead,thatistheall-importantthinginwhatispopularlycalled"catchingthelikeness."Indrawingaportraitthemindmustbecentredonthis,andalltheindividualpartsdrawninrelationtoit.Themomenttheeyegetsinterestedsolelyinsomeindividualpartandforgetstheconsiderationofitsrelationshiptothiswholeimpression,thelikenesssuffers.
Wherethereissomuchthatissimilarinheads,itisobviousthatwhatdifferencestherearemustbesearchedoutandseizeduponforcefully,
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iftheindividualityoftheheadistobemadetelling.Thedrawingofportraitsshouldthereforebeapproachedfromthedirectionofthesedifferences;thatistosay,thethingsingeneraldispositionandproportioninwhichyoursubjectdiffersfromacommontype,shouldbefirstsoughtfor,thethingscommontoallheadsbeinglefttotakecareofthemselvesforabit.Thereasonforthisisthattheeye,whenfresh,seesthesedifferencesmuchmorereadilythanafterithasbeenworkingforsometime.Thetendencyofatiredeyeistoseelessdifferentiation,andtoharkbacktoadulluniformity;sogetintouchatoncewiththevitaldifferenceswhileyoureyeisfreshandyourvisionkeen.
Lookoutfirstforthecharacterofthedispositionofthefeatures,notetheproportionsdownanimaginedcentreline,ofthebrows,thebaseofthenose,themouthandchin,andgetthecharacteroftheshapeoftheenclosinglineofthefaceblockedoutinsquarelines.Thegreatimportanceofgettingtheseproportionsrightearlycannotbeover-emphasised,asanymistakemaylateronnecessitatecompletelyshiftingacarefullydrawnfeature.Andtheimportanceofthismaybejudgedfromthefactthatyourecogniseaheadalongwayoff,beforeanythingbutthegeneraldispositionofthemassessurroundingthefeaturescanbeseen.Theshapeoftheskull,too,isanotherthingofwhichtogetanearlyidea,anditsrelationtothefaceshouldbecarefullynoted.Butitisimpossibletolaydownhardandfastrules
forthesethings.Someartistsbegininpointdrawingwiththeeyes,andsomeleavetheeyesuntiltheverylast.Somedraughtsmenareneverhappyuntiltheyhaveaneyetoadjusttheheadround,treatingitasthecentreofinterestanddrawingthepartsrelativelytoit.Whileotherssay,withsometruth,thatthereisamesmericeffectproducedwhentheeyeisdrawnthatblindsonetothecold-bloodedtechnicalconsiderationofaheadaslineandtoneincertainrelationships;thatitisaswelltopostponeuntilthelastthatmomentwhentheshapesandtonesthatrepresentforminyourdrawingshallbelitupbytheintroductionoftheeyetothelookofaliveperson.Oneisfreertoconsidertheaccuracyofone'sformbeforethisdisturbinginfluenceisintroduced.
Andthereisagooddealtobesaidforthis.
Althoughinpointdrawingyoucan,withoutseriouseffect,beginatanypartthatinterestsyou,insettingoutapaintingIthinktherecanbenotwoopinionsastotherightwaytogoaboutit.Thecharacterofthegeneraldispositionofthemassesmustbefirstconstructed.Andifthisgeneralblockinginhasbeenwelldone,thecharacterofthesitterwillbeapparentfromthefirsteveninthisearlystage;andyouwillbeabletojudgeoftheaccuracyofyourblockingoutbywhetherornotitdoessuggesttheoriginal.Ifitdoesnot,correctitbeforegoinganyfurther,working,asitwere,fromthegeneralimpressionofthemassesoftheheadasseenalongwayoff,addingmoreandmoredetail,andgraduallybringingtheimpressionnearer,untilthecompletedhead
isarrivedat,thusgettingintouchfromtheveryfirstwiththelikenesswhichshoulddominatetheworkallalong.
[Illustration:PlateLI.
SIRCHARLESDILKE,BART.
FromthedrawinginthecollectionofSirRobertEssex,M.P.,inredcontéchalkrubbed,thehighlightsbeingpickedoutwithrubber.]
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Therearemanypointsofviewfromwhichaportraitcanbedrawn--Imean,mentalpointsofview.And,asinabiography,thevalueoftheworkwilldependontheinsightanddistinctionoftheauthororartist.Thevaletofagreatmanmightwriteabiographyofhismasterthatcouldbequitetruetohispointofview;but,assuminghimtobeanaveragevalet,itwouldnotbeagreatwork.IbelievethegardenerofDarwinwhenaskedhowhismasterwas,said,"Notatallwell.Yousee,hemoonsaboutallday.I'veseenhimstaringataflowerforfiveortenminutesatatime.Now,ifhehadsomeworktodo,hewouldbemuchbetter."Areallygreatbiographycannotbewrittenexceptbyamanwhocancomprehendhissubjectandtakeawideviewofhispositionamongmen,sortingwhatistrivialfromwhatisessential,whatiscommontoallmenfromwhatisparticulartothesubjectofhiswork.Anditisverymuchthesameinportraiture.Itisonlythepainterwhopossessestheintuitivefacultyforseizingonthesignificantthingsintheformexpressionofhissubject,ofdisentanglingwhatistrivialfromwhatisimportant;andwhocanconveythisforciblytothebeholderonhiscanvas,moreforciblythanacasualsightoftherealpersoncoulddo--itisonlythispainterwhocanhopetopaintareallyfineportrait.
Itistrue,thehonestandsincereexpressionofanypainterwillbeofsomeinterest,justasthebiographywrittenbyDarwin'sgardenermightbe;butthereisavastdifferencebetweenthispointofviewandthat
ofthemanwhothoroughlycomprehendshissubject.Notthatitisnecessaryfortheartisttograspthemindofhissitter,althoughthatisnodisadvantage.Butthisisnothispointofview,hisbusinessiswiththeeffectofthisinnermanonhisoutwardappearance.Anditisnecessaryforhimtohavethatintuitivepowerthatseizesinstinctivelyonthosevariationsofformthatareexpressiveofthisinnerman.Thehabitualcastofthoughtinanyindividualaffectstheshapeandmouldstheformofthefeatures,and,tothediscerning,theheadisexpressiveoftheperson;boththebiggerandthesmallerperson,boththelargerandthepettycharacteristicseverybodypossesses.Andthefineportraitwillexpressthelargerandsubordinatethepettyindividualities,willgiveyouwhatisofvalue,and
subordinatewhatistrivialinaperson'sappearance.
Theposeoftheheadisacharacteristicfeatureaboutpeoplethatisnotalwaysgivenenoughattentioninportraits.Thehabitualcastofthoughtaffectsitscarriagetoaverylargedegree.Thetwoextremetypesofwhatwemeanarethestronglyemotionalmanwhocarrieshisheadhigh,drinkinginimpressionsashegoesthroughtheworld;andthemanofdeepthoughtwhocarrieshisheadbentforward,hisbackbentinsympathywithit.Everybodyhassomecharacteristicactioninthewaythatshouldbelookedoutforandthatisusuallyabsentwhenasitterfirstappearsbeforeapainteronthestudiothrone.Alittlediplomacyandconversationalhumouringisnecessarytoproducethatunconsciousnessthatwillbetraythemaninhisappearance.
Howthepowertodiscoverthesethingscanbeacquired,itis,ofcourse,impossibletoteach.Allthestudentcandoistofamiliarisehimselfwiththebestexamplesofportraiture,inthehopethathemaybestimulatedbythismeanstoobservefinerqualitiesinnatureanddevelopthebestthatisinhim.Buthemustneverbeinsincereinhiswork.Ifhedoesnotappreciatefinethingsintheworkofrecognisedmasters,lethimsticktothehonestportrayalofwhathedoesseeinnature.Theonlydistinctionofwhichheiscapableliesinthisdirection.Itisnotuntilheawakenstothesightinnatureof
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qualitieshemayhaveadmiredinothers'workthatheisinapositionhonestlytointroducethemintohisownperformances.
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Probablythemostpopularpointofviewinportraitureatpresentistheonethatcanbedescribedasa"strikingpresentmentoftheliveperson."Thisistheportraitthatarreststhecrowdinanexhibition.Youcannotignoreit,vitalityburstsfromit,andeverythingseemssacrificedtothisqualityofstrikinglifelikeness.Andsomeverywonderfulmodernportraitshavebeenpaintedfromthispointofview.Buthavewenotsacrificedtoomuchtothisqualityofvitality?Hereisaladyhurriedlygettingupfromacouch,thereagentlemansteppingoutoftheframetogreetyou,violenceandvitalityeverywhere.Butwhatofrepose,harmonyofcolourandform,andthewiseorderingandselectingofthematerialsofvisionthatonehasbeenusedtointhegreatportraitureofthepast?Whilethecraftsmaninoneisstaggeredandamazedatthebrilliantvirtuosityofthething,theartistinoneresentsthesacrificeofsomuchforwhatis,afterall,butashort-livedexcitement.Agemay,nodoubt,improvesomeoftheportraitsofthisclassbyquietingthemincolourandtone.Andthosethataregoodindesignandarrangementwillstandthiswithoutlossofdistinction,butthoseinwhicheverythinghasbeensacrificedtothisstrikinglifelikequalitywillsufferconsiderably.Thisparticular
qualitydependssomuchonthefreshnessofthepaintthatwhenthisismellowedanditsvividnessislost,nothingwillremainofvalue,ifthequieterqualitiesofdesignandarrangementhavebeensacrificedforit.
FransHalsistheonlyoldmasterIcanthinkofwithwhomthisformofportraitcanbecompared.Butitwillbenoticedthatbesidesdesigninghiscanvasescarefully,heusuallybalancedthevigourandvitalityofhisformwithagreatsobrietyofcolour.Infact,insomeofhislaterwork,wherethisrestlessvitalityismostinevidence,thecolourislittlemorethanblackandwhite,withalittleyellowochreandVenetianred.Itisthisextremereposefulnessofcolourthatopposestheunrestintheformandhelpstorestorethebalanceandnecessaryreposeinthepicture.Itisinterestingtonotetherestlessvarietyof
theedgesinFransHal'swork,howhenever,ifhecanhelpit,letsanedgerunsmoothly,butkeepsitconstantlyonthemove,oftenleavingitquitejagged,andtocomparethiswithwhatwassaidaboutvitalitydependingonvariety.
[Illustration:PlateLII.
JOHNREDMOND,M.P.
FromthedrawinginthecollectionofSirRobertEssex,M.P.,inredcontéchalkrubbed,thehighlightsbeingpickedoutwithrubber.]
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Anotherpointofviewisthatoftheartistwhoseekstogiveasignificantandcalmviewoftheexteriorformsofthesitter,anexpressivemapoftheindividualityofthoseforms,leavingyoutoformyourownintellectualjudgments.Asimple,ratherformal,attitudeisusuallychosen,andthesitterisdrawnwithsearchinghonesty.Thereisagreatdealtobesaidforthispointofviewinthehandsofapainterwithalargeappreciationofformanddesign.Butwithoutthesemoreinspiringqualitiesitisapttohavethedulnessthatattendsmost
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literaltranscriptions.Therearemanyinstancesofthispointofviewamongearlyportraitpainters,oneofthebestofwhichistheworkofHolbein.Butthen,toaverydistinguishedappreciationofthesubtletiesofformcharacterisationheaddedafinesenseofdesignandcolourarrangement,qualitiesbynomeansalwaysatthecommandofsomeofthelessermenofthisschool.
