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Unit 7A:
Cognition: Memory
Everything off your desk but
1 piece of paper…..
No this is not a pop quiz……
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Introduction• Memory the persistence of learning
over time through the storage and
retrieval of information.
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IntroductionAtkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model
• Encoding the processing of information into
the memory systems
• Storage the retention of encoded
information over time.
• Retrieval the process of getting information
out of memory storage.
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INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL: COMPARES OUR MEMORY TO A COMPUTER
3 STEP PROCESS IN HOW MEMORY WORKS
Three step process….
1. Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.
2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.
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Introduction–Sensory memory the immediate, very brief
recording of sensory information in the
memory system.
–Short-term memory activated memory that
holds a few items briefly, such as the seven
digits of a phone number while dialing before
the information is stored or forgotten.
–Long-term memory the relatively
permanent and limitless storehouse of the
memory system. Includes knowledge, skills,
and experiences.
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Stage 1 - Sensory Memory is a brief representation
of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system
Stage 2 - Short-Term Memory (STM) is working
memory
Limited capacity (7 items)
Duration is about 30 seconds
Stage 3 - Long-Term Memory (LTM) is large
capacity and long duration
Atikinson-Shiffrin three-stage model of memory, describes 3 different
memory systems characterized by time frames:
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Introduction
–Working memory a newer
understanding of short-term memory
that focuses on conscious, active
processing of incoming auditory and
visual-spatial information, and of
information retrieved from long-term
memory.
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Modified Three-stage Processing
Model of Memory
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Encoding: Getting Information InHow We Encode
• Automatic Processing
–Parallel processing the processing of
many aspects of a problem
simultaneously
–Automatic processing unconscious
encoding of incidental information, such
as space, time and frequency, and of
well-learned information, such as word
meanings.
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Encoding: Getting Information InHow We Encode
• Effortful Processing encoding that
requires attention and conscious effort.
• Rehearsal the conscious repetition of
information, either to maintain it in
consciousness or to encode it for storage.
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Encoding: Getting Information InWhat We Encode
• Levels of Processing
–Visual encoding the encoding of picture
images
–Acoustic encoding the encoding of
sound, especially the sound of words
–Semantic encoding the encoding of
meaning, including the meaning of words.
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ENCODING
SPACING EFFECT
We encode better when we study or practice over time.
DO NOT CRAM!!!!!
•The ways we encode:•Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images. •Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.•Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.
http://www.psychbytes.com/Flash/Encodin
g/Encoding.htm
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Encoding: Getting Information InWhat We Encode
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Encoding: Getting Information InWhat We Encode
• Visual Encoding
–Imagery mental pictures
–Mnemonics memory aids, especially
those techniques that use vivid imagery
and organizational devices.
–Chunking organizing items into familiar,
manageable units; often occurs
automatically.
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Encoding: Getting Information InWhat We Encode
• Organizing Information for Encoding
–Hierarchies
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Storage: Retaining InformationSensory Memory
• Iconic memory a momentary sensory
memory of visual stimuli; a photographic
or picture-image memory lasting no more
than a few tenths of a second.
• Echoic memory a momentary sensory
memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is
elsewhere, sounds and words can still be
recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
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Storage: Retaining InformationWorking/Short-Term Memory
• Magic number Seven
–Plus or minus 2
• The list of magic sevens– Seven wonders of world
– Seven seas
– Seven deadly sins
– Seven primary colors
– Seven musical scale notes
– Seven days of the week
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Name the seven dwarves…..
Now name them…..
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• It depends on several things….
• If you like Disney movies?
• When was the last time you have seen the movie?
• Are people around you being loud pain in the butts so you cannot concentrate?
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Turn your paper over.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful
Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful
Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy
Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy
Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful
Teach Snorty Nifty Happy
Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy
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Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc
and Bashful
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Storage: Retaining InformationLong-Term Memory
• Unlimited nature of long-term memory
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Storage: Retaining InformationStoring Memories in the Brain
Stress Hormones and Memory
–Emotions and memories
–Flashbulb memory a clear memory
of an emotionally significant
moment or event.
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Flashbulb Memory• A clear moment
of an emotionally significant moment or event.
Where were you when?
1. You heard about 9/11
2. You heard about the death
of a family member
3. During the OJ chase
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Storage: Retaining InformationStoring Memories in the Brain
• Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
–Amnesia loss of memory
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Storage: Retaining InformationStoring Memories in the Brain
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Retrieval: Getting Information Out
• Recall a measure of memory in which the person
must retrieve information learning earlier, as on a
fill-in-the-blank test.
• Recognition a measure of memory in which
the person need only identify items previously
learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
• Relearning a measure of memory that
assesses the amount of time saved when learning
material for a second time.
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Recall
you must retrieve the information from your memory
fill-in-the blank or essay tests
Recognition
you must identify the target from possible targets
multiple-choice tests
Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory storage.
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Retrieval: Getting Information OutRetrieval Cues
• Retrieval
cues
• Mnemonic
devices
• Priming the activation, often
unconsciously, of particular associations in
memory.
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Priming
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Retrieval: Getting Information OutContext Effects
• Context effects
• Déjà vu that eerie sense that “I’ve
experienced this before.” Cues from the
current situation may subconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
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Retrieval: Getting Information OutMoods and Memories
• State dependent memory
• Mood congruent memory the
tendency to recall experiences that are
consistent with one’s current good or bad
mood.
