UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
STUDENTS' ENGLISH PROFICIENCY, PERCEPTUAL LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCE AND SECOND LANGUAGE TOLERANCE OF
AMBIGUITY
RAFIZAH BINTI MOHD RAWIAN
FPP 2002 32
STUDENTS' ENGLISH PROFICIENCY, PERCEPTUAL LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCE AND SECOND LANGUAGE TOLERANCE OF
AMBIGUITY
By
RAFIZAH BINTI MOHO RAWIAN
Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, i n F ulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master
of Science
December 2002
II
Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science
STUDENTS' ENGLISH PROFICIENCY, PERCEPTUAL LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCE AND SECOND LANGUAGE TOLERANCE OF
AMBIGUITY
Chairperson :
Faculty :
By
RAFIZAH BINTI MOHO RAWIAN December 2002
Professor Haji Othman bin Dato' Haji Mohamed, Ph.D.
Educational Studies
The purpose of this study was to examine students' English
proficiency, perceptual learning style preference and tolerance of
ambiguity.
A total of 314 respondents were randomly sampled from four
secondary schools in the District of Hulu Langat. A descriptive
correlational study was util ised and the theoretical framework of the
study was based on several models of learning . The Perceptual
Learning Style Preference Questionnaire was used to investigate
respondents' perceptual learning style preference. This questionnaire
categorised the students into auditory, kinesthetic, tactile and visual
III
learners. The Second Language Tolerance of Ambiguity Scale was
used to measure respondents' levels of ambiguity tolerance. English
proficiency was evaluated based on respondents' PMR English grades.
Frequency distribution, independent t test and Pearson correlation test
were used to analyse the data. The study found that the male and
female students had chosen the kinesthetic learning style as a major
learning style while the tactile and the visual learning styles were
selected as minor learning styles. However, there was a difference in
the auditory learning style preference because the females had
regarded this learning style as a major learning style whi le the males
had considered it as a minor style. The Malays, Chinese and Indians
had selected the kinesthetic learning style as a major learning style and
regarded the tactile and visual learning styles as minor styles. The
auditory learning style was a major style for the Indians but it was
considered as a minor learning style for the Malays and Chinese. The
Malays had stronger preference in tactile learning style and the
Chinese were found to have stronger preference in visual learning
style. The Indians on the other hand had stronger preference in
auditory learning style.
Both the Science and Arts majors regarded the kinesthetic
learning style as a major learning style while the tactile and the visual
styles were considered as minor styles. The Science major had
selected the auditory learning style as a major style and the Arts major
iv
considered it as a minor style. The science students showed stronger
preferences in kinesthetic, auditory and visual learning styles. The Arts
students were identified as having stronger preference in tactile
learning style. The overall analysis revealed that the respondents
performed better in the listening examination fol lowed by the oral and
the written examinations. None of the respondents had a very high
level of ambiguity tolerance. The males had a high level of ambiguity
tolerance and the females had a moderate level of ambiguity tolerance.
The Malays were found to be high tolerant learners while the Chinese
and Indians were moderate tolerant learners. The Science major was
identified as having high level of ambiguity tolerance whereas the Arts
major was recognised as having a moderate level of ambiguity
tolerance. The Pearson correlation analysis showed weak, negative but
significant correlations between the modes of perceptual learning style
and English proficiency. Positive, strong and significant correlation was
found between tolerance of ambiguity and English proficiency.
However, weak but significant correlation was identified between
modes of perceptual learning style and tolerance of ambiguity.
Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat U niversiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master Sains
v
TAHAP KEFASIHAN BAHASA INGGERIS, PERSEPSI KEUTAMAAN STAlL PEMBELAJARAN DAN TOLERANSI AMBIGUITI DALAM
BAHASA KEDUA
Pengerusi :
Fakulti :
Oleh
RAFIZAH BINTI MOHO RAWIAN Disember 2002
Profesor Haji Othman bin Dato' Haji Mohamed, Ph.D.
Pengajian Pendidikan
Kajian ini bertujuan mengenalpasti tahap kefasihan Bahasa
I nggeris, persepsi keutamaan stail pembelajaran dan toleransi
ambiguiti dalam bahasa kedua.
Seramai 314 responden telah dipilih secara rawak dari empat
buah sekolah menengah di daerah Hulu Langat. Kajian deskriptif
kolerasi yang berpandukan kepada beberapa teori pembelajaran telah
digunapakai. Soal selidik stail pembelajaran perseptual telah
digunakan untuk mengkaji stail pembelajaran perseptual responden.
