UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURICENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
PAD 411: Development Administration (2 Units)
Course Facilitator: Dr. Raphael Adole Audu
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)STUDY GUIDE
Course Code/ Title: PAD 411: Development
Administration
Credit Units: 3
Timing: 26hrsTotal hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six
hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester.
You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours
per course throughout the week. This will apply to all course
materials you have. This implies that each course material will be
studied for two hours in a week.
Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including
all the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them
adequately. All activities should be timed from five minutes
(5minutes) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for
each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes
for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of
completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment.
Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study
session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need
to add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed.
You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment
questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one
hour which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success
depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money,
do not waste it.
Reading:
When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a
novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the
main points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for
checking terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the
glossary.
Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those
main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that
the book is not spoiled for further usage.
Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand
its meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those
meanings in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your
dictionary for further explanations.
When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that
you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to
the in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in
answering those activities except when the question requires you to be
detailed.
In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer
carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the
main text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)sure of what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in
your in-text carefully before you provide the answer.
Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying
attention to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms
and concepts. But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go
into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong enough before you
engage in reading activities.
Bold Terms:
These are terms that are very important towards
comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are
bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When
you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your
book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you,
you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the
term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading
because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text.
Practice Exercises
a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each
activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and
major informations you read in the in-text. In every study
session there is one or more activities provided for you to
answer them. You must be very careful in answering these
activities because they provide you with major facts of the text.
You can have a separate note book for the activities which can
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself
for each activity you answered.
b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers
are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To
every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions
and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the
major points in your reading.
c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most
essential components of your study. It is meant to test your
understanding of what you studied so you must give adequate
attention in answering them. The remaining time from the two
hours allocated for this study session can be used in answering
the self- assessment question.
Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ,
you are expected to write down the major points related to the
particular question to be answered. Check those points you have
written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that
you can start explaining each point as your answer to the
question.
When you have completed the explanation of each question, you
can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer
to the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to
grade your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of
performance. This procedure should be applied to all SAQ
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful
to do the right thing.
e-Tutors: The eTutors are dedicated online teachers that provide
services to students in all their programme of studies. They are
expected to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to
students Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to
student’s processes of their studies. For each programme, there will
be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student’s enquiries.
Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-
tutors through their email addresses or phone numbers which are there
in your student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting
your e-tutors when in doubt about your learning.
You must learn how to operate email, because e-mailing will give you
opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost.
In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course
facilitators through their phone numbers and e-mails which are also in
your handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your
academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies.
Continuous assessment
The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total
marks. The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be
through online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be
required to submit your test or assignment through your email. The
continuous assessment may be conducted more than once. You must
make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to
date.
Examination
All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri
Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the
Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your
preparation for examination may require you to look for course mates
so that you form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies
will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied.
Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you
have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social
Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find
your group.
You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must
engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies,
making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first
summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on
self assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of
studies. When the examination week commences you can also go
through your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to
remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall, there
are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry (i.e Bags, Cell
phone, and any paper etc). You will be checked before you are
allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout
your examination period.
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)COURSE TITLE: DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
COURSE CODE: PAD 411
COURSE FACILITATOR: DR. RAPHAEL ADOLE AUDU.
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)INTRODUCTIONThe Nigerian government is increasingly assuming new functions due to the complex nature
of the Nigerian state. In an attempt to respond to the emerging social and economic
challenges, there is the need for the government prioritizes its development programmes and
projects. This can only be achieved through moving away from traditional public
administration to development administration strategies.
The issue of development and modernization has been a great concern to scholars and
policy makers. Despite the efforts of the government of Nigeria to modernize and develop the
Nigerian society, the issue of development still remained a great concern to scholars and
development planners. It is in view of the foregoing fact that this course: development
administration is designed to expose students to the various models and theories of
development administration and see how they could be applied in the Nigerian context. These
models and theories are effective tools in reviewing and controlling government
programmes, particularly as it relate to unemployment, poverty alleviation, rural and
community development and developments in Nigeria. Hence, the need for us to examine the
concept and dynamics of development and development administration and to also
interrogate the need for paradigm shifts in Nigeria and Africa in general.