EveryportraitdraughtsmanshouldmakeapilgrimagetoWindsor,armedwiththenecessarypermissiontoviewthewonderfulseriesofportraitdrawingsbythismasterinthelibraryofthecastle.Theyarealiberaleducationinportraitdrawing.Itisnecessarytoseetheoriginals,foritisonlyafterhavingseenthemthatonecanproperlyunderstandthenumerousandwell-knownreproductions.Astudyofthesedrawingswill,Ithink,revealthefactthattheyarenotsoliteralasisusuallythought.Unflinchinglyandunaffectedlyhonesttheyare,buthonestnottoacold,mechanicallyaccuraterecordofthesitter'sappearance,buthonestandaccuratetothevitalimpressionofthelivesittermadeonthemindoftheliveartist.Thisisthedifferenceweweretryingtoexplainthatexistsbetweentheacademicandthevitaldrawing,anditisaverysubtleandelusivequality,likeallartisticqualities,totalkabout.Therecordofavitalimpressiondonewithunflinchingaccuracy,butundertheguidanceofintensementalactivity,isaverydifferentthingfromadrawingdonewiththecold,mechanicalaccuracyofamachine.Theonewillinstantlygriptheattentionandgiveonea
vividsensationinawaythatnomechanicallyaccuratedrawingcoulddo,andinawaythatpossiblythesightoftherealpersonwouldnotalwaysdo.Weseenumbersoffacesduringaday,butonlyafewwiththevividnessofwhichIamspeaking.Howmanyfacesinacrowdarepassedindifferently--thereisnovitalityintheimpressiontheymakeonourmind;butsuddenlyafacewillrivetourattention,andalthoughitisgoneinaflash,thememoryoftheimpressionwillremainforsometime.
ThebestofHolbein'sportraitdrawingsgiveonetheimpressionofhavingbeenseeninoneoftheseflashesandrivettheattentioninconsequence.Drawingsdoneunderthismentalstimuluspresentsubtledifferencesfromdrawingsdonewithcoldaccuracy.ThedrawingoftheLadyAudley,herereproduced,bearsevidenceofsomeofthissubtle
variationonwhatarecalledthefacts,inthelefteyeofthesitter.Itwillbenoticedthatthepupilofthiseyeislargerthantheother.NowIdonotsupposethatasamatterofmechanicalaccuracythiswasso,buttheimpressionoftheeyesseenaspartofavividimpressionoftheheadisseldomthattheyarethesamesize.Holbeinhadinthefirstinstanceinthisverycarefullywroughtdrawingmadethemso,butwhenatthelasthewasvitalisingtheimpression,"pullingittogether"asartistssay,hehasdeliberatelyputalineoutsidetheoriginalone,makingthispupillarger.Thisisnotatallclearlyseeninthereproduction,but#isdistinctlyvisibleintheoriginal#.Andtomythinkingitwasdoneatthedictatesofthevividmentalimpressionhewishedhisdrawingtoconvey.Fewcanfailtobestruckinturningoverthiswonderfulseriesofdrawingsbythevividnessoftheirportraiture,
andthevividnessisduetotheirbeingseverelyaccuratetothevitalimpressiononthemindofHolbein,notmerelytothefactscoldlyobserved.
[Illustration:PlateLIII.
THELADYAUDLEY.HOLBEIN(WINDSOR)
Notethedifferentsizesofpupilsintheeyes,andseeletterpressontheoppositepage.
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_CopyrightphotoBraun&Co._]
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Anotherpointofviewisthatofseekinginthefaceasymbolofthepersonwithin,andselectingthosethingsaboutaheadthatexpressthis.Ashasalreadybeensaid,thehabitualattitudeofmindhasinthecourseoftimeamarkedinfluenceontheformoftheface,andinfactofthewholebody,sothat--tothosewhocansee--themanorwomanisavisiblesymbolofthemselves.Butthisisbynomeansapparenttoall.
ThestrikingexampleofthisclassisthesplendidseriesofportraitsbythelateG.F.Watts.Lookingattheseheadsoneismadeconsciousofthepeopleinafuller,deepersensethaniftheywerebeforeoneintheflesh.ForWattssoughttodiscoverthepersonintheirappearanceandtopaintapicturethatshouldbealivingsymbolofthem.Hetookpainstofindoutallhecouldaboutthemindofhissittersbeforehepaintedthem,andsoughtintheappearancetheexpressionofthisinnerman.SothatwhereaswithHolbeinitwasthevividpresentationoftheimpressionasonemightseeaheadthatstruckoneinacrowd,withWattsitisthespiritoneisfirstconsciousof.ThethundersofwarappearinthepowerfulheadofLordLawrence,themusicofpoetryintheheadofSwinburne,andthedryatmosphereofthehigherregionsof
thoughtintheJohnStuartMill,&c.IntheNationalPortraitGallerytherearetwopaintingsofthepoetRobertBrowning,onebyRudolphLehmannandonebyWatts.Nowtheformerportraitisprobablymuchmore"like"thepoetasthepeoplewhomethimcasuallysawhim.ButWatts'sportraitislikethemanwhowrotethepoetry,andLehmann'sisnot.Browningwasaparticularlydifficultsubjectinthisrespect,inthattoacasualobservertherewasmuchmoreabouthisexternalappearancetosuggestaprosperousmanofbusiness,thanthefieryzealofthepoet.
TheseportraitsbyWattswillrepaythecloseststudybythestudentofportraiture.Theyarefullofthatwiseselectionbyagreatmindthat
liftssuchworkabovethetrivialityofthecommonplacetothelevelofgreatimaginativepainting.
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Anotherpointofviewisthatoftreatingthesitteraspartofasymphonyofformandcolour,andsubordinatingeverythingtothisartisticconsideration.Thisisveryfashionableatthepresenttime,andmuchbeautifulworkisbeingdonewiththismotive.Andwithmanyladieswhowouldnot,Ihope,objecttoone'ssayingthattheirprincipalcharacteristicwasthecharmoftheirappearance,thispointofviewoffers,perhaps,oneofthebestopportunitiesofasuccessfulpainting.Aposeisselectedthatmakesagooddesignoflineand
colour--agoodpattern--andthecharacterofthesitterisnotallowedtoobtrudeormarthesymmetryofthewholeconsideredasabeautifulpanel.TheportraitsofJ.McNeillWhistlerareexamplesofthistreatment,apointofviewthathasverylargelyinfluencedmodernportraitpaintinginEngland.
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Thenthereistheofficialportraitinwhichthedignityofanofficeheldbythesitter,ofwhichoccasiontheportraitisamemorial,hasto
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beconsidered.Themoreintimateinterestinthepersonalcharacterofthesitterisheresubordinatedtotheinterestofhispubliccharacterandattitudeofmindtowardshisoffice.ThusithappensthatmuchmoredecorativepageantrysymbolicofthesethingsispermissibleinthiskindofportraiturethaninthatofplainMr.Smith;agreaterstatelinessofdesignasbefittingofficialoccasions.
Itisnotcontendedthatthisformsanythinglikeacompletelistofthenumerousaspectsfromwhichaportraitcanbeconsidered,buttheyaresomeofthemoreextremeofthoseprevalentatthepresenttime.Neitherisitcontendedthattheyareincompatiblewitheachother:thequalitiesoftwoormoreofthesepointsofviewareoftenfoundinthesamework.Anditisnotinconceivablethatasingleportraitmightcontainallandbeastrikinglifelikepresentment,afaithfulcatalogueofallthefeatures,asymbolofthepersonandasymphonyofformandcolour.Butthechancesareagainstsuchacompositeaffairbeingasuccess.Oneorotherqualitywilldominateinasuccessfulwork;anditisnotadvisabletotryandcombinetoomanydifferentpointsofviewas,intheconfusionofideas,directnessofexpressionislost.Butnogoodportraitiswithoutsomeofthequalitiesofallthesepointsofview,whichevermaydominatetheartist'sintention.
[Sidenote:Expression.]
Thecamera,andmoreparticularlytheinstantaneouscamera,hashabituatedpeopletoexpectinaportraitamomentaryexpression,andofthesemomentaryexpressionsthefaintsmile,asweallknow,isaneasyfirstinthematterofpopularity.Itisnouncommonthingforthepaintertobeaskedintheearlystagesofhisworkwhenheisgoingtoputinthesmile,itneverbeingquestionedthatthisistheartist'saiminthematterofexpression.
Thegivingoflifelikeexpressiontoapaintingisnotsosimpleamatterasitmightappeartobe.Couldonesettherealpersonbehindtheframeandsuddenlyfixthemforeverwithoneofthosepassingexpressionsontheirfaces,howevernaturalitmighthavebeenatthemoment,fixedforeveritisterrible,andmostunlifelike.Aswehave
alreadysaid,afewlinesscribbledonapieceofpaperbyaconsummateartistwouldgiveagreatersenseoflifethanthisfixedactuality.Itisnotultimatelybythepursuitoftheactualrealisationthatexpressionandlifeareconveyedinaportrait.Everyfacehasexpressionofafarmoreinterestingandenduringkindthanthesemomentarydisturbancesofitsformoccasionedbylaughterorsomepassingthought,&c.Anditmustneverbeforgottenthataportraitisapanelpaintedtoremainforcenturieswithoutmovement.Sothatalargeamountofthequalityofreposemustenterintoitscomposition.Portraitsinwhichthishasnotbeenborneinmind,howeverentertainingatapictureexhibition,whentheyareseenforafewmomentsonly,pallononeifconstantlyseen,andarefinallyveryirritating.
Buttherealexpressioninaheadissomethingmoreenduringthanthesepassingmovements:onethatbelongstotheformsofahead,andthemarksleftonthatformbythelifeandcharacteroftheperson.Thisisoffarmoreinterestthanthosepassingexpressions,theresultsofthecontractionofcertainmusclesundertheskin,theeffectofwhichisverysimilarinmostpeople.Itisfortheportraitpaintertofindthismoreenduringexpressionandgiveitnobleexpressioninhiswork.
[Sidenote:TreatmentofClothes.]
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Itisacommonideaamongsittersthatiftheyarepaintedinmodernclothesthepicturewilllookold-fashionedinafewyears.Ifthesitter'sappearancewerefixeduponthecanvasexactlyastheystoodbeforetheartistinhisstudio,withoutanyselectiononthepartofthepainter,thismightbetheresult,and_is_theresultinthecaseofpainterswhohavenohigheraimthanthis.
Buttherearequalitiesindressthatdonotbelongexclusivelytotheparticularperiodoftheirfashion.Qualitiesthatarethesameinallages.Andwhentheseareinsistedupon,andthefrivolitiesofthemomentindressnottroubledaboutsomuch,theportraithasapermanentquality,andwillneverinconsequencelookold-fashionedintheoffensivewaythatisusuallymeant.Inthefirstplace,thedraperyandstuffsofwhichclothesaremadefollowlawsinthemannerinwhichtheyfoldanddrapeoverthefigure,thatarethesameinalltimes.Iftheexpressionofthefigurethroughthedraperiesissoughtbythepainter,apermanentqualitywillbegiveninhiswork,whateverfantasticshapesthecutofthegarmentsmayassume.