Melalui soal selidik ini, pelajar-pelajar telah dikategorikan kepada stail
pembelajaran auditori, kinestetik, tektail dan visual. Skala to/eransi
VI
ambiguiti dalam bahasa kedua atau "Second Language Tolerance of
Ambiguity" pula telah digunakan untuk menguji tahap toleransi
ambiguiti responden. Tahap kefasihan Bahasa Inggeris pelajar telah
dinilai berpandukan kepada keputusan peperiksaan Bahasa Inggeris di
peringkat PMR. Frekuensi , ujian t dan kolerasi Pearson telah
dijalankan untuk menganalisa data yang diperolehi. Kajian mendapati
pelajar-pelajar lelaki dan perempuan telah memilih stail pembelajaran
kinestetik sebagai stail pembelajaran yang utama dan stail
pembelajaran tektai l dan visual dipilh sebagai stai l pembelajaran yang
minor. Pelajar-pelajar perempuan telah memilih stai l pembelajaran
auditori sebagai stai l pembelajaran yang utama tetapi pelajar-pelajar
lelaki menganggapnya sebagai satu stail yang minor. Ketiga-tiga kaum
iaitu Melayu, Cina dan I ndia telah memilih stail pembelajaran kinestetik
sebagai stail yang utama dan menganggap tektail dan visual sebagai
stail yang minor. Stail pembelajaran auditori adalah stai l minor bagi
pelajar-pelajar Melayu dan Cina tetapi ianya stail yang utama bagi
pelajar I ndia. Pelajar-pelajar Melayu lebih menyukai stai l pembelajaran
tektail berbanding dengan kaum-kaum yang lain . Pelajar-pelajar Cina
pula d idapati lebih menyukai stail pembelajaran visual manakala
pelajar-pelajar I ndia lebih cenderung kepada stail pembelajaran
auditori.
Pelajar-pelajar jurusan Sains dan Sastera telah memilih stail
pembelajaran kinestetik sebagai stail utama dan memilih tektai l serta
VII
visual sebagai stai l-stai l pembelajaran yang minor. Pelajar-pelajar
jurusan Sains telah memilih stail pembelajaran auditori sebagai stail
utama tetapi ianya satu stail pembelajaran yang minor bagi pelajar
pelajar jurusan Sastera. Pelajar-pelajar jurusan Sains lebih cenderung
kepada stai l pembelajaran kinestetik, auditori dan visual. Pelajar
pelajar jurusan Sastera pula lebih menyukai stai l pembelajaran tektail .
Analisa keseluruhan kajian mendapati pencapaian responden adalah
lebih baik didalam ujian pendengaran dan ini d iikuti oleh pencapaian
ujian Iisan dan ujian bertulis. Tiada seorang responden didapati
mempunyai tahap toleransi ambiguiti yang tertinggi. Pelajar-pelajar
lelaki mempunyai tahap toleransi ambiguiti yang tinggi dan pelajar
pelajr perempuan mempunyai tahap toleransi ambiguiti yang
sederhana. Pelajar-pelajar Melayu mempunyai tahap toleransi
ambiguiti yang tinggi manakala pelajar-pelajar Cina dan India
mempunyai tahap toleransi ambiguiti yang sederhana. Pelajar-pelajar
jurusan Sains didapati mempunyai tahap toleransi ambiguiti yang tinggi
dan pelajar-pelajar jurusan Sastera mempunyai tahap toleransi
ambiguiti yang sederhana. Ujian kolerasi Pearson menunjukkan
kolerasi yang negatif, lemah tetapi signifikan di antara stail
pembelajaran perseptual dengan kefasihan Bahasa Inggeris.
Sebaliknya kolerasi yang positif, kuat dan signifikan diantara toleransi
ambiguiti dan kefasihan Bahasa Inggeris telah diperolehi . Selain itu,
korelasi diantara stail pembelajaran perseptual dan toleransi ambiguiti
d ikenal past; sebagai lemah tetapi signifikan.
VlII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, J wish to express my deepest gratitude to
Allah, the Almighty for His merciful blessing, love and care. My deepest
appreciation goes to all the members of my supervisory committee.
Their encouragement, understanding and guidance are really beyond
words.