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)Course objective
The course is designed to expose the students first to the meaning and dynamics of
administration and development. It also went further to conceptualize development
administration. Examines modernization and underdevelopment theories. The aim of the
course is also to find out the basis and foundation for the study of development
administration in developing countries with special emphasis on Nigeria. Furthermore, the
course examines the operations, methods and machinery of government, planning and the
nature of administration in developing countries. In fact, it focused on economic planning,
industrial strategies and budgeting in Nigeria.
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)TABLE OF CONTENTSCourse Objective .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1
Study Session 1: Basic Concepts in Development Administration
1.1 Meaning of Administration .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2
1.2 Meaning of Public Administration .. .. .. .. .. .. 3
1.3 Relevance of administration in political systems .. .. .. 5
1.4 Meaning of Civil Service .. .. .. .. .. . 6
1.5 Characteristics of the civil service .. .. .. .. .. .. 6
1.6 Functions of the civil service .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7
1.7 Meaning of Development .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7
1.8 Dimensions of Development .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 9Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11
Self Assessment Questions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11
References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 12
Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 12
Study Session 2: The Meaning and Growth of Development Administration
2.1 Meaning of development administration .. .. .. .. .. 13
2.2 Features of development administration .. .. .. .. .. 14
Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 16
Self Assessment Questions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 17
References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 17
Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 18
Study Session 3: Theories and Models of Comparative Public Administration
3.1 Fredrick W. Riggs Theory of Prismatic Ssociety .. .. .. .. 20
3.3 Features of Sala Model .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 22
3.4 Max Weber Bureaucratic Model (Legal rational authority) .. .. .. 22
3.5 Criticisms of the Bureaucratic Model .. .. .. .. .. .. 24
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)3.6 Structural – Functionalism: Talcott Parsons .. .. .. .. .. 25
Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 28
Self Assessment Questions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 28
References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 29
Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 29
Study Session 4: Modernization and Underdevelopment Theory
4.1 Modernization theory .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 30
4.2 Criticism against the Modernization theory .. .. .. .. .. 31
4.3 Underdevelopment theory .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 32
4.4 Features of Underdevelopment .. .. .. .. .. .. 32
4.5 Meaning of Dualism .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 33
Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 34
Self Assessment Questions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 35
References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 35
Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 36
Study Session 5: Planning and development Planning in Nigeria
5.1 Meaning of Planning .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 37
5.2 Factors to be considered in the planning process .. .. .. .. 37
5.3 Objectives of Planning .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 39
5.4 Types of Plans .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 39
5.5 Machinery of Planning.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 40
5.6 Development Planning in Nigeria .. .. .. .. .. .. 41
5.7 Summary on the objectives of national development plans in Nigeria .. 44
Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 46
Self Assessment Questions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 57
References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 57
Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 58
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)Study Session 6: Poverty and Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Nigeria
6.1 Meaning of Poverty .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 58
6.2 The Nature of Poverty in Nigeria .. .. .. .. .. .. 60
6.3 Causes of Poverty in Nigeria .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 61
6.4 Approaches of Poverty Reduction in Nigeria .. .. .. .. 62
6.5 Development Programmes/Poverty Reduction Strategies in Nigeria .. .. 66
Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 73
Self Assessment Questions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 73
References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 74
Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 74
Study Session 7: Rural Development
7.1 Meaning of rural development.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 84
7.2 Characteristics of a rural area .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 84
7.3 Aims and objectives of rural development .. .. .. .. .. 84
7.4 Problems confronting rural development in Nigeria .. .. .. .. 86
Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 86
Self Assessment Questions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 86
References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 87
Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 87
Appendix .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 89
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Study Session 1: Basic concepts in DevelopmentAdministration
Introduction
Before we delve into the main subject matter (Development Administration), it is importantthat we clarify some of the basic concepts that will be used in this discourse. Concepts suchas administration, civil service and development. These concepts need to be defined for youto understand the course development administration. Without you having adequateknowledge of these concepts, you will find it difficult to understand the perspectives of ournarratives as far as this course is concerned. This session will therefore discuss some of thebasic terms or concepts that are fundamental to the understanding of DevelopmentAdministration as a course of study.