Andfurther,theartistdoesnottakewhatevercomestohandintheappearanceofhissitter,butworkstoathought-outarrangementofcolourandform,toadesign.Thisheselectsfromthemovingandvariedappearanceofhissitter,tryingonethingafteranother,untilheseesasuggestivearrangement,fromtheimpressionofwhichhemakeshis
design.Itistruethattheextremesoffashiondonotalwayslendthemselvessoreadilyasmorereasonablemodestothemakingofagoodpictorialpattern.Butthisisnotalwaysso,someextremefashionsgivingopportunitiesofverypiquantandinterestingportraitdesigns.Sothat,howeverextremethefashion,iftheartistisabletoselectsomeaspectofitthatwillresultinagoodarrangementforhisportrait,theworkwillneverhavetheoffensiveold-fashionedlook.Theprinciplesgoverninggooddesignsarethesameinalltimes;andifmaterialforsucharrangementhasbeendiscoveredinthemostmodishoffashions,ithasbeenliftedintoaspherewherenothingiseveroutofdate.
Itisonlywhenthepainterisconcernedwiththetrivialdetailsof
fashionfortheirownsake,forthemakinghispicturelookliketherealthing,andhasnotbeenconcernedwithtransmutingtheappearanceoffashionableclothesbyselectionintothepermanentrealmsofformandcolourdesign,thathisworkwilljustifyoneinsayingthatitwilllookstaleinafewyears.
Thefashionofdressingsittersinmeaningless,so-calledclassicaldraperiesisafeebleone,andusuallyarguesalackofcapacityforselectingagoodarrangementfromtheclothesoftheperiodintheartistwhoadoptsit.Modernwomen'sclothesarefullofsuggestionsfornewarrangementsanddesignsquiteasgoodasanythingthathasbeendoneinthepast.Therangeofsubtlecoloursandvarietiesoftextureinmaterialsisamazing,andthesubtletyofinventiondisplayedinsome
ofthedesignsforcostumesleadsonetowonderwhetherthereisnotsomethingintheremarkattributedtoaneminentsculptorthat"designingladies'fashionsisoneofthefewartsthatisthoroughlyvitalto-day."
XVIII
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THEVISUALMEMORY
Thememoryisthegreatstorehouseofartisticmaterial,thetreasuresofwhichtheartistmayknowlittleaboutuntilachanceassociationlightsupsomeofitsdarkrecesses.Fromearlyyearsthemindoftheyoungartisthasbeenstoringupimpressionsinthesemysteriouschambers,collectedfromnature'saspects,worksofart,andanythingthatcomeswithinthefieldofvision.Itisfromthisstorethattheimaginationdrawsitsmaterial,howeverfantasticandremotefromnaturalappearancestheformsitmayassume.
Howmuchourmemoryofpicturescolourstheimpressionsofnaturewereceiveisprobablynotsuspectedbyus,butwhocouldsayhowascenewouldappeartohim,hadheneverlookedatapicture?Sosensitiveisthevisiontotheinfluenceofmemorythat,afterseeingthepicturesofsomepainterwhoseworkhasdeeplyimpressedus,weareapt,whilethememoryofitisstillfreshinourminds,toseethingsashewouldpaintthem.OndifferentoccasionsafterleavingtheNationalGalleryIcanrememberhavingseenTrafalgarSquareasPaoloVeronese,Turner,orwhateverpaintermayhaveimpressedmeintheGallery,wouldhavepaintedit,thememoryoftheirworkcolouringtheimpressionthesceneproduced.
But,puttingasidethememoryofpictures,letusconsidertheplaceofdirectvisualmemoryfromnatureinourwork,picturesbeingindirectorsecond-handimpressions.
Wehaveseeninanearlierchapterhowcertainpaintersinthenineteenthcentury,feelinghowverysecond-handandfarremovedfromnaturepaintinghadbecome,startedamovementtodiscardstudiotraditionsandstudynaturewithasingleeye,takingtheirpicturesoutofdoors,andendeavouringtowrestnature'ssecretsfromheronthespot.ThePre-RaphaelitemovementinEnglandandtheImpressionistmovementinFranceweretheresultsofthisimpulse.Anditisinteresting,bytheway,tocontrastthedifferentmannerinwhichthisdesireformoretruthtonatureaffectedtheFrenchandEnglish
temperaments.TheintenseindividualismoftheEnglishsoughtouteverydetail,everyleafandflowerforitself,paintingthemwithapassionandintensitythatmadetheirpaintingavividmediumfortheexpressionofpoeticideas;whilethemoresyntheticmindoftheFrenchmanapproachedthissearchforvisualtruthfromtheoppositepointofviewofthewholeeffect,findinginthelarge,generalisedimpressionanewworldofbeauty.Andhismorelogicalmindledhimtoinquireintothenatureoflight,andsotoinventatechniquefoundedonscientificprinciples.
Butnowthefirstblushoffreshnesshaswornoffthenewmovement,paintershavebeguntoseethatifanythingbutveryordinaryeffectsaretobeattempted,thispaintingonthespotmustgiveplacetomore
relianceonthememory.
Memoryhasthisgreatadvantageoverdirectvision:itretainsmorevividlytheessentialthings,andhasahabitoflosingwhatisunessentialtothepictorialimpression.
Butwhatistheessentialinapainting?Whatisitmakesonewanttopaintatall?Ah!Hereweapproachverydebatableandshadowyground,andwecandolittlebutaskquestions,theanswertowhichwillvarywitheachindividualtemperament.Whatisitthattheseraysoflight
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strikingourretinaconveytoourbrain,andfromourbraintowhateverisourselves,intheseatofconsciousnessabovethis?Whatisthismysteriouscorrespondencesetupbetweensomethingwithinandsomethingwithout,thatattimessendssuchaclamourofharmonythroughourwholebeing?Whydocertaincombinationsofsoundinmusicandofformandcolourinartaffectussoprofoundly?Whatarethelawsgoverningharmonyintheuniverse,andwhencedotheycome?Itishardlytreesandsky,earth,orfleshandblood,#assuch#,thatinteresttheartist;butratherthatthroughthesethingsinmemorablemomentsheispermittedaconsciousnessofdeeperthings,andimpelledtoseekutteranceforwhatismovinghim.Itistherecordoftheseraremomentsinwhichoneapprehendstruthinthingsseenthattheartistwishestoconveytoothers.Butthesemoments,theseflashesofinspirationwhichareattheinceptionofeveryvitalpicture,occurbutseldom.Whatthepainterhastodoistofixthemvividlyinhismemory,tosnapshotthem,asitwere,sothattheymaystandbyhimduringthetoilsomeprocedureofthepainting,andguidethework.
Thisinitialinspiration,thisinitialflashinthemind,neednotbetheresultofasceneinnature,butmayofcoursebepurelytheworkoftheimagination;acomposition,thesenseofwhichflashesacrossthemind.Butineithercasethedifficultyistopreservevividlythesensationofthisoriginalartisticimpulse.Andinthecaseofitshavingbeenderivedfromnaturedirect,asissooftenthecasein
modernart,thesystemofpaintingcontinuallyonthespotisapttolosetouchwithitverysoon.Forinthecontinualobservationofanythingyouhavesetyoureaselbeforedayafterday,comesaseriesofimpressions,moreandmorecommonplace,astheeyebecomesmoreandmorefamiliarwiththedetailsofthesubject.Anderelongtheoriginalemotionthatwasthereasonofthewholeworkislostsightof,andoneofthosepicturesordrawingsgivingacatalogueoftiredobjectsmoreorlessingeniouslyarranged(thatweallknowsowell)istheresult--workutterlylackinginthefreshnessandcharmoftrueinspiration.Forhowevercommonplacethesubjectseenbytheartistinoneofhis"flashes,"itisclothedinanewnessandsurprisethatcharmus,beitonlyanorangeonaplate.
Nowapictureisathingofpaintuponaflatsurface,andadrawingisamatterofcertainmarksuponapaper,andhowtotranslatetheintricaciesofavisualorimaginedimpressiontotheprosaictermsofmassesofcolouredpigmentorlinesandtonesisthebusinesswithwhichourtechniqueisconcerned.Theease,therefore,withwhichapainterwillbeabletorememberanimpressioninaformfromwhichhecanwork,willdependuponhispowertoanalysevisioninthistechnicalsense.Themoreoneknowsaboutwhatmaybecalledtheanatomyofpicture-making--howcertainformsproducecertaineffects,certaincoloursorarrangementsothereffects,&c.--theeasierwillitbeforhimtocarryawayavisualmemoryofhissubjectthatwillstandbyhimduringthelonghoursofhislaboursatthepicture.Themoreheknowsoftheexpressivepowersoflinesandtones,themoreeasilywillhebe
abletoobservethevitalthingsinnaturethatconveytheimpressionhewishestomemorise.
Itisnotenoughtodrinkinandremembertheemotionalsideofthematter,althoughthismustbedonefully,butifamemoryofthesubjectistobecarriedawaythatwillbeofservicetechnically,thescenemustbecommittedtomemoryintermsofwhatevermediumyouintendtoemployforreproducingit--inthecaseofadrawing,linesandtones.Andtheimpressionwillhavetobeanalysedintothesetermsasifyouwereactuallydrawingthesceneonsomeimaginedpieceofpaperinyour
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mind.Thefacultyofdoingthisisnottobeacquiredallatonce,butitisamazingofhowmuchdevelopmentitiscapable.Justasthefacultyofcommittingtomemorylongpoemsorplayscanbedeveloped,socanthefacultyofrememberingvisualthings.Thissubjecthasreceivedlittleattentioninartschoolsuntiljustrecently.Butitisnotyetsosystematicallydoneasitmightbe.MonsieurLecoqdeBoisbaudraninFranceexperimentedwithpupilsinthismemorytraining,beginningwithverysimplethingsliketheoutlineofanose,andgoingontomorecomplexsubjectsbyeasystages,withthemostsurprisingresults.Andthereisnodoubtthatagreatdealmorecanandshouldbedoneinthisdirectionthanisatpresentattempted.Whatstudentsshoulddoistoformahabitofmakingeverydayintheirsketch-bookadrawingofsomethingtheyhaveseenthathasinterestedthem,andthattheyhavemadesomeattemptatmemorising.Don'tbediscouragediftheresultsarepooranddisappointingatfirst--youwillfindthatbyperseveringyourpowerofmemorywilldevelopandbeofthegreatestservicetoyouinyourafterwork.Tryparticularlytorememberthespiritofthesubject,andinthismemory-drawingsomescribblingandfumblingwillnecessarilyhavetobedone.Youcannotexpecttobeabletodrawdefinitelyandclearlyfrommemory,atleastatfirst,althoughyouraimshouldalwaysbetodrawasfranklyandclearlyasyoucan.
[Illustration:PlateLIV.
STUDYONBROWNPAPERINBLACKANDWHITECONTÃCHALKIllustratingasimplemethodofstudyingdraperyforms.]
Letusassumethatyouhavefoundasubjectthatmovesyouandthat,beingtoofleetingtodrawonthespot,youwishtocommittomemory.Drinkafullenjoymentofit,letitsoakin,fortherecollectionofthiswillbeoftheutmostusetoyouafterwardsinguidingyourmemory-drawing.Thismentalimpressionisnotdifficulttorecall;itisthevisualimpressionintermsoflineandtonethatisdifficulttoremember.Havingexperiencedyourfullenjoymentoftheartisticmatterinthesubject,youmustnextconsideritfromthematerialside,asaflat,visualimpression,asthisistheonlyforminwhichitcanbe
expressedonaflatsheetofpaper.Notetheproportionsofthemainlines,theirshapesanddisposition,asifyouweredrawingit,infactdothewholedrawinginyourmind,memorisingtheformsandproportionsofthedifferentparts,andfixitinyourmemorytothesmallestdetail.
