Download - Turkey and the Islamic Identity
Turkey and the Islamic Identity
Birol A. YeşiladaMark O. Hatfield School of Government
Portland State UniversityMarch 2004
THE REPUBLIC Turkish republic established in 1923 by M. Kemal Ataturk after
the War of Independence that followed WW I. The Treaty of Lausanne (July 1923) signed between the Ankara government and the Allies.
Since 1946, it has a multi-party representative democracy that has experienced two military coups and two military interventions. It has a parliamentary system of government.
Turkey is a member of the Council of Europe and all other European intergovernmental organizations, associate member of the European Union (and a candidate for accession), NATO, and the UN.
Turkey has 65 million citizens of mixed ethnic background reflecting the heterogeneous makeup of the Ottoman Empire. Identity issues continue to be a major topic among Turkish citizens.
Background (cont.)
Reforms of Ataturk include: Abolished Sultanate (1922) Abolished Caliphate (1924) Secular education (1924) Language (1927-35) Dress (1925) Civil code (1924-26) Alphabet (1925) Significance of laicism Significance of etatism and
republicanism
Islamic Identity in Turkey
One must distinguish between religiosity and fundamentalism.
Most Turks belong to the Hanefi school of Sunni Islam. There is a large presence of Alevi Turks who are close to Shi’a Islam.
Other minorities include Arabs and Kurds (mostly Sunni Muslims), Christians (Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks), and Jews.
Islam in Turkish Life
Most Turks follow some form of “institutionalized” Islam ranging from daily mosque attendance to attending the Friday prayers to observing prayers during religious holidays.
There are those who do not follow formal religious practices and consider themselves strict laicists.
Islam in Turkey Turks have always interpreted Islam in their own
way:– Mixing their Asian cultural norms with those peoples’
they ruled during the Ottoman Empire.– Religious tolerance was at the heart of Ottoman rule.
This resulted in the Millet (Nation) system of administration.
– Strict & conservative interpretation of Islam emerged during the 19th century as pan-Islamism became a political force aimed at redefining the Empire in the face of Balkan uprisings.
– Quickly, this movement split into pan-Islamist and pan-Turkic political ideologies.
Islam in Turkish life
Religious orders, known as tarikat, provide organizational networks for followers of different congregations.
While most of these are sufi orders, some are quite active in political life and aspire to change the constitutional order of Turkey.
The goal s to replace the laicist system with an Islamic state.
People’s attitudes Most Turks (~80 percent) state that they would
like to have more adherence to Islamic norms in their daily lives.
20 percent state that they would like to see Islam be a source of law in State affairs.
Only 3 – 5 percent,however, state that they want Sharia (Islamic Cannon Law) be the law of the land.
Even among the supporters of the religious parties, AKP and SP, 61 and 45 percent respectively reject Sharia law.
Recent opinion poll on headscarf
More than 80 percent of the people believe that the headscarf issue is over played by the State. Asked where it should be permitted to be worn:
– 95 percent approved it during shopping, etc– 90 percent while receiving medical assistance in the hospitals– 90 percent in public offices– 81 percent while in court– 80 percent during visits to the Parliament– 71 percent as university students– 70 percent when providing medical assistance in hospitals– 68 percent for civil servants– 67 percent for university faculty and staff– 65 percent for judges– 64 percent for the members of the Parliament
National Election Results in Turkey, 1987-2002
Political Party Orientation% votes Seats % votes seats % votes Seats % votes seats %votes seats
Motherland (ANAP)moderate right 36.3 292 23.3 115 19.6 131 13.2 86 5.12 0
True Path (DYP)moderate right 19.1 59 26.2 178 19.2 135 12 85 9.55 0
Republican Peoples (RPP) moderate left 24.8 99 20.1 88 10.7 50 8.8 0 19.4 178Democratic Left (DSP) moderate left 8.5 0 10.4 7 14.6 76 22 136 1.23 0
Welfare/Virtue (R/FP) Islamic right 8.4 0 16.4 62 21.3 158 15.4 107Justice and Development (AKP)
Moderate Islamist 34.26 363
Felicity (Saadet) Party Islamist right 2.49 0Nationalist Movement (MHP) nationalist 2.9 0 NA 8.1 0 18 129 8.34 0
Kurdish nationalist (HADEP/DEHAP) Kurdish NA 0 NA 0 4.1 0 4.7 0 6.23 0Others 0 0 3.6 0 2.4 0 5.9 6 12.38 0Independents 1 9Vacant 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0Total 100 450 100 450 100 550 100 550 100 550
*Welfare and MHP joined together for these elections
20021987 1991* 1995 1999
Voter Realignment: The Left-Right Spectrum
far
left 1 2 3 4
cent
er 6 7
8
9
far
right
1990 19
95 1999
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
percentvotes
1990
1995
1999
After the 2002 National Elections
Seats in the National Assembly (March 9, 2003)
365
177
2 6
AKP CHP DYP Indep
365
66.36
177
32.18
2 0.36 6 1.09
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
# seats & % total seats
AKP CHP DYP Indep
Distribution of Seats in the National Assembly (March 9, 2003)
#seats %total seats
Rise of Islamist Groups
Since the establishment of the Republic, the laicist order of the new state has been challenged by a variety of religious orders and political forces.