Study outcomes
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1.1 Define the term Administration
1.2 Define public administration
1.3 State the relevance of administration in political systems
1.4 Define the civil service
1.5 List the characteristics of the civil service
1.6 Highlight the main functions of the civil service
1.7 Define development
1.8 State the main dimensions of development
Bold terms1.1 Meaning of administration
Administration as a concept has attracted a lot of writings from so many scholars due to its
broad nature. Literally, the term ‘administration’ means management of affairs in an
organization. The organization could be public or private. The term management should not
be confused in any way with administration though they are most at times used
interchangeably. Management can be said to be the manipulation of both human and material
resources in order to achieve organizational goals or objectives while administration on the
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other hand is seen by E.N Gladden cited in Lamikanth (2007) as a long and slightly pompous
word with a humble meaning, for it means, to care for or look after people, to manage affairs
is a determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. While Nigro (1978) see
administration as the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose.
Pfiffner (1978) was also in similar frame of mind when he posited that administration is the
organization and direction of human and material resources to achieve desired ends.
The definitions given by both Nigro (1978) and Pfiffiner, (1978) are almost similar in
meaning as the writers see the use of men and material resources as very important
ingredients in administration. However, there are some other writers who have different
views on the subject matter (administration). For instance Brooks (1980:4) in his own attempt
at explaining the meaning of administration stated that: “Administration is the capacity of
coordinating many and often conflicting social energies in a single organism, so adroitly that
they shall operate as a unit”. Marx (1978) advanced that administration is a “determined
action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. According to him, it is the systematic ordering
of affairs and the calculated use of resources aimed at making those things happen which one
desires to happen and for taking everything to the contrary”. Waldo (1978) simply viewed
administration as a type of cooperative human effort that has a high degree of rationality.
From the definitions given above, administration can be seen from two perspectives.
First, the use of men and material to achieve the purpose of an organization. Second, it is a
collective group effort aimed at achieving the objectives of an organization. In fact
administration is a generic term that can be found in any organization be it public or private.
ITQ
Define the term administration
ITA
Administration can be seen from two perspectives. First, the use of men and material to
achieve the purpose of an organization. Second, it is a collective group effort aimed at
achieving the objectives of an organization.
1.2. Meaning of Public AdministrationThe word public administration means government. Hence, the focus of public
administration is on public bureaucracy, that is, bureaucratic public administration or
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administrative organization of the government. Before looking at the meaning and dynamics
of Comparative Public Administration, it is important we consider the meaning of Public
Administration because the knowledge of public administration would enable us have a better
perspective of the subject matter (Comparative Public Administration). The knowledge of
public administration would enable us compare government across national and international
borders.
Public administration refers to the processes whereby government policies are carried out by
officials of government or quasi governmental bodies. The public service includes institutions
such as: The Civil Service, the Judiciary, the Police, the Prisons, Public Corporations, the
Universities, Local Government Councils and the Political Class. In essence, public
administration is understood to mean the process of executing government policies decided
upon by the political executives who constitute the higher authority in the hierarchy.
According to Pfeiffer & Presthus (1978) public administration is concerned with the means
for implementing political values. Dimock (citing Caiden 1971) see public administration as
the accomplishment of a politically determined objective.
Adebayo (1989) in his own attempt at the meaning of public administration posit that
“public administration is when administration is qualified by the word “public” it simply
means the practice of administration in a particular segment of society; public administration
is therefore any governmental administration that operates in a particular sphere of
government. It is in fact the machinery for implementing government policy”.