Ifonlytheemotionalsideofthematterhasbeenremembered,whenyoucometodrawityouwillbehopelesslyatsea,asitisremarkablehowlittlethememoryretainsoftheappearanceofthingsconstantlyseen,ifnoattempthasbeenmadetomemorisetheirvisualappearance.
Thetrueartist,evenwhenworkingfromnature,worksfrommemoryverylargely.Thatistosay,heworkstoaschemeintunetosomeemotional
enthusiasmwithwhichthesubjecthasinspiredhiminthefirstinstance.Natureisalwayschanging,buthedoesnotchangetheintentionofhispicture.Healwayskeepsbeforehimtheinitialimpressionhesetsouttopaint,andonlyselectsfromnaturethosethingsthatplayuptoit.Heisafeebleartist,whocopiesindividuallythepartsofascenewithwhatevereffecttheymayhaveatthemomentheisdoingthem,andthenexpectsthesumtotaltomakeapicture.Ifcircumstancespermit,itisalwaysaswelltomakeinthefirstinstancearapidsketchthatshall,whateveritmaylack,atleastcontainthemaindispositionofthemassesandlinesofyourcomposition
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seenundertheinfluenceoftheenthusiasmthathasinspiredthework.Thiswillbeofgreatvalueafterwardsinfresheningyourmemorywheninthelabouroftheworktheoriginalimpulsegetsdulled.Itisseldomthatthevitalityofthisfirstsketchissurpassedbythecompletedwork,andoften,alas!itisfarfromequalled.
Inportraitpaintinganddrawingthememorymustbeusedalso.Asittervariesverymuchintheimpressionhegivesondifferentdays,andtheartistmustintheearlysittings,whenhismindisfresh,selecttheaspecthemeanstopaintandafterwardsworklargelytothememoryofthis.
Alwaysworktoaschemeonwhichyouhavedecided,anddonotflounderoninthehopeofsomethingturningupasyougoalong.Yourfacultiesareneversoactiveandpronetoseesomethinginterestingandfineaswhenthesubjectisfirstpresentedtothem.Thisisthetimetodecideyourscheme;thisisthetimetotakeyourfilloftheimpressionyoumeantoconvey.Thisisthetimetolearnyoursubjectthoroughlyanddecideonwhatyouwishthepicturetobe.Andhavingdecidedthis,workstraighton,usingnaturetosupportyouroriginalimpression,butdon'tbeledoffbyafreshschemebecauseothersstrikeyouasyougoalong.Newschemeswilldoso,ofcourse,andeverynewonehasaknackoflookingbetterthanyouroriginalone.Butitisnotoftenthatthisisso;thefactthattheyarenewmakesthemappeartogreateradvantage
thantheoriginalschemetowhichyouhavegotaccustomed.Sothatitisnotonlyinworkingawayfromnaturethatthememoryisofuse,butactuallywhenworkingdirectlyinfrontofnature.
Tosumup,therearetwoaspectsofasubject,theoneluxuriatinginthesensuouspleasureofit,withallofspiritualsignificanceitmayconsciouslyorunconsciouslyconvey,andtheotherconcernedwiththelines,tones,shapes,&c.,andtheirrhythmicordering,bymeansofwhichitistobeexpressed--thematterandmanner,astheymaybecalled.And,iftheartist'smemoryistobeofusetohiminhiswork,boththeseaspectsmustbememorised,andofthetwothesecondwillneedthemostattention.Butalthoughtherearethesetwoaspectsofthesubject,andeachmustreceiveseparateattentionwhenmemorisingit,
theyareinrealityonlytwoaspectsofthesamething,whichintheactofpaintingordrawingmustbeunitedifaworkofartistoresult.Whenasubjectfirstflashesuponanartisthedelightsinitasapaintedordrawnthing,andfeelsinstinctivelythetreatmentitwillrequire.Ingooddraughtsmanshipthethingfeltwillguideandgoverneverything,everytouchwillbeinstinctwiththethrillofthatfirstimpression.Thecraftsmanmind,solaboriouslybuiltup,shouldbynowhavebecomeaninstinct,asecondnature,atthedirectionofahigherconsciousness.Atsuchtimestherightstrokes,therighttonescomenaturallyandgoontherightplace,theartistbeingonlyconsciousofafiercejoyandafeelingthatthingsareintuneandgoingwellforonce.Itisthethirstforthisgloriousenthusiasm,thisfusingofmatterandmanner,thisactofgivingthespiritwithinoutwardform,
thatspurstheartistonatalltimes,anditisthisthatisthewonderfulthingaboutart.
XIX
PROCEDURE
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Incommencingadrawing,don't,assomanystudentsdo,startcarelesslyflounderingaboutwithyourchalkorcharcoalinthehopethatsomethingwillturnup.Itisseldomifeverthatanartistputsonpaperanythingbetterthanhehasinhismindbeforehestarts,andusuallyitisnotnearlysogood.
Don'tspoilthebeautyofacleansheetofpaperbyalotofscribble.Tryandseeinyourmind'seyethedrawingyoumeantodo,andthentryandmakeyourhandrealiseit,makingthepapermorebeautifulbyeverytouchyougiveinsteadofspoilingitbyaslovenlymannerofprocedure.
Toknowwhatyouwanttodoandthentodoitisthesecretofgoodstyleandtechnique.Thissoundsverycommonplace,butitissurprisinghowfewstudentsmakeittheiraim.Youmayoftenobservethemcomein,pinapieceofpaperontheirboard,drawalinedownthemiddle,makeafewmeasurements,andstartblockinginthedrawingwithouthavinggiventhesubjecttobedrawnathought,asifitwerealltheredonebeforethem,andonlyneededcopying,asaclerkwouldcopyaletteralreadydraftedforhim.
Now,nothingisbeingsaidagainstthepracticeofdrawingguidelinesandtakingmeasurementsandblockinginyourwork.Thisisverynecessaryinacademicwork,ifratherfetteringtoexpressivedrawing;
buteveninthemostacademicdrawingtheartisticintelligencemustbeused,althoughthatisnotthekindofdrawingthischapterisparticularlyreferringto.
Lookwellatthemodelfirst;tryandbemovedbysomethingintheformthatyoufeelisfineorinteresting,andtryandseeinyourmind'seyewhatsortofdrawingyoumeantodobeforetouchingyourpaper.Inschoolstudiesbealwaysunflinchinglyhonesttotheimpressionthemodelgivesyou,butdismissthecameraideaoftruthfromyourmind.Insteadofconvertingyourselfintoamechanicalinstrumentforthecopyingofwhatisbeforeyou,letyourdrawingbeanexpressionoftruthperceivedintelligently.
Beextremelycarefulaboutthefirstfewstrokesyouputonyourpaper:thequalityofyourdrawingisoftendecidedintheseearlystages.Iftheyarevitalandexpressive,youhavestartedalonglinesyoucandevelop,andhavesomehopeofdoingagooddrawing.Iftheyarefeebleandpoor,thechancesaregreatlyagainstyourgettinganythinggoodbuiltuponthem.Ifyourstarthasbeenbad,pullyourselftogether,turnyourpaperoverandstartafresh,tryingtoseizeuponthebig,significantlinesandswingsinyoursubjectatonce.Rememberitismucheasiertoputdownastatementcorrectlythantocorrectawrongone;sooutwiththewholepartifyouareconvinceditiswrong.Trainyourselftomakedirect,accuratestatementsinyourdrawings,anddon'twastetimetryingtomanoeuvreabaddrawingintoagoodone.Stopassoonasyoufeelyouhavegonewrongandcorrecttheworkinitsearly
stages,insteadofrushingonuponawrongfoundationinthevaguehopethatitwillallcomerightintheend.Whenoutwalking,ifyoufindyouhavetakenawrongroadyoudonot,ifyouarewise,gooninthehopethatthewrongwaywillleadtotherightone,butyouturnroundandgobacktothepointatwhichyoulefttherightroad.Itisverymuchthesameindrawingandpainting.Assoonasyoubecomeawarethatyouhavegotuponthewrongtrack,stopandruboutyourworkuntilanearlierstagethatwasrightisreached,andstartalongagainfromthispoint.Asyoureyegetstrainedyouwillmorequicklyperceivewhenyouhavedoneawrongstroke,andbeabletocorrectitbeforehavinggone
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veryfaralongthewrongroad.
Donotworktoolongwithoutgivingyoureyealittlerest;afewmomentswillbequitesufficient.Ifthingswon'tcome,stopaminute;theeyeoftengetsfatiguedveryquicklyandrefusestoseetruly,butsoonrevivesifrestedaminuteortwo.
Donotgolabouringatadrawingwhenyourmindisnotworking;youarenotdoinganygood,andprobablyarespoilinganygoodyouhavealreadydone.Pullyourselftogether,andaskwhatitisyouaretryingtoexpress,andhavinggotthisideafirmlyfixedinyourmind,goforyourdrawingwiththedeterminationthatitshallexpressit.
Allthiswillsoundverytritetostudentsofanymettle,buttherearelargenumberswhowastenoendoftimeworkinginapurelymechanical,lifelessway,andwiththeirmindsanywherebutconcentratedupontheworkbeforethem.Andifthemindisnotworking,theworkofthehandwillbeofnoaccount.Myownexperienceisthatonehasconstantlytobemakingfresheffortduringtheprocedureofthework.Themindisapttotireandneedsrousingcontinually,otherwisetheworkwilllacktheimpulsethatshallmakeitvital.Particularlyisthissointhefinalstagesofadrawingorpainting,when,inaddingdetailsandsmallrefinements,itisdoublynecessaryforthemindtobeonfirewiththeinitialimpulse,orthemainqualitieswillbeobscuredandtheresult
enfeebledbythesesmallermatters.Donotrubout,ifyoucanpossiblyhelpit,indrawingsthataimatartisticexpression.Inacademicwork,whereartisticfeelingislessimportantthanthedisciplineofyourfaculties,youmay,ofcourse,doso,butevenhereaslittleaspossible.Inbeautifuldrawingofanyfacilityithasaweakeningeffect,somewhatsimilartothatproducedbyapersonstoppinginthemiddleofawittyorbrilliantremarktocorrectaword.Ifawronglineismade,itisleftinbythesideoftherightoneinthedrawingofmanyofthemasters.Butthegreataimofthedraughtsmanshouldbetotrainhimselftodrawcleanlyandfearlessly,handandeyegoingtogether.Butthisstateofthingscannotbeexpectedforsometime.
Letpainstakingaccuracybeyouraimforalongtime.Whenyoureyeandhandhaveacquiredthepowerofseeingandexpressingonpaperwithsomedegreeofaccuracywhatyousee,youwillfindfacilityandquicknessofexecutionwillcomeoftheirownaccord.Indrawingofanyexpressivepowerthisquicknessandfacilityofexecutionareabsolutelyessential.Thewavesofemotion,undertheinfluenceofwhichtheeyereallyseesinanyartisticsense,donotlastlongenoughtoallowofaslow,painstakingmannerofexecution.Theremustbenohitchinthemachineryofexpressionwhentheconsciousnessisalivetotherealisationofsomethingfine.Fluencyofhandandaccuracyofeyearethethingsyouracademicstudiesshouldhavetaughtyou,andthesepowerswillbeneededifyouaretocatchtheexpressionofanyofthefinerthingsinform
thatconstitutegooddrawing.
