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The three grades of metazoan animals
MesozoaParazoa
PoriferaPlacozoa
Eumetazoa
All other animal phyla
GRADE:
PHYLA: Mesozoa
KINGDOM: Animalia
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Phylum Porifera
the sponges
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Phylum Porifera
Branch Parazoa – “beside + animal”
Sponges are at the cellular level of organization and have no tissues or organs.
Sponges are assemblages of cells embedded in a protein matrix and supported by a skeleton of needle-like structures.
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External Morphology
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General Body Plan
water
ostia (singular=ostium)
spongocoel
osculum(plural=oscula)
choanocytes
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General Body Plan
Choanocytes: “collar cells”
• diagnostic of phylum Porifera• consist of a long flagellum surrounded by a “collar” of microvilli • functions:
-obtaining food-creating water currents-reproduction
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General Body Plan
water
ostia (singular=ostium)
spongocoel
osculum(plural=oscula)
choanocytes
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3 Body Types
• Asconoid
• Syconoid
• Leuconoid
Increasing size Increasing Surface Area :Volume
Based on the complexity of the water canals:
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water
ostia (singular=ostium)
spongocoel
osculum(plural=oscula)
Asconoid Body Type
Choanocytes line the spongocoel (the black shaded area)
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Syconoid Body Type
ostia (singular=ostium)
spongocoel
osculum(plural=oscula)
incurrentcanals
radialcanals
choanocytes line the radial canals (the black shaded area)
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Syconoid Body Type
prosopyle:opening from incurrent canal to radial canal
apopyle:opening from radial canal to spongocoel
radial canal:lined with choanocytes
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Leuconoid Body Typeoscula
flagellated chambers
spongocoel
ostia
Choanocytes line the flagellated chambers (the black shaded area)
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Leuconoid Body Type
apopyle: opening form flagellated chambers to spongocoel
prosopyle: opening form incurrent canals to flagellated chambers
incurrent canal
ostia
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3 Body Types
• Asconoid
• Syconoid
• Leuconoid
Increasing size Increasing Surface Area :Volume
Based on the complexity of the water canals:
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SA = l2 X 6
V = l3
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The large SA:V of leuconoid sponges
More space for choanocytes
More water flow
Larger size
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Microscopic Morphology
choanocyte
porocytearchaeocyte(amoebocyte)
pinacocyte mesohyl
spicules
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Skeletal Elements
Mesohyl
• proteinaceous matrix that contains skeletal material and certain cell types• equivalent to the connective tissue in other organisms• made of collagen and spongin
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Skeletal Elements
Spicules
• made of calcium carbonate or silica• often used in taxonomic identification
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Cell Types
Choanocytes
• diagnostic of phylum Porifera• consist of a long flagellum surrounded by a “collar” of microvilli • functions:
-obtaining food-creating water currents-reproduction
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Cell Types
Archaeocytes
• also called “amoebocytes”• found throughout mesohyl• totipotent can differentiate into any other type of cell• functions:
- digestion through phagocytosis- make spicules- reproduction
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Cell Types
Pinacocytes
• line the exterior surface of the sponge• functions:
- some can regulate water flow by moving (open/close ostia)
insi
de o
f spo
nge
outs
ide
of s
pong
e
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Cell Types
Porocytes
• found in asconoid sponges• form tubes in the body wall where water can pass through• functions:
- allow water flow
insi
de o
f spo
nge
outs
ide
of s
pong
e
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Physiology
Feeding– Sessile filter-feeders
Digestion– Intracellular
Gas exchange– Simple diffusion
Excretion (nitrogenous waste removal)– Simple diffusion
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Physiology
Reproduction
1. Asexual• fragmentation• budding• regeneration• gemmules
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Physiology
Gemmules:-in freshwater sponges only
–resistant mass ofarchaeocytes that are produced in unfavorable conditions
–when the environment is favorable, they will develop into sponges
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Physiology
Reproduction
2. Sexualusually monoecious
(a single individual produces both male and female gametes; both sexes are within one individual)
• sperm are released into the water and eggs are retained within the sponge
• motile larvae are produced
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Some sponge larvae crawl along the bottom, whereas others are free swimming.
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B.
Some free-swimming larvae are capable of fusing with others!