From the forgoing, one could say that public administration encompasses process and
activities of government institutions and structures. Public administration can therefore be
said to be the machinery of various Ministries which advice and execute government policies
and programmes. In other words public administration refers to the agencies and institutions
in the political, administrative, economic, social and other spheres funded wholly and
partially from the nation’s wealth. In fact public administration is an aspect of the larger field
of administration. It exists in a political system for the accomplishment of the goals and
objectives formulated by the political decision makers. It is also known as governmental
administration because the adjective “public.
Woodrow (1964) view public administration as a detailed and systematic execution of law.
Every particular application of law is an act of administration. He went further to state that
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administration is the most obvious part of the government, it is the government in action; it is
the executive; the operation and the most visible side of government. Gladden (1978) stated
that public administration is concerned with the administration of government while
Laxmikanth (2007) citing Herbert Simon on his part viewed public administration as the
activities of the executive branches of National, State and Local Governments.
Carson and Harris (1978) on their part, sees public administration as the action part of
government, the means by which the purposes or goals of the government are realized. Nigro
(1978) has an all encompassing view of public administration when he stated that public
administration is:
(i) is a cooperative group effort in a public setting
(ii) covers all the three branches – executive, legislative and judicial, and their inter-
relationship
(iii) has an important role in the formulation of public policy and thus part of the
political process
(iv) It is different in significant ways from private administration; and
(v) It is closely associated with numerous private services to the community.
In summarizing the above definitions, one would discover that public administration
has been used in narrow and wider sense. In the wider sense, public administration
includes the activities of all the three branches of the government that is, the
legislature, executive and the judiciary while in the narrow sense public
administration deals with the activities of only the executive arm of government and it
is related agencies.
ITQ
What is the difference between public administration and business administration?
ITA
Public administration has to do with the activities of the government. Through its
Ministries, Departments and Agencies provide services to the citizenry on non profit
basis while the motive behind business administration is for profit maximization.
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1.3 Relevance of administration in political systemsAdministration is found in every organization. It includes all efforts geared towards the
achievement of organizational goal. Where men live together they have to work together, and
where they work, they have to be so put to their jobs and each other so as to create a
harmonious combination of men and material that is called administration.
From the forgoing, the purpose of administration can be said to:
i. Improve the wellbeing of man as such any administrative activity that has no
human element cannot be said to be administration.
ii. Promote group effort. Two or more persons must be available in an organization
before a task can be performed.
iii. The objective or goal of any organization is to achieve some goals or objectives.
These goals cannot be achieved without adequate planning. And organization
without a plan cannot achieve its goal.
iv. The use of money (finance) and material is very essential in any organization. The
availability of these factors in an organization determines its growth and
development.
ITQ
List any two relevance of administration in political systems
ITA
i. Improve the wellbeing of man as such any administrative activity that has no
human element cannot be said to be administration.
ii. Promote group effort. Two or more persons must be available in an organization
before a task can be performed.
1.4 Meaning of civil serviceThe term civil service can refer to either a branch of governmental service in which
individuals are employed on the basis of professional merit as proven by competitive
examinations, or the body of employees in any government agency other than the military.
A civil servant is a person in the public Sector employed for a government department
or agency. The status of a civil servant varies from country to country. In the United
Kingdom, for instance, only Crown employees are referred to as civil servants, county or city
employees are not. Many consider the study of civil service to be a part of the field of public
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administration. Workers in “non-departmental public bodies” may also be classified as civil
servants for the purpose of statistics and possibly for their terms and conditions.
An international civil servant or international staff member is a civilian employee that
is employed by an international organization. These international civil servants do not resort
under any national legislation (from which they have immunity of jurisdiction) but are
governed by an internal staff regulation. All disputes related to international civil service are
brought before special tribunals created by these international organizations, for instance, the
Administrative Tribunal of the International Labour Organization. Specific referral can be
made to the International Civil Service Commission (ICSC) of the United Nations, an
independent expert-body established by the United Nations General Assembly. Its mandate is
to regulate and coordinate the conditions of service of staff in the United Nations while
promoting and maintaining high standards in the international civil service.