Tryandexpressyourselfinassimple,notascomplicatedamanneraspossible.Leteverytouchmeansomething,andifyoudon'tseewhattodonext,don'tfillinthetimebymeaninglessshadingandscribblinguntilyoudo.Waitawhile,restyoureyebylookingaway,andthenseeifyoucannotfindsomethingrightthatneedsdoing.
Beforebeginningadrawing,itisnotabadideatostudycarefullytheworkofsomemasterdraughtsmanwhomthesubjecttobedrawnmay
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suggest.Ifyoudothiscarefullyandthoughtfully,andtakeinafullenjoyment,youreyewillunconsciouslybeledtoseeinnaturesomeofthequalitiesofthemaster'swork.Andyouwillseethesubjecttobedrawnasamuchfinerthingthanwouldhavebeenthecasehadyoucometoitwithyoureyeunpreparedinanyway.Reproductionsarenowsogoodandcheapthatthebestdrawingsintheworldcanbehadforafewpence,andeverystudentshouldbegincollectingreproductionsofthethingsthatinteresthim.
Thisisnottheplacetodiscussquestionsofhealth,butperhapsitwillnotbethoughtgrandmotherlytomentiontheextremeimportanceofnervousvitalityinafinedraughtsman,andhowhislifeshouldbeorderedonsuchhealthylinesthathehasathiscommandthemaximuminsteadoftheminimumofthisfaculty.Afteracertainpoint,itisaquestionofvitalityhowfaranartistislikelytogoinart.Giventwomenofequalability,theoneleadingacarelesslifeandtheotherahealthyone,asfarasahealthyoneispossibletosuchasupersensitivecreatureasanartist,therecanbenodoubtastotheresult.Itisbecausethereisstillalingeringideainthemindsofmanythatanartistmustleadadissipatedlifeorheisnotreallyanartist,thatonefeelsitnecessarytomentionthesubject.Thisideahasevidentlyarisenfromtheinabilityoftheaveragepersontoassociateanunconventionalmodeoflifewithanythingbutriotousdissipation.Aconventionallifeisnottheonlywholesomeformof
existence,andiscertainlyamostunwholesomeanddeadeningformtotheartist;andneitherisadissipatedlifetheonlyunconventionaloneopentohim.Itisaswellthattheyoungstudentshouldknowthis,andbeledearlytotakegreatcareofthatmostvaluableofstudioproperties,vigoroushealth.
XX
MATERIALS
Thematerialsinwhichtheartistworksareofthegreatestimportanceindeterminingwhatqualitiesintheinfinitecomplexityofnatureheselectsforexpression.Andthegooddraughtsmanwillfindouttheparticularonesthatbelongtowhatevermediumheselectsforhisdrawing,andbecarefulnevertoattemptmorethanitiscapableofdoing.Everymaterialheworkswithpossessescertainvitalqualitiespeculiartoitself,anditishisbusinesstofindoutwhattheseareandusethemtotheadvantageofhisdrawing.Whenoneisworkingwith,say,penandink,thenecessityforselectingonlycertainthingsisobviousenough.Butwhenamediumwiththevastcapacityofoilpaintisbeingused,theprincipleofitsgoverningthenatureoftheworkismoreoftenlostsightof.Sonearcanoilpaintapproachanactual
illusionofnaturalappearances,thatmuchmisdirectedefforthasbeenwastedonthisobject,allenjoymentofthemediumbeingsubordinatedtoameretriciousattempttodeceivetheeye.AndIbelieveapopularideaoftheartofpaintingisthatitexistschieflytoproducethisdeception.Novitalexpressionofnaturecanbeachievedwithouttheaidoftheparticularvitalitypossessedbythemediumwithwhichoneisworking.Ifthisislostsightofandtheeyeistrickedintothinkingthatitislookingatrealnature,itisnotafinepicture.Artisnotasubstitutefornature,butanexpressionoffeelingproducedintheconsciousnessoftheartist,andintimatelyassociatedwiththematerial
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throughwhichitisexpressedinhiswork--inspired,itmaybe,inthefirstinstance,bysomethingseen,andexpressedbyhiminpaintedsymbolsastruetonatureashecanmakethemwhilekeepingintunetotheemotionalideathatpromptedthework;butneverregardedbythefineartistasanythingbutpaintedsymbolsnevertheless.Neverforonemomentdoesheintendyoutoforgetthatitisapaintedpictureyouarelookingat,howevernaturalisticthetreatmenthisthememaydemand.
Intheearlierhistoryofartitwasnotsonecessarytoinsistonthelimitationsimposedbydifferentmediums.Withtheirmorelimitedknowledgeofthephenomenaofvision,theearlymastershadnotthesameopportunitiesofgoingastrayinthisrespect.Butnowthatthewholefieldofvisionhasbeendiscovered,andthatthesubtlesteffectsoflightandatmospherearecapableofbeingrepresented,ithasbecomenecessarytodecidehowfarcompleteaccuracyofrepresentationwillhelptheparticularimpressionyoumayintendyourpictureordrawingtocreate.Thedangeristhatinproducingacompleteillusionofrepresentation,theparticularvitalityofyourmedium,withalltheexpressivepoweritiscapableofyielding,maybelost.
Perhapsthechiefdifferencebetweenthegreatmastersofthepastandmanymodernpaintersistheneglectofthisprinciple.#Theyrepresentednatureintermsofwhatevermediumtheyworkedin,andneveroversteppedthislimitation#.Modernartists,particularlyinthe
nineteenthcentury,oftenattemptedto#copynature#,themediumbeingsubordinatedtotheattempttomakeitlookliketherealthing.Inthesameway,thedrawingsofthegreatmastersweredrawings.Theydidnotattemptanythingwithapointthatapointwasnotcapableofexpressing.Thedrawingsofmanymodernartistsarefullofattemptstoexpresstoneandcoloureffects,thingsentirelyoutsidethetrueprovinceofdrawing.Thesmallbutinfinitelyimportantpartofnaturethatpuredrawingiscapableofconveyinghasbeenneglected,andlinework,untilrecently,wentoutoffashioninourschools.
Thereissomethingthatmakesforpowerinthelimitationsyourmaterialsimpose.Manyartistswhoseworkinsomeofthemorelimitedmediumsisfine,areutterlyfeeblewhentheyattemptonewithsofew
restrictionsasoilpaint.Ifstudentscouldonlybeinducedtoimposemorerestraintuponthemselveswhentheyattemptsodifficultamediumaspaint,itwouldbegreatlytotheadvantageoftheirwork.Beginningfirstwithmonochromeinthreetones,asexplainedinaformerchapter,theymightthentakeforfigureworkivoryblackandVenetianred.Itissurprisingwhatanamountofcoloureffectcanbegotwiththissimplemeans,andhowmuchcanbelearnedabouttherelativepositionsofthewarmandcoldcolours.Donotattemptthefullrangeoftoneatfirst,butkeepthedarksratherlighterandthelightsdarkerthannature.Attemptthefullscaleoftoneonlywhenyouhaveacquiredsufficientexperiencewiththesimplerrange,andgraduallyaddmorecoloursasyoulearntomasterafew.Butrestraintsarenotsofashionablejustnowasunbridledlicence.Artstudentsstartinwithapalettefullofthe
mostamazingcolours,producingresultsthatitwerebetternottodiscuss.Itisawisemanwhocandiscoverhislimitationsandselectamediumthecapacitiesofwhichjusttallywithhisown.Todiscoverthis,itisadvisabletotrymany,andbelowisashortdescriptionofthechiefonesusedbythedraughtsman.Butverylittlecanbesaidaboutthem,andverylittleideaoftheircapacitiesgiveninawrittendescription;theymustbehandledbythestudent,andarenodoubtcapableofmanymorequalitiesthanhaveyetbeengotoutofthem.
[Sidenote:LeadPencil]
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Thiswell-knownmediumisoneofthemostbeautifulforpurelinework,anditsuseisanexcellenttrainingtotheeyeandhandinprecisionofobservation.Perhapsthisiswhyithasnotbeensopopularinourartschoolslately,whenthecharmsofseveredisciplinearenotsomuchinfavourastheyshouldbe.Itisthefirstmediumwearegiventodrawwith,andasthehandiestandmostconvenientisunrivalledforsketch-bookuse.
Itismadeinalargevarietyofdegrees,fromthehardestandgreyesttothesoftestandblackest,andistoowellknowntoneedmuchdescription.Itdoesnotneedfixing.
Forpurelinedrawingnothingequalsit,exceptsilverpoint,andgreatdraughtsmen,likeIngres,havealwayslovedit.Itdoesnotlenditselfsoreadilytoanyformofmassdrawing.Althoughitissometimesusedforthispurpose,theoffensiveshinethatoccursifdarkmassesareintroducedisagainstitsuseinanybutverylightlyshadedwork.
[Illustration:PlateLV.
FROMASILVER-POINTDRAWING]
Itscharmistheextremedelicacyofitsgrey-blacklines.
[Sidenote:SilverandGoldPoint.]
Similartoleadpencil,andofevengreaterdelicacy,issilver-pointdrawing.Amoreancientmethod,itconsistsindrawingwithasilverpointonpaperthesurfaceofwhichhasbeentreatedwithafaintwashofChinesewhite.Withoutthiswashthepointwillnotmakeamark.
Forextremedelicacyandpurityoflinenomediumcansurpassthismethod.Andfortheexpressionofabeautifulline,suchasaprofile,nothingcouldbemoresuitablethanasilverpoint.Asatrainingtotheeyeandhandalso,itisofgreatvalue,asnorubbingoutofanysortispossible,andeyeandhandmustworktogetherwithgreatexactness.
Thedisciplineofsilver-pointdrawingistoberecommendedasacorrectivetothepicturesquevagariesofcharcoalwork.
Agoldpoint,givingawarmerline,canalsobeusedinthesamewayasasilverpoint,thepaperfirsthavingbeentreatedwithChinesewhite.
[Sidenote:Charcoal.]
Twoextremepointsofviewfromwhichtherenderingofformcanbeapproachedhavebeenexplained,andithasbeensuggestedthatstudentsshouldstudythembothseparatelyinthefirstinstance,astheyeachhavedifferentthingstoteach.Ofthemediumsthatarebestsuitedtoadrawingcombiningbothpointsofview,thefirstandmostpopularis
charcoal.
Charcoalismadeinmanydifferentdegreesofhardnessandsoftness,thehardervarietiesbeingcapableofquiteafinepoint.Achisel-shapedpointisthemostconvenient,asitdoesnotwearawaysoquickly.Andifthebroadsideofthechiselpointisusedwhenadarkmassiswanted,theedgecanconstantlybekeptsharp.Withthisedgeaveryfinelinecanbedrawn.