Turkish-Islamic Synthesis v. Islamic-Turkish Synthesis.
1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and now.
The rise of Political Islam
The Islamic Democracy Party (İslam Demokrasi Partisi--IDP) was the first Islamist political party to enter into politics during the multi-party period in 1951.
It is true that the center-right Democratic Party (Demokrat Parti—DP) under Celal Bayar and Adnan Menderes attracted the support of the Islamist voters with policy decisions that reversed some of the Kemalists’ bans on Islamic practices like the call for prayer in Turkish and the ban on Koran schools.
In the ensuing years, those who played important roles in the establishment of other religious political parties made use of similar phrases of religious importance:During the 1960s, the Justice Party (Adalet Partisi-AP)
came to represent the "home" of the democratic Islamists in Turkey.
Sheikh Mehmet Zahit Kotku who was a leading figure of the Nakşibendi order (tarikat) and head of the related İskender Paşa congregation (dergah).
At Kotku’s encouragement, Necmettin Erbakan entered political life.
He became the founding chairman of Milli Nizam partisi, Milli Selamet partisi, Refah Partisi, Fazilet partisi, and was the main figure behind the Selamet Partisi.
He also established the Milli Gorus (National Vision) organization.
The informal party organization was extensive; it relied on a tightly controlled network of activists and volunteers:The party maintained a divan (council) in every district,
comprised of 50 regular and 50 alternate members. In addition, there were neighborhood representatives
who maintained an information database on everyone living in that area, including each family unit.
There was also a network of headmasters and teachers (hatipler ve öğretmenler), who engaged people in discussion at the local coffee houses and other gathering places.
Another informal network came from the Koran courses and the Preacher and Prayer Leader Schools (İmam Hatip Okulları).
Finally, these parties drew strong support from some of the religious orders.
Relations Between Tarikats and Islamist
Political Parties
Traditionally, tarikats, which Atatürk shut down and were later reopened when the Democratic Party was in government, supported the center- right parties, seeing them as security against the secular state.
Among these tarikats, the Nakşibendi order is one of the most influential and well organized; its ties to the RP/FP dates back to late1960s.
In present day Turkey, the Nakşibendi members involve themselves in the activities of Dergah (congregations).
Among these the Iskenderpaşa dergah has been one of the most politically motivated.
The current AKP Cabinet and its Significance
The cabinet includes followers of the Iskenderpaşa dergah (congregation) of the Nakshibendi tarikat (a mixture of students from the Kotku and Erbakan teachings), Nurcu, and Fethullah Gülen.
The key to this coalition is Korkut Özal’s Birlik Wakf. It enabled the tarikats to get together again. The original coalition of the Nurcu and Iskenderpaşa dergah that gave rise to Erbakan’s first political party, the Milli Nizam Partisi (National Order Party), collapsed soon after the creation of the party.
Refah-Fazilet-AKP
Religion And Politics
Seem to be two distinct Preferences
• Religious and Moral Politicians
• Absence of direct interference in Political life by religious leaders Politicians who don¥t believe in God are unfit for public office Agree strongly
Politicians who don¥t believe in God are unfit for public office Agree
Politicians who don¥t believe in God are unfit for public office Neither agree or disagree
Politicians who don¥t believe in God are unfit for public office Disagree
Politicians who don¥t believe in God are unfit for public office Strongly disagree
Politicians who don¥t believe in God are unfit for public office
Country - wave Turkey (4)
250
500
750
1000
1250
Valu
es
Religion and Politics
Religious leaders should not influence government Agree strongly
Religious leaders should not influence government AgreeReligious leaders should not influence government Neither agree or disagree
Religious leaders should not influence government Disagree
Religious leaders should not influence government Strongly disagree
Religious leaders should not influence government
Country - wave Turkey (4)
Country - wa
100
200
300
400
500
Valu
es
Crosstab
Statistics : Count
Religion and Politics
Religious leaders should not influence how people vote Agree strongly
Religious leaders should not influence how people vote Agree
Religious leaders should not influence how people vote Neither agree or disagree
Religious leaders should not influence how people vote DisagreeReligious leaders should not influence how people vote Strongly disagree
Religious leaders should not influence how people vote
Country - wave Turkey (4)
Country - wave
0
500
1000
1500
Val
ues
Statistics : Count
Better if more people with strong religious beliefs in public office Agree strongly
Better if more people with strong religious beliefs in public office Agree
Better if more people with strong religious beliefs in public office Neither agree or disagree
Better if more people with strong religious beliefs in public office Disagree
Better if more people with strong religious beliefs in public office Strongly disagree
Better if more people with strong religious beliefs in public office
Country - wave Turkey (4)
250
500
750
1000
1250
Valu
es
Statistics : Count
Conclusions Turkish populations has changed dramatically since the
early days of the Republic. There is more tolerance of Islam in personal life and its
inclusion in State affairs. Secular forces, the Kemalist elite and the military, oppose
any change to the laicist system and represents an uncompromising position.
The military identifies irtica (religious reactionary movement) as the number one domestic threat to national security.
The military is cautious about the AKP. In addition to nonmilitant Islam, radical fundamentalist
groups have emerged to challenge the system.