I am particularly grateful to have Professor Dr Othman b. Oato'
Haji Mohamed as the Chairman of my Supervisory Committee. H is
wisdom, patience and support are very meaningful in the completion of
this thesis. I am also thankful to him for giving me freedom to venture
into my own research interests. Besides, I wil l always remember his
sense of humour and sincere comments that really motivated me to
successfully complete this academic writing.
Special thanks also go to Dr Ghazali Mustapha and Tuan Haji
Azal i Mahbar for being pleasant, supportive and helpful . Their
invaluable suggestions and comments at various stages have taught
me to be critical and practical.
I would l ike to express deepest love and appreciation to my
beloved husband, Ahmad Azman Mokhtar who always provides
encouragement and love throughout my graduate education. To my
son , Ahmad Azamuddeen, my deepest love and gratitude and thanks
IX
for being such an understanding child. Lastly, similar appreciation is
extended to my mom (Puan Hajah Aminah Meor Alwi), dad (Tuan Haji
Mohd Rawian Ahmad) and brothers (Mohd Razni and Mohd Ridhwan)
for their endless support and help i n the preparation of this thesis.
x
I certify that an Examination Committee met on 2nd December 2002 to conduct the final examination of Rafizah binti Mohd Rawian on her Master of Science thesis entitled "Students' English Proficiency, Perceptual Learning Style Preference and Second Language Tolerance of Ambiguity" in accordance with Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1 980 and Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulation 1 981 . The committee recommends that the candidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Examination Committee are as fol lows:
Arshad Abd Samad, Ph.D. Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman)
Othman Dato' Mohamed, Ph.D. Professor Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
Ghazali Mustapha, Ph.D. Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
Azali Mahbar Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
HAMSHER MOHAMAD RAMADILI, Ph.D. Professor I Deputy Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date: '2 7 J A!� :�r1
XI
This thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia has been accepted as fulfi lment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science. The members of the Supervisory Committee are as follows:
Othman Dato' Mohamed, Ph.D. Professor Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman)
G hazali Mustapha, Ph.D. Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
Azali Mahbar Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
AINI IDERIS, Ph.D. Professor I Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date: 1 3 MN< 2003
XlI
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.
RAFIZAH MOHO RAWIAN
Date: :loS · , . :100�
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ABSTRAK ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS APPROVAL DEC LARA TION TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER
1
2
INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem Research Objectives Research Questions Research Hypotheses Conceptual Framework
The Conceptual Model of Relationships between Perceptual Learning Style Preference, Tolerance of Ambiguity and English Proficiency The Perceptual Learning Style Preferences of ESL Learners Theoretical Model of Discomfort, Risktaking, Sociabil ity and Motivation Significance of the Study Limitations of the Study Definition of Terms
LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Defin ition of a Learning Style Learning Style Theories Cultural I nfluence on Learning Styles Perceptual Learning Style Gender Differences in Learning Styles I nfluence of Learning Styles on Academic Success
xiii
Page
i i v vii i x xii xii i xvi xix xx
1 6 7 8 9 1 0
1 3
1 4
1 7 23 26 28
32 32 33 35 41 45 64
73
3
4
5
xiv
Tolerance of Ambiguity 80 The influence of Tolerance of Ambiguity on L2 Acquisition 85 Conclusion 98
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 99 Introduction 99 Research Design 1 00 Instrumentation 1 01 Respondents' English Proficiency 1 02 Perceptual Learning Style Preferences Questionnaire 1 03 Second Language Tolerance of Ambiguity Scale 1 06 Content and Face Val idity of the Research Instruments 1 09 The Pilot Study 1 1 0 Rel iability of the Research Instruments 1 1 1 The Sample 1 1 1 The Sample Size 1 1 3 Formula for Estimating Sample Size 1 1 3 Formu la for Adjusting Sample Size 1 14 Data Collection Procedures 1 1 6 Techniques of Data Analysis 1 1 8 Summary of Statistical Analysis 1 1 9
ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FfNDINGS 1 23 Introduction 1 23 Respondents' Profile 1 23 Findings of the Study 1 25
DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1 64 Introduction 164 Discussion of the Findings 1 64
Respondents' Perceptual Learning Styles Preferences 1 64 Respondents' English ProfiCiency 1 67 Respondents' Tolerance of Ambiguity 1 68 The Relationships between Modes of Perceptual Learning Styles and English Proficiency 1 70 The Relationships between
xv
T o/erance of Ambiguity and English Proficiency 17 1 The Relationships between Modes of Perceptual Learning Styles and Tolerance of Ambiguity 1 72
Impl ications of the Study 1 73 Recommendations for Future Research 1 78 Conclusion 1 81
B IBLIOGRAPHY 1 83
APPENDICES A - PERCEPTUAL LEARNI NG STYLE
PREFERENCE QUESTIONNAIRE 1 97 B - SECOND LANGUAGE TOLERANCE
OF AMBIGUITY 201 C - VALIDATION COMMITTEE 203 D - TABLE FOR SELECTING SAMPLE