Charcoalworkswithgreatfreedom,andanswersreadilywhenforceful
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expressioniswanted.Itismuchmorelikepaintingthananyotherformofdrawing,awidepieceofcharcoalmakingawidemarksimilartoabrush.Thedelicacyandlightnesswithwhichithastobehandledisalsomuchmorelikethehandlingofabrushthananyotherpointdrawing.Whenrubbedwiththefinger,itshedsasoftgreytoneoverthewholework.Withapieceofbreadpressedbythumbandfingerintoapellet,highlightscanbetakenoutwiththeprecisionofwhitechalk;orrubbercanbeused.Breadis,perhaps,thebest,asitdoesnotsmudgethecharcoalbutliftsitreadilyoff.Whenrubbedwiththefinger,thedarks,ofcourse,arelightenedintone.Itisthereforeusefultodrawinthegeneralproportionsroughlyandrubdowninthisway.Youthenhaveamiddletoneoverthework,withtheroughdrawingshowingthrough.Nowproceedcarefullytodrawyourlightswithbreadorrubber,andyourshadowswithcharcoal,inmuchthesamemannerasyoudidinthemonochromeexercisesalreadydescribed.
Allpreliminarysettingoutofyourworkoncanvasisusuallydonewithcharcoal,whichmustofcoursebefixedwithaspraydiffuser.Forlargework,suchasafull-lengthportrait,sticksofcharcoalnearlyaninchindiameteraremade,andalongswinginglinecanbedonewithouttheirbreaking.
Fordrawingsthatareintendedasthingsofbeautyinthemselves,andarenotmerelydoneasapreparatorystudyforapainting,charcoalis
perhapsnotsorefinedamediumasagreatmanyothers.Itistoomuchlikepaintingtohavetheparticularbeautiesofadrawing,andtoomuchlikedrawingtohavethequalitiesofapainting.However,somebeautifulthingshavebeendonewithit.
Itisusefulindoingstudieswheremuchfinishisdesired,tofixtheworkslightlywhendrawninandcarriedsomewayon.Youcanworkoverthisagainwithoutcontinuallyrubbingoutwithyourhandwhatyouhavealreadydrawn.Ifnecessaryyoucanruboutwithahardpieceofrubberanypartsthathavealreadybeenfixed,orevenscrapewithapen-knife.Butthisisnotadvisableforanythingbutanacademicstudy,orworkingdrawings,asitspoilsthebeautyandfreshnessofcharcoalwork.StudiesdoneinthismediumcanalsobefinishedwithContéchalk.
Thereisalsoanartificialcharcoalputupinsticks,thatisverygoodforrefinedwork.Ithassomeadvantagesovernaturalcharcoal,inthattherearenoknotsanditworksmuchmoreevenly.ThebestnaturalcharcoalIhaveusedistheFrenchmakeknownas"FusainRouget."Itismadeinthreedegrees,No.3beingthesoftest,and,ofcourse,theblackest.ButsomeoftheordinaryVenetianandvinecharcoalssoldaregood.Butdon'tgetthecheapervarieties:abadpieceofcharcoalisworsethanuseless.
Charcoalisfixedbymeansofasolutionofwhiteshellacdissolvedinspiritsofwine,blownonwithaspraydiffuser.Thisissoldbytheartists'colourmen,orcanbeeasilymadebythestudent.Itlightly
depositsathinfilmofshellacoverthework,actingasavarnishandpreventingitsrubbingoff.
Charcoalisnotonthewholethemediumanartistwithapureloveofformselects,butratherthatofthepainter,whousesitwhenhisbrushesandpaintsarenothandy.
[Sidenote:RedChalk(Sanguine).]
Adelightfulmediumthatcanbeusedforeitherpurelineworkora
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mixedmethodofdrawing,isredchalk.Thisnaturalredearthisoneofthemostancientmaterialsfordrawing.ItisalovelyVenetianredincolour,andworkswellinthenaturalstate,ifyougetagoodpiece.Itissoldbytheounce,anditisadvisabletotrythepiecesastheyvaryverymuch,somebeinghardandgrittyandsomemoresoftandsmooth.ItisalsomadebyMessrs.ContéofParisinsticksartificiallyprepared.Theseworkwellandarenevergritty,butarenotsohardasthenaturalchalk,andconsequentlywearawayquicklyanddonotmakefinelinesaswell.
Redchalkwhenrubbedwiththefingeroraragspreadsevenlyonpaper,andproducesamiddletoneonwhichlightscanbedrawnwithrubberorbread.Sticksofhard,pointedrubberareeverywheresold,which,cutinachiselshape,workbeautifullyonredchalkdrawings.Breadisalsoexcellentwhenasofterlightiswanted.Youcancontinuallycorrectandredrawinthismediumbyrubbingitwiththefingerorarag,thusdestroyingthelightsandshadowstoalargeextent,andenablingyoutodrawthemagainmorecarefully.Forthisreasonredchalkisgreatlytoberecommendedformakingdrawingsforapicturewheremuchfumblingmaybenecessarybeforeyoufindwhatyouwant.Unlikecharcoal,ithardlyneedsfixing,andmuchmoreintimatestudyoftheformscanbegotintoit.
Mostofthedrawingsbytheauthorreproducedinthisbookaredonein
thismedium.Fordrawingsintendedtohaveaseparateexistenceitisoneoftheprettiestmediums.Infact,thisisthedangertothestudentwhilestudying:yourdrawinglookssomuchatitsbestthatyouareapttobesatisfiedtoosoon.Butforportraitdrawingsthereisnomediumtoequalit.
Additionalqualityofdarkisoccasionallygotbymixingalittleofthisredchalkinapowderedstatewithwaterandaverylittlegum-arabic.Thiscanbeappliedwithasablebrushasinwater-colourpainting,andmakesarichvelvetydark.
Itisnecessarytoselectyourpaperwithsomecare.Theordinarypaperhastoomuchsizeonit.Thisispickedupbythechalk,andwill
preventitsmarking.Apaperwithlittlesizeisbest,oroldpaperwherethesizehasperished.IfindanO.W.paper,madeforprintingetchings,asgoodasanyforordinarywork.Itisnotperfect,butworksverywell.Whatonewantsisthesmoothestpaperwithoutafacedandhot-pressedsurface,anditisdifficulttofind.
Occasionallyblackchalkisusedwiththeredtoaddstrengthtoit.Andsomedraughtsmenuseitwiththeredinsuchamannerastoproducealmostafullcoloureffect.
Holbein,whousedthismediumlargely,tintedthepaperinmostofhisportraitdrawings,varyingthetintverymuch,andsometimesusingzincwhiteasawash,whichenabledhimtosupplementhisworkwitha
silver-pointlinehereandthere,andalsogotoveranydifficultythesizeinthepapermightcause.Hisaimseemstohavebeentoselectthefewessentialthingsinaheadanddrawthemwithgreatfinalityandexactness.Inmanyofthedrawingstheearlierworkhasbeendonewithredorblackchalkandthenrubbeddownandthedrawingredonewitheitherabrushandsomeofthechalkrubbedupwithwaterandgumorasilver-pointlineofgreatpurity,whileinothershehastintedthepaperwithwater-colourandrubbedthisawaytothewhitepaperwherehewantedalight,orChinesewhitehasbeenusedforthesamepurpose.
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[Sidenote:BlackContéandCarbonPencil.]
BlackContéisahardblackchalkmadeinsmallsticksofdifferentdegrees.Itisalsoputupincedarpencils.Rathermoregrittythanredchalkorcharcoal,itisafavouritemediumwithsome,andcanbeusedwithadvantagetosupplementcharcoalwhenmoreprecisionanddefinitionarewanted.Ithasverymuchthesamequalityoflineandsodoesnotshowasadifferentmedium.Itcanberubbedlikecharcoalandredchalkandwillspreadatoneoverthepaperinverymuchthesameway.
CarbonpencilsaresimilartoConté,butsmootherinworkinganddonotrub.
[Sidenote:Whitechalk.]
Whitechalkissometimesusedontonedpapertodrawthelights,thepaperservingasahalftonewhiletheshadowsandoutlinesaredrawninblackorred.Inthiskindofdrawingthechalkshouldneverbeallowedtocomeincontactwiththeblackorredchalkoftheshadows,thehalftoneofthepapershouldalwaysbebetweenthem.
Forrubbedworkwhitepastelisbetterthantheordinarywhitechalksoldfordrawing,asitisnotsohard.Adrawingdoneinthismethodwithwhitepastelandredchalkisreproducedonpage46[Transcribers
Note:PlateIV],andonewiththehardwhitechalk,onpage260[TranscribersNote:PlateLIV].
Thisisthemethodcommonlyusedformakingstudiesofdrapery,theextremerapiditywithwhichthepositionofthelightsandshadowscanbeexpressedbeingofgreatimportancewhensounstableasubjectasanarrangementofdraperyisbeingdrawn.
[Sidenote:Lithography.]
Lithographyasameansofartisticreproductionhassufferedmuchinpublicesteembybeingputtoallmannerofinartistictradeuses.Itisreallyoneofthemostwonderfulmeansofreproducinganartist'sactual
work,theresultbeing,inmostcases,soidenticalwiththeoriginalthat,seentogether,iftheoriginaldrawinghasbeendoneonpaper,itisalmostimpossibletodistinguishanydifference.Andofcourse,asinetching,itistheprintsthatarereallytheoriginals.Theinitialworkisonlydoneasameansofproducingthese.
Adrawingismadeonalithographicstone,thatis,apieceoflimestonethathasbeenpreparedwithanalmostperfectlysmoothsurface.Thechalkusedisaspecialkindofagreasynature,andismadeinseveraldegreesofhardnessandsoftness.Norubbingoutispossible,butlinescanbescratchedoutwithaknife,orpartsmadelighterbywhitelinesbeingdrawnbyaknifeoverthem.Agreatrangeoffreedomandvarietyispossibleintheseinitialdrawingsonstone.Thechalkcanberubbed
upwithalittlewater,likeacakeofwater-colour,andappliedwithabrush.Andeveryvarietyoftonecanbemadewiththesideofthechalk.
Somecareshouldbetakennottoletthewarmfingertouchthestone,oritmaymakeagreasymarkthatwillprint.
Whenthisinitialdrawingisdonetotheartist'ssatisfaction,themostusualmethodistotreatthestonewithasolutionofgum-arabicandalittlenitricacid.Afterthisisdry,thegumiswashedoffasfarasmaybewithwater;someofthegumisleftintheporousstone,
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butitisrejectedwherethegreasylinesandtonesofthedrawingcome.Printsmaynowbeobtainedbyrollingupthestonewithaninkedroller.Theinkiscomposedofavarnishofboiledlinseedoilandanyofthelithographiccolourstobecommerciallyobtained.
Theinkdoesnottakeonthedampgummedstone,butonlywherethelithographicchalkhasmadeagreasymark,sothataperfectfacsimileofthedrawingonstoneisobtained,whenasheetofpaperisplacedonthestoneandthewholeputthroughthepress.
Themediumdeservestobemuchmorepopularwithdraughtsmenthanitis,asnomoreperfectmeansofreproductioncouldbedevised.
Thelithographicstoneisratheracumbersomethingtohandle,buttheinitialdrawingcanbedoneonpaperandafterwardstransferredtothestone.Inthecaseoflineworktheresultispracticallyidentical,butwheremuchtoneandplayingaboutwiththechalkisindulgedin,thestoneismuchbetter.Lithographicpapersofdifferenttexturesaremadeforthispurpose,butalmostanypaperwilldo,providedthedrawingisdonewiththespeciallithographicchalk.
[Sidenote:PenandInk.]