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Larvae eventually settle and metamorphose into adults
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Ecology• most sponges are marine (~5000 species) but
there are ~150 freshwater sponge species
• Sponges are found at all depths but certain species are restricted to particular depths due to how their spicules are formed
• There are few sponge predators because they usually contain distasteful toxins
• Some predators (e.g. sea slugs) sequester these sponge toxins which in turn deters their own predators
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Ecology
Symbiosis –the living together of 2 different species in an intimate relationship
Types of symbiotic relationships:
– Mutualism= both partners benefit– Commensalism= 1 partner benefits, 1 partner is unaffected– Parasitism= 1 partner benefits, 1 partner is harmed
There are examples of all 3 of these types of symbiotic relationships occurring in Sponges
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Ecology
Mutualism –• certain ‘endosymbiotic’ bacteria and algae living
within the sponge provide additional food for the sponge while the sponge provides a place for the bacteria and algae to grow
• some crabs will attach a piece of sponge to their body to use as camouflage and to deter predators while the sponge gets to move around
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Ecology
Commensalism –• many different species live within sponges and
receive food and shelter benefits but do nothing for the spongee.g. 15cm² piece of sponge in California was found to house 100 different species of plants + animals
e.g.Venus’s Flower basketa pair of shrimp live their entire lives within 1 sponge
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EcologyParasitism –• boring sponges are parasites on certain corals
because they bore into the calcium carbonate base of the coral for protection and kill part of the coral in the process
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FSU Research on Sponges: Dr. Janie Wulff
Smithsonian Institution field station at Carrie Bow Cay
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The sponge communities of reefs and mangrove islands are very different. What factors are responsible for this difference?
1. Abiotic factors: Light, turbidity, nutrients, substrate, physical disturbance…
2. Biotic factors: competition, predation, parasitism…
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The sponge communities of reefs and mangrove islands are very different. What factors are responsible for this difference?
1. Abiotic factors: Light, turbidity, nutrients, substrate, physical disturbance…
2. Biotic factors: competition, predation, parasitism…
Determining which of these is more important is difficult because reefs and mangroves differ in abiotic and biotic factors.
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What factors determine the diversity of sponges in a habitat?
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What factors determine the diversity of sponges in a habitat?
-Species composition: there are 167 species in both habitats combined, but 78 % of the species are found in only one of the two locations.
Pelican CayTwin Cays
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What factors determine the diversity of sponges in a habitat?
Twin Cays
•Sponges grow on mangrove roots
•Sponge diversity is typical of mangrove stands throughout the Western Atlantic
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What factors determine the diversity of sponges in a habitat?
Pelican Cay
•Sponges grow on mangrove roots
•Sponge diversity is typical of shallow coral reefs
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Why do these two similar habitats have such different sponge communities ?
Transplant experiments: small pieces of sponge from each habitat were attached to mangrove roots in the native and non native habitat
Twin Cay sponges
Pelican Cay sponges
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Why do these two similar habitats have such different sponge communities ?
Transplant experiments:
1. Caging experiments: the role of predation
uncaged TC sponge
caged TC sponge
Twin Cay sponges transplanted in Pelican Cay
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Songe survival (Twin cay sponges in Pelican Cay)
0
20
40
60
80
caged uncaged
Treatment
% s
urvi
val
Competition Results:
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Gray angelfish Redband parrotfish
Sponge predators in Pelican Cay:
These spongivores are also present on reefs.
Competition Results:
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Why do these two similar habitats have such different sponge communities ?
Transplant experiments:
1. Caging experiments: the role of predation
2. Competitor free space: the role of competition
uncaged PC sponge
sponge attached to pvc
Pelican Cay sponges transplanted in Twin Cays
TC sponge
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Competition Results:
Wulff, in press
Sponges in competitor free space have higher survival
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Competition Results:
Wulff, in press
Sponges in competitor free space tend to grow more
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Twin CaysPelican Cay
There is a positive relationship between growth and survival in Twin Cays, but not in Pelican Cay
Wulff, in press
Competition Results:
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The sponge communities of reefs and mangrove islands are very different. What factors are responsible for this difference?
Dr. Wulff’s research suggests that biotic factors (predation and competition) are important :
•Competition plays a more important role in determining sponge diversity in mangrove habitats.
•Predation plays a more important role in determining sponge diversity in coral reef habitats.
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The sponge communities of reefs and mangrove islands are very different. What factors are responsible for this difference?
Dr. Wulff’s research also suggests that there maybe a trade-off between competitive ability and predator defense:
Competitive ability
Def
ensi
ve a
bili t
y Species found on reefs ?
Species found in mangroves ?