SQE 2� E - TABLE OF I DENTFYING n BASED a 206 F - MAJOR CATEGORIES OF
LEARNING STYLES 207 G - A COMPARISON OF LEARNING
STYLES RESEARCH 2 1 0
VITA 21 3
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
Table Description Page
1 Learning Style Preferences from N ine Language Backgrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6
2 Reliabi lity of the Research Instruments . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1
3 Distribution of Form Four Population by Schools and Gender . . . . . . . . . ' " . . . . . . ' " . . . . . . 1 12
4 Distribution of the Sample by Schools and Gender. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 5
5 Summary of Statistical Analysis Used in Answering Research Questions . . . ' " . . . . . . 1 1 9
6 Summary of Statistical Analysis Used in Answering Research Hypotheses 1 20
7 Summary Statistics of Respondents . . . . . . . . . 1 25
8 Summary of the Percentages of Scores of the Four Distinct Types of Perceptual Learning Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 1 25
9 Summary of the Percentages of Scores of the Four Distinct Types of Perceptual Learning Style by Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 1 27
1 0 Summary of the Percentages of Scores of the Four Distinct Types of Perceptual Learning Style by Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 29
1 1 Summary of the Percentages of Scores of the Four Distinct Types of Perceptual Learning Style by Academic Majors . . . .. . . . . . . . 1 3 1
1 2 Summary of the Percentages of Scores of the Three English Proficiency Examinations . . . . . . ' " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 32
XVII
1 3 Summary of the Percentages of Scores of the Three English Proficiency Examinations by Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 34
1 4 Summary of the Percentages of Scores of the Three English Proficiency Examinations by Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 36
1 5 Summary of the Percentages of Scores of the Three English PrOficiency Examinations by Academic Majors . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 38
1 6 Frequency Distribution of Scores of Tolerance of Ambiguity . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 40
1 7 Summary of the Percentages of Scores of Tolerance of Ambiguity by Gender, Ethnicity and Academic Majors . . . . . . 1 4 1
1 8 Means and Standard Deviations of Modes of Perceptual Learning Styles Preferences by Gender. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 44
1 9 Means and Standard Deviations of Modes of Perceptual Learning Styles Preferences by Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 46
20 Means and Standard Deviations of Modes of Perceptual Learning Styles Preferences by Academic Majors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 48
2 1 Means and Standard Deviations of Engl ish proficiency by Gender. . . . . . . . . 1 50
22 Means and Standard Deviations of Engl ish Proficiency by Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . 1 52
23 Means and Standard Deviations of English Proficiency by Academic Majors . . . 1 53
24 Means and Standard Deviations of Tolerance of Ambiguity by Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 54
25 Means and Standard Deviations of Tolerance of Ambiguity by Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 55
XVIII
26 Means and Standard Deviations of Tolerance of Ambiguity by Academic Majors . . . 1 56
27 Correlation Scores between Modes of Perceptual Learning Style and English Proficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 57
28 Correlation Scores between Tolerance of Ambiguity and English Proficiency . .. . . . . . . . . . 1 60
29 Correlation Scores between Modes of Perceptual Learning Style and Tolerance of Ambiguity . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ' " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Figure
1
2
3
LIST OF FIGURES
The Conceptual Model of Relationships between Perceptual Learning Style Preference, Tolerance of Ambiguity and English Proficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theoretical Model of Discomfort, Risktaking, Sociability and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elements of I ndividuals' Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XIX
Page
1 3
22
36
xx
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
A Auditory Learning Style
ESL English as a Second Language
F Female
K Kinesthetic Learning Style
L2 Second Language
LS Learning Style
M Male
PMR Penilaian Menengah Rendah or Lower Secondary Assessment
PLSPQ Perceptual Learning Styles Preferences Questionnaire
SMAPK Sekolah Menengah Agama Persekutuan Kajang
SMYH Sekolah Menengah Yu Hua
SMJB Sekolah Menengah Jalan Bukit
SAAS Sekolah Menengah Sultan Abdu l Aziz Shah
TESL Teaching English as a Second Language
T Tactile Learning Style
V Visual Learning Style
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Quality is a concept in education that is closely related to the
standard and effectiveness of classroom instruction and it has now
become an increasingly crucial issue. Learning process is viewed in
depth to unfold aspects that are significant to learning success. A
number of classroom-based researches have been done to gain insight
into the actual scenario of teaching and learning. The main objective of
these studies is to assist educators to come up with new strategies and
resources to enrich the teaching-learning experiences including second
language acquisition.