Penandinkwasafavouritemeansofmakingstudieswithmanyold
masters,notablyRembrandt.Oftenheighteningtheeffectwithawash,heconveyedmarvelloussuggestionswiththesimplestscribbles.Butitisadifficultmediumfortheyoungstudenttohopetodomuchwithinhisstudies,althoughfortrainingtheeyeandhandtoquickdefinitestatementofimpressions,thereismuchtobesaidforit.Nohuggingofhalftonesispossible,thingsmustbereducedtoastatementofcleardarks--whichwouldbeausefulcorrectivetothetendencysomanystudentshaveofseeingchieflythehalftonesintheirwork.
[Illustration:PlateLVI.
STUDYINPENANDINKANDWASHFORTREEIN"THEBOARHUNT"RUBENS(LOUVRE)
_PhotoGiraudon_]
Thekindofpenusedwilldependonthekindofdrawingyouwishtomake.Insteelpensthereareinnumerablevarieties,fromthefinecrow-quillstothethick"J"nibs.Thenaturalcrow-quillisamuchmoresympathetictoolthanasteelpen,althoughnotquitesocertaininitsline.Butmoreplayandvarietyistobegotoutofit,andwhenafreependrawingiswanteditispreferable.
Reedpensarealsomade,andareusefulwhenthicklinesarewanted.Theysometimeshaveasteelspringunderneathtoholdtheinksomewhatinthesamemannerassomefountainpens.
Thereisevenaglasspen,consistingofasharp-pointedconeofglasswithgroovesrunningdowntothepoint.Theinkisheldinthesegrooves,andrunsdownandisdepositedfreelyasthepenisused.Alineofonlyonethicknesscanbedrawnwithit,butthiscanbedrawninanydirection,anadvantageovermostothershapes.
[Sidenote:Etching.]
Etchingisaprocessofreproductionthatconsistsindrawingwitha
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steelpointonawaxedplateofcopperorzinc,andthenputtingitinabathofdilutednitricacidtobiteinthelines.Thelongertheplateremainsinthebaththedeeperanddarkerthelinesbecome,sothatvarietyinthicknessisgotbystoppingoutwithavarnishthelightlineswhentheyaresufficientlystrong,andlettingthedarkeroneshavealongerexposuretotheacid.
Manywonderfulandbeautifulthingshavebeendonewiththissimplemeans.Theprintingconsistsininkingtheplatealloverandwipingoffuntilonlythelinesretainanyink,whentheplateisputinapressandanimpressiontaken.Orsomeslightamountofinkmaybeleftontheplateincertainplaceswhereatintiswanted,andalittlemaybesmudgedoutofthelinesthemselvestogivethemasofterquality.Infacttherearenoendoftricksacleveretchingprinterwilladopttogivequalitytohisprint.
[Sidenote:Paper.]
Thevarietiesofpaperonthemarketattheserviceoftheartistareinnumerable,andnothingneedbesaidhereexceptthatthetextureofyourpaperwillhaveaconsiderableinfluenceonyourdrawing.Buttryeverysortofpapersoastofindwhatsuitstheparticularthingsyouwanttoexpress.ImakeapointofbuyingeverynewpaperIsee,andanewpaperisoftenastimulanttosomenewqualityindrawing.Avoidthe
wood-pulppapers,astheyturndarkafteratime.Linenragistheonlysafesubstanceforgoodpapers,andartistsnowhaveintheO.W.papersalargeseriesthattheycanrelyonbeingmadeoflinenonly.
Itissometimesadvisable,whenyouarenotdrawingasubjectthatdemandsaclearhardline,butwheremoresympatheticqualitiesarewanted,tohaveawadofseveralsheetsofpaperundertheoneyouareworkingon,pinnedonthedrawing-board.Thisgivesyouamoresympatheticsurfacetoworkuponandimprovesthequalityofyourwork.Inredrawingastudywithwhichyouarenotquitesatisfied,itisagoodplantouseathinpaper,pinningitoverthefirststudysothatitcanbeseenthrough.Onecanbythismeansstartasitwerefromthepointwhereoneleftoff.Goodpapersofthisdescriptionarenowonthe
market.Ifancytheyarecalled"bank-note"papers.
XXI
CONCLUSION
Mechanicalinvention,mechanicalknowledge,andevenamechanicaltheoryoftheuniverse,havesoinfluencedtheaveragemodernmind,thatithasbeenthoughtnecessaryintheforegoingpagestospeakoutstrongly
againsttheideaofamechanicalstandardofaccuracyinartisticdrawing.Ifthereweresuchastandard,thephotographiccamerawouldserveourpurposewellenough.And,consideringhowlargelythisideaisheld,oneneednotbesurprisedthatsomepaintersusethecamera;indeed,thewonderisthattheydonotuseitmore,asitgivesinsomeperfectionthemechanicalaccuracywhichisalltheyseemtoaimatintheirwork.Theremaybetimeswhenthecameracanbeofusetoartists,butonlytothosewhoarethoroughlycompetenttodowithoutit--tothosewhocanlook,asitwere,throughthephotographanddrawfromitwiththesamefreedomandspontaneitywithwhichtheywoulddrawfrom
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nature,thusavoidingitsdeadmechanicalaccuracy,whichisaverydifficultthingtodo.Butthecameraisaconveniencetobeavoidedbythestudent.
Now,althoughithasbeennecessarytoinsiststronglyonthedifferencebetweenphenomenamechanicallyrecordedandtherecordsofalivingindividualconsciousness,Ishouldbeverysorryifanythingsaidshouldleadstudentstoassumethatalooseandcarelessmannerofstudywasinanywayadvocated.Thetrainingofhiseyeandhandtothemostpainstakingaccuracyofobservationandrecordmustbethestudent'saimformanyyears.Thevariationsonmechanicalaccuracyintheworkofafinedraughtsmanneednotbe,andseldomare,consciousvariations.Mechanicalaccuracyisamucheasierthingtoaccomplishthanaccuracytothesubtleperceptionsoftheartist.Andhewhocannotdrawwithgreatprecisiontheordinarycoldaspectofthingscannothopetocatchthefleetingaspectofhisfinervision.
Thoseartistswhocanonlydrawinsomeweirdfashionremotefromnaturemayproduceworkofsomeinterest;buttheyaretoomuchatthemercyofanaturaltrickofhandtohopetobemorethaninterestingcuriositiesinart.
Theobjectofyourtrainingindrawingshouldbetodeveloptotheuttermosttheobservationofformandallthatitsignifies,andyour
powersofaccuratelyportrayingthisonpaper.#Unflinchinghonesty#mustbeobservedinallyourstudies.Itisonlythenthatthe"you"inyouwilleventuallyfindexpressioninyourwork.Anditisthispersonalquality,thisrecordingoftheimpressionsoflifeasfeltbyaconsciousindividualthatistheveryessenceofdistinctioninart.
The"seekingafteroriginality"somuchadvocatedwouldbebetterput"seekingforsincerity."Seekingfororiginalityusuallyresolvesitselfintorunningafteranypeculiarityinmannerthatthechangingfashionsofarestlessagemaythrowup.Oneofthemostoriginalmenwhoeverliveddidnottroubletoinventtheplotsofmorethanthreeorfourof
hisplays,butwascontenttotakethehackneyedworkofhistimeasthevehiclethroughwhichtopourtherichtreasuresofhisvisionoflife.Andwrote:
"Whatcustomwillsinallthingsdoyoudoit."
Individualstylewillcometoyounaturallyasyoubecomemoreconsciousofwhatitisyouwishtoexpress.Therearetwokindsofinsincerityinstyle,theemploymentofaready-madeconventionalmannerthatisnotunderstoodandthatdoesnotfitthematter;andtherunningafterandlaboriouslyseekinganoriginalmannerwhennooriginalmatterexists.Goodstyledependsonaclearideaofwhatitisyouwishtodo;itistheshortestmeanstotheendaimedat,themostaptmannerofconveying
thatpersonal"something"thatisinallgoodwork."Thestyleistheman,"asFlaubertsays.Thesplendourandvalueofyourstylewilldependonthesplendourandvalueofthementalvisioninspiredinyou,thatyouseektoconvey;onthequalityoftheman,inotherwords.Andthisisnotamatterwheredirectteachingcanhelpyou,butrestsbetweenyourownconsciousnessandthosehigherpowersthatmoveit.
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APPENDIX
Ifyouaddalineof5inchestooneof8inchesyouproduceone13incheslong,andifyouproceedbyalwaysaddingthelasttwoyouarriveataseriesoflengths,5,8,13,21,34,55inches,&c.Mr.WilliamSchoolingtellsmethatanytwooftheselinesadjoiningoneanotherarepracticallyinthesameproportiontoeachother;thatistosay,one8inchesis1.600timesthesizeofone5inches,andthe13-inchlineis1.625thesizeofthe8-inch,andthe21-inchlinebeing1.615timesthe13-inchline,andsoon.Withthemathematician'sloveofaccuracy,Mr.Schoolinghasworkedouttheexactproportionthatshouldexistbetweenaseriesofquantitiesforthemtobeinthesameproportiontotheirneighbours,andinwhichanytwoaddedtogetherwouldproducethenext.Thereisonlyoneproportionthatwilldothis,andalthoughveryformidable,statedexactly,forpracticalpurposes,itisthatbetween5andafractionover8.Statedaccuratelytoelevenplacesofdecimalsitis(1+sqrt(5))/2=1.61803398875(nearly).
Wehaveevidentlyhereaveryuniqueproportion.Mr.SchoolinghascalledthisthePhiproportion,anditwillbeconvenienttorefertoitbythisname.
[Illustration:
THEPHIPROPORTION
ECis1.618033,&c.,timessizeofAB,CD""""BC,DE""""CD,&c.,
AC=CDBD=DE,&c.]
Testingthisproportiononthereproductionsofpicturesinthisbookintheorderoftheirappearing,wefindthefollowingremarkableresults:
"LosMeninas,"Velazquez,page60[TranscribersNote:PlateIX].--Theright-handsideoflightopeningofdoorattheendoftheroomisexactlyPhiproportionwiththetwosidesofpicture;andfurther,thebottomofthisopeningisexactlyPhiproportionwiththetopandbottomofcanvas.
Itwillbenoticedthatthisisaveryimportantpointinthe"placing"ofthecomposition.
"FêteChampêtre,"Giorgione,page151[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXIII].--LowerendoffluteheldbyseatedfemalefigureexactlyPhiproportionwithsidesofpicture,andlowersideofhandholdingit(a
pointslightlyabovetheendofflute)exactlyPhiproportionwithtopandbottomofcanvas.Thisisalsoanimportantcentreintheconstructionofthecomposition.
"BacchusandAriadne,"Titian,page154[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXIV].--TheproportioninthispicturebothwithtopandbottomandsidesofcanvascomesintheshadowunderchinofBacchus;themostimportantpointinthecompositionbeingtheplacingofthishead.
"LoveandDeath,"byWatts,page158[TranscribersNote:Plate
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XXXV].--PointfromwhichdraperyradiatesonfigureofDeathexactlyPhiproportionwithtopandbottomofpicture.
Pointwhereright-handsideofrightlegofLovecutsdarkedgeofstepsexactlyPhiproportionwithsidesofpicture.
"SurrenderofBreda,"byVelazquez,page161[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXVI].--Firstspearinuprightrowontherighttopofpicture,exactlyPhiproportionwithsidesofcanvas.Heightofguncarriedhorizontallybymaninmiddledistanceabovecentralgroup,exactlyPhiproportionwithtopandbottomofpicture.Thislinegivesheightofgroupoffiguresonleft,andisthemostimportanthorizontallineinthepicture.