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Forgetting
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Retrieval FailureInterference
• Proactive interference the disruptive
effect of prior learning on the recall of
new information.(forward acting)
• Retroactive interference the disruptive
effect of new learning on the recall of
old information.(backward-acting)
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Retrieval FailureInterference
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Primacy effect – remembering stuff at
beginning of list better than middle
Recency Effect – remembering stuff at the
end of list better than middle
Name all of the presidents
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You go to the Cheesecake Factory for dinner. You are seated at a table with a white tablecloth. You study the menu. You tell the female server you want Avocado Egg Rolls, extra sauce, Roadslide Sliders, Thai Lettuce Wraps, and Chino-Latino Steak (medium). You also order a Cherry Coke from the beverage list. A few minutes later the server returns with your Avocado Egg Rolls. Later the rest of the meal arrives. You enjoy it all, except the Chino-Latino Steak is a bit overdone.
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How did you order the steak?
Was the red tablecloth checkered?
What did you order to drink?
Did a male server give you a menu?
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Retrieval FailureMotivated Forgetting
• Repression the
basic defense
mechanism that
banishes from
consciousness
anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings,
and memories.
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Memory Construction
MEMORY
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Misinformation and Imagination
Effects• Loftus memory studies
–Misinformation effect incorporating
misleading information into one’s memory of
an event.
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Source Amnesia
• Source amnesia (source
misattribution) attributing to the wrong
source an event we have experienced, heard
about, read about, or imagined.
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Repressed or Constructed
Memories of Abuse
• Areas of agreement
– Sexual abuse happens
– Injustice happens
– Forgetting happens
– Recovered memories are incomplete
– Memories before 3 years are unreliable
– Hypnotic memories are unreliable
– Memories can be emotionally upsetting
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Repressed or Constructed
Memories of Abuse?
• Loftus studies with children
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Unit 7B:
Cognition: Thinking, Problem
Solving, Creativity, and
Language
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Introduction
• Cognition the mental activities
associated with thinking, knowing,
remembering, and
communicating.
• Cognitive psychologists
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Concepts• Concepts a mental grouping of
similar objects, events, ideas, or
people.
–Prototype a mental image or best
example of a category. Matching new
items to a prototype provides a quick
and easy method for sorting items into
categories
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Development of Concepts:
Definitions
Prototypes
•Mental image or best example of a category
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Solving ProblemsStrategies
• Algorithms a methodical, logical rule or
procedure that guarantees solving a particular
problem.
– Step-by-step
• Heuristic a simple thinking strategy that
often allows us to make judgments and solve
problems efficiently
• Insight a sudden and often novel realization
of the solution to a problem
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Solving ProblemsCreativity
• Creativity the ability to produce novel
and valuable ideas.
• Strernberg’s five components
–Expertise
–Imaginative thinking skills
–A venturesome
personality
–Intrinsic motivation
–A creative environment
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Solving ProblemsObstacles to Problem Solving
• Confirmation bias a tendency to search
for information that supports our preconceptions
and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
• Fixation the inability to see a problem from a
new perspective, by employing a different
mental set.
–Mental set a tendency to approach a
problem in one particular way
–Functional fixedness the tendency to
think of things only in terms of their usual
functions
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Making Decisions and Forming Judgments
Using and Misusing Heuristics
• The Representative Heuristicjudging the likelihood of things in terms of
how well they seem to represent, or
match, particular prototypes; may lead us
to ignore other relevant information.
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Making Decisions and Forming Judgments
Using and Misusing Heuristics
• The Availability Heuristic estimating the
likelihood of events based on their availability
in memory
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Making Decisions and Forming Judgments
Overconfidence
• Overconfidence the tendency to be
more confident that correct – to over-
estimate the accuracy of our beliefs and
judgments
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Making Decisions and Forming Judgments
The Belief Perseverance Phenomenon
• Belief perseverance clinging to
one’s initial conceptions after the
basis on which they are formed
has been discredited.
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Making Decisions and Forming Judgments
The Perils and Powers of Intuition
• Intuition an effortless, immediate, automatic
feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit,
conscious reasoning.
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Making Decisions and Forming Judgments
The Effects of Framing
• Framing the way an issue is
posed; how an issue is framed
can significantly affect decisions
and judgments
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Language
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LanguageIntroduction
• Language our spoken, written, or
signed words and the ways we combine
them to communicate meaning
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Language StructurePhonemes
• Phoneme in language, the smallest
distinctive sound unit.
–English about 40 phonemes
–Learning another language’s
phonemes
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Language StructureMorphemes
• Morpheme in a language, the
smallest unit that carries
meaning; may be a word or a part
of a word
• Includes prefixes and suffixes
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Language StructureGrammar
• Grammar a system of rules that enables us
to communicate with and understand others.
–Semantics the set of rules by which we
derive meaning from morphemes, words, and
sentences in a given language; also, the
study of meaning.
–Syntax the rules for combining words into
grammatically sensible sentences in a given
language.
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Syntax
• The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.
• In English, adjectives come before nouns, but not in Spanish!!
Is this the White House of the House White?
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Language DevelopmentWhen Do We Learn Language?
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Language DevelopmentExplaining Language Development
• Skinner: Operant Learning
–Learning principles
• Association
• Imitation
• Reinforcement
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Language Influences Thinking
• Whorf’s linguistic determinismWhorf’s hypothesis that language determines
the way we think.
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Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity• The idea that
language determines the way we think (not vive versa).
•The Hopi tribe has no past tense in their language, so Whorf says they rarely think of the past.