The importance of English language as a second language (L2) in
Malaysia is indisputable. At present, English is still the second
language used in Malaysia after Bahasa Malaysia, the main medium of
instruction in schools. Engl ish language is one of the compulsory
subjects for all students in primary as well as in secondary schools
(Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Bahasa Inggeris Tingkatan IV, 1 990).
Although the importance of English is ful ly acknowledged, students'
English language proficiency is decl ining. There are students who stil l
cannot speak English fluently even though they have studied the
language for many years in schools. There are also a large number of
students who stil l cannot read or write in English (Jamali, 1 992). One of
2
the main questions posed by researchers i n second language learning
is why some students learn English effectively and successful ly while
others with the same opportunities fai l to learn. Jamali ( 1 992) pOinted
out five major factors that contribute to the low achievement in English
among Malaysian students. Firstly, less contact hours with English
language l imit students' exposure to the language. Secondly, the
restriction of the English syllabus has caused teachers to make the
syllabus not the learners as their focal point of classroom teaching.
Thirdly, English is not a prerequisite to certification in the sense that
even if candidates fail the subject they can sti l l pass the examination.
Fourthly, the shortage of English teachers is still acute especially in the
rural schools where many do not even have training in English as a
second language (TESL) . Finally, learners' attitudes are largely
determined by the language-learning situation and by the examination
priorities. Hence, many of them are found to be less interested in the
class.
Being ful ly aware of the problems faced by teachers and students
in the second language acquisition, endless efforts have been made by
the Education Ministry to overcome the existing problems. The recent
move is the teaching of English literature in secondary schools. Its
rationale is to increase students' language mastery as well as to
develop a sense of appreciation towards English language. Besides all
3
the efforts taken, further attempts should also be made to understand
students' learning strategies and learning modalities because these
elements may influence their language performance (Brown, 1 987).
Learning modalities are the individual's natural, habitual and preferred
ways of absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills
(Reid, 1 987). They serve as a means of identifying the importance of
various individual characteristics and their effects on learners'
achievements (Hyland, 1 993) .
The interest in learning styles is closely related to the idea of
'Iearner-centered' instruction as it implies a need to consider
information about students when designing methods and content.
Teachers cannot assume all students wil l learn through whatever
teaching strategy that they prefer to use. Recognising the importance
of adapting curriculum and instruction to students' aptitudes, Keefe
(1 979) asserted:
"Learning style diagnosis opens the door to placing individualized instruction on a more rational basis. It gives the most powerful leverage yet available to educators to analyze, motivate and assist students in schools. As such, it is the foundation of a truly modem approach to education" (p. 34).
According to Stebbins (1 993), understanding learning style
preference is beneficial to both teachers and students. For students,
4
they may accomplish several goals. Firstly, helping students identify
'tools' that are in itially built upon their own inclinations and
backgrounds and offering them some sense of fami liarity may make
them less resistant to risk taking and change (Oxford , 1 985) . Secondly,
having the knowledge of own learning styles and the place of learning
styles in a culture may help students understand that beliefs and
behaviours are not universal but 'natural' to al l . These beliefs and
behaviours may maximise their L2 proficiency and academic success.
Thirdly, if students are from cultures where education is heavily
teacher-directed , knowledge of their individual learning style
preferences can help them be responsible for their own learning by
helping them select learning strategies that wil l build their innate
preferences (Oxford, 1 985). Finally, by giving students a sense that
they are in control of aspects of their learning process with direct
influence on the outcomes can build self-confidence and reinforce the
wil l ingness to be risk takers (Stebbin, 1 993) .
Teachers' identification of students' learning style preferences on
the other hand can guide the selection of appropriate instructional
methods and materials to maximise students' learning. Knowledge of
students' style profiles can be used to guide instructional organisation
for individuals or for groups of students with the same style preference
(Stebbin, 1 993). Secondly, teachers' identification of their own style