"BirthofVenus,"Botticelli,page166[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXVII].--HeightofhorizonlinePhiproportionwithtopandbottomofpicture.HeightofshellonwhichVenusstandsPhiproportionwithtopandbottomofpicture,thesmallerquantitybeingbelowthistime.LaterallytheextremeedgeofdarkdraperyheldbyfigureonrightthatblowstowardsVenusisPhiproportionwithsidesofpicture.
"TheRapeofEuropa,"byPaoloVeronese,page168[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXVIII].--TopofheadofEuropaexactlyPhiproportionwithtopandbottomofpicture.Right-handsideofsameheadslightlytoleftof
Phiproportionwithsidesofpicture(unlessinthereproductionapartofthepictureonthelefthasbeentrimmedaway,asislikely,inwhichcaseitwouldbeexactlyPhiproportion).
Ihavetakenthefirstsevenpicturesreproducedinthisbookthatwerenotselectedwithanyideaofillustratingthispoint,andIthinkyouwilladmitthatineachsomeveryimportantquantityhasbeenplacedinthisproportion.Onecouldgoonthroughalltheillustrationswereitnotforthefearofbecomingwearisome;andalso,onecouldgoonthroughsomeoftheminorrelationships,andpointouthowoftenthisproportionturnsupincompositions.Butenoughhasbeensaidtoshowthattheeyeevidentlytakessomeespecialpleasureinit,whatevermayeventuallybefoundtobethephysiologicalreasonunderlyingit.
*****
INDEX
Absorbentcanvas
Academicdrawing
Academicandconventional
Academicstudents
Accuracy,scientificandartistic
Anatomy,studyof,itsimportance
"AnsideiMadonna,"Raphael's
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Apellesandhiscolours
Architecture,proportionin
Art,somedefinitionsof
Artist,the
Atmosphereindicatedbyshading
Atmosphericcolours
Audley,Lady,Holbein'sportraitof
"BacchusandAriadne,"Titian's
Backgrounds
Balance
Balancebetweenstraightlinesandcurves
BalancebetweenflatandgradatedtonesBalancebetweenlightanddarktones
Balancebetweenwarmandcoldcolours
Balancebetweeninterestandmass
Balancebetweenvarietyandunity
"Bank-note"papers
BastienLepage
Bathforetching
Beauty,definitionof
Beautyandprettiness
Beautyandtruth
"BirthofVenus,the,"Botticelli's
Blackchalk
BlackConté
Blackglass,theuseofa
Blake,exampleofparallelism
Blake'sdesigns
Blake'suseofthevertical
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Blockinginthedrawing
Blockingoutwithsquarelines
"BlueBoy,"Gainsborough's
Botany,thestudyof
Botticelli'swork
Boucher'sheadscomparedwithWatteau's
Boundariesofforms
BoundariesofmassesinNature
Bread,useof,incharcoaldrawing
Browning,R.,portraitsof
Brush,manipulationofthe
Brushstrokes
Brushes,variouskindsofBurkeon"TheSublimeandtheBeautiful"
Burne-Jones
Camera,useofthe
Carbonpencils
Carlyle
Circle,perfectcurveof,tobeavoided
Chalks,drawingin
Charcoaldrawing;fixingsolution
Chavannes,Peuvisde
Chiaroscuro
Chineseart
ChinaandJapan,theartof
Colour,contrastsof
Coloursforfigurework
Colours,ausefulchartof
Classicarchitecture
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ClaudeMonet
Clothes,thetreatmentof
Compositionofapicture,the
Constable
Contécrayon
"ContrastsinHarmony"
Conventionalart
Conventionallife,deadnessofthe
Cornersofthepanelorcanvas,the
Corot,hismassesoffoliage
Correggio
Crow-quillpen,the
Curves,howtoobservetheshapeof
Curvesandstraightlines
Darwin,anecdoteof
Deadness,toavoid
Decorativework
Degas
"Dither"
Diagonallines
Discordandharmony
Discordantlines
DraperiesofWatteau,the
Draperystudiesinchalks
Draperyinportrait-drawing
Draughtsmanshipandimpressionism
Drawing,academic
Drawing,definitionof
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East,artsofthe
Edges,varietyof
Edges,theimportanceofthesubjectof
Egganddartmoulding
Egyptiansculpture
Egyptianwallpaintings
ElGreco
ElginMarbles,the
Ellipse,the
"Embarquementpourl'ÃledeCythère,"Watteau's
Emersononthebeautiful
Emotionalpowerofthearts
Emotionalsignificanceofobjects
Erechtheum,mouldingfromthe
Etching
Exercisesinmassdrawing
Exhibitions
Expressioninportrait-drawing
Eye,anatomyofthe
Eye,the,inportrait-drawing
Eyebrow,the
Eyelashes,the
Eyelids,the
"FêteChampêtre,"Giorgioni's
Figurework,coloursfor
"FindingoftheBodyofSt.Mark"
Fixingpositionsofsalientpoints
Flaubert
Foliage,treatmentof
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Foreshortenings
Formandcolour
Form,theinfluenceof
Form,thestudyof
FransHals
_FrenchRevolution_,Carlyle's
Frenchschools
Fripp,SirAlfred
Fromentin'sdefinitionofart
Fulnessofformindicatedbyshading
Gainsborough,thecharmof
Geniusandtalent
Geology,thestudyof
Giorgioni
"Giorgioni,TheSchoolof,"WalterPater's
Giotto
Glasspens
Goethe
Goldpoint
Goldandsilverpaintforshading
Gothicarchitecture
Gradation,varietyof
Greekarchitecture
GreekartintheMiddleAges
Greekart,varietyin
Greekvivacityofmoulding
GreekandGothicsculpture
Greektypeofprofile
Greuze
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Hair,thetreatmentof
Hair,effectofstyleupontheface
Halftones
"HannibalcrossingtheAlps,"Turner's
Hardnessindicatedbyshading
Harshcontrasts,effectof
Hatching
Health,questionsof
Henner,theworkof
Highlights
Hogarth'sdefinition
Holbein'sdrawings
Holl,Frank
Horizontal,calmandreposeofthe
Horizontalandvertical,the
_HumanAnatomyforArtStudents_
Humanfigure,theoutlineofthe
Impressionism
Impressionistvision
Ingres,studiesof
Inkusedinlithography
Intellectandfeeling
Intuitions
ItalianRenaissance,the
Italianworkinthefifteenthcentury
Japaneseart
Japanesemethod,a
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JapaneseandChineseuseofcontrastsofcolour
Keats'definitionofbeauty
LandscapesofWatteau,the
Lang,Andrew,hisdefinitionofart
Lawrence,Lord,portraitof
Leadpencil
LecoqdeBoisbaudran,M.
Lehmann,R.,portraitsby
LeonardodaVinci
Light
Lightandshade,principlesof
Lightingandlighteffects
Likeness,catchingthe
Lineandthecircle,the
Linedrawingandmassdrawing
Linesexpressingreposeorenergy
Line,thepowerofthe
Lines,valueof,inportrait-painting
Linesofshading,different
Lithographicchalk
Lithography
"LoveandDeath,"Watts'
Manet
Massdrawing
Masters,pastandmodern
Materials
Mathematicalproportions
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Measuringcomparativedistances
Measurements,verticalandhorizontal
Medium,theuseof
MichaelAngelo,thefiguresof
MichaelAngeloandDegas
Millais
Mist,effectofa,onthetoneofapicture
Model,the
Monet,Claude
Morris'sdefinitionofart
Nature,varietyofformsin
Nature'stendencytopictorialunityofarrangement
Newspaperasabackground
Normanarchitecture
Oil,surplusinpaint
Originality
"OurLadyoftheRocks,"L.daVinci's
Outlinedrawing
Outlinestudiesandmodels
Paint,thevitalityof
Paint,theconsistencyof
Paint,effectofoilinthick
"PaintedPoetry"
Painter'straining,theobjectofthe
Paintinganddrawing
Panelorcanvas,the
PaoloUccello
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PaoloVeronese
Paperfordrawing
Parallelshading
Parallelismoflines
Parthenon,the
Pater,Walter
Pen-and-inkdrawing
Pensforpen-and-inkdrawing
Perspective,thestudyof
PhilipIV,Velazquez'portraitof
Photograph,failureofthe
Picturegalleries,theinfluenceof
Pictures,smallandlarge,treatmentof
Planesoftone,paintinginthe
Pre-Raphaelitepaintings
Pre-Raphaelitemovement,the
Preparatorydrawings,disadvantageof
Primitiveart
Primitiveemotions
Procedure,incommencingadrawing
Profiles,beautyof
Proportions
Poppyoilandturpentine,theuseof
Portrait-drawing
"PortraitoftheArtist'sDaughter,"SirE.Burne-Jones's
Pose,the
PeuvisdeChavannes
Qualityandtexture,varietyin
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Radiatinglines
"RapeofEuropa,The,"PaulVeronese's
Raphael
Redrays
Reedpens
Rembrandtandhiscolours
Reproduction,advantagesofup-to-date
Retina,effectoflightonthe
Reynolds'contrastsofcolour
Rhythm,definitionof
Rightangle,powerofthe
Romansculpture,lackofvitalityin
Rossetti
RoyalAcademySchools
Rubens
Ruskin
SchoolsofArt
Scientificandartisticaccuracy
Scientificstudy,necessityfor
Scumbling
Shading
Shape,varietyof
Silhouette,the
Silver-point
Silver-pointwork,shadingin
Sitter,the
Softnessindicatedbyshading
Solarspectrum,the
Solidsasflatcopy
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Spanishschool,the
Straightlinesindicativeofstrength
Straightlinesandflattones,analogybetween
Stronglightincontrastwithdarkshadow
Studyofdrawing,the
Stump,the
Style
"SublimeandtheBeautiful,The,"Burke's
"SurrenderofBreda,The,"Velazquez'
Sympatheticlines
Talentandgenius
TeachersinArtSchools
Technicalsideofanart,the
Thicknessandaccent,varietyof
Tintoretto
Titian
Tolstoy'sdefinitionofart
Tone,meaningoftheword
Tonevalues,varietyof
Tonedpaper,drawingon
Tones,largeflat,theeffectof
Touch,thesenseof
TrafalgarSquarelions,the
Trees,themassesof
Turner
Types,lifelessnessof
"UlyssesderidingPolyphemus,"Turner's
Unityandvariety
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Unityofline
"ValeofBest,"Millais'
Value,meaningofthewordasappliedtoapicture
Valuesoftonedrawing,the
VanDyck,hisuseofthestraightline
Varietyinsymmetry
"VarietyinUnity"
"Varyingwell"
Velazquez
Venetianpainters,andthemusicofedges
Venetians,the,theiruseofstraightlines
Venetians,systemandprinciplesofdesignofthe
"Venus,Mercury,andCupid,"Correggio's
Vertical,the,associatedwiththesublime
Verticallines,feelingassociatedwith
Vision
Visualblindness
Visualmemory,the
Ward,theanimalpainter
Warmcolours
Watteau,thecharmof
Watts,G.F.,portraitsby
Watts'useoftherightangle
Windsor,Holbein'sportraitsat
Whistler,amasteroftone
Whitecasts,drawingfrom
Whitechalk
Whitepaint
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