1.5 Characteristics of the civil serviceThe following are the characteristics of the civil service:
1. Permanency: The civil service is permanent in nature. Once appointed as a civil
servant, one is completely sure of his continuity in office and all benefits even of retire
unless he misbehaves and he is dismissed. The Executive and the legislature can be
disbanded or dissolved but the civil servants can continue to remain in office to serve
them next government with equal loyalty
2. Impartiality: The civil servants must be impartial in discharging their functions and
responsibility to whatever political party in power or that forms the government. To
guarantee this, civil servants should not take part in partisan politics. They are to
serve any government with equal dedication no matter their personal views or
inclinations
3. Anonymity: Even though civil servants execute and advice the executives on
policy matters, the minister or commissioner cannot mention a civil servant as being
responsible for his action when he is called to defend his policies
4. Expertise action: As civil servants were recruited on the basis of their skill and
expertise, the minister relies on them for expert advice.
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1.6 Functions of the civil serviceBelow are some of the functions of the civil servants
1. Drafters of legislation: they help as drafters of legislation and in shaping and
developing particular policies of their ministries
2. Implementation of policies: It is the duty of the civil servants to implement
policies and laws made by the National Assembly
3. Drafting of annual budgets: It the responsibility of the civil servants to draft
financial estimates annually for their ministries which are incorporated into the
annual budget.
4. Civil servants advice the executives on policy issues in their ministries.
ITQ
Who is a civil servant?
ITA
A civil servant is a person in the public Sector employed for a government
department or agency.
1.7 .Meaning of developmentDevelopment is a word with many implications. It is a changing and dynamic
concept. It covers social, economic and political life of the people as such as its implications
differ from one discipline to another. In Economics it means growth, of national economy; in
sociology it means raising the standard of life of the people, while in Political Science and
administration it means the stabilization of democratic order and the capacity of political
systems to deal with problems threatening to destroy the system.
It is in view of the above fact that Michael Todaro defines development as a multi-
dimensional process involving changes in structures, attitudes and institutions as well as the
acceleration of inequality, and the eradication of absolute poverty. In similar manner, the
World Development Report (1990) attempts to define development in the context of several
indices. It advanced that the challenge of development in the broadcast sense, is to improve
the quality of life especially in the world’s poor countries, a better quality of life generally
calls for higher incomes in fact it covers better education, higher standards of health and
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nutrition, less poverty, cleaner environment, more equality of opportunity, greater individual
freedom and a richer cultural life.
The term development has also generated a lot of confusion among scholars and
writers within the social science field. The concept lacks a single definition due to its broad,
dynamic and polemic nature. However according to Adebayo A. Adedeji Development is the
fulfillment of man’s physiological, mental, and social needs. This definition is in line with
Abrahams Maslow needs theory. Dudley Seers on his part, see development as creating the
conditions for the realization of human personalities or potentialities. He went further to ask 3
questions: what is happening to poverty? What is happening to inequality? And what is
happening to unemployment? He sees human beings as the centre of development in every
society.
Walter Rodney sees development purely from the socio-economic perspective that
society developed economically as its members increased jointly in their capacity to deal with
their environment. More so, Joseph Lampobarak sees development as economic growth,
which is produced by the system, which is capable of producing political, social and
economic variables in the system.
However, S. M. Eisentsdht viewed development as the introduction of new ways of
doing things in a society in an effort to bring desired changes in the social, economic,
political and cultural areas of areas of a society. E .H Coleman looked at development from a
purely subjective perspective. He said that development is what you think it is. His argument
came as a result of the fact that there are different societies with different opinion, culture,
ideas etc what a society feels is development is regarded as development.
Professor Dennis Goulet identified at least three components or core values, which
showed same as conceptual basis and practical guidelines for the understanding of the inner
meaning of development.
These three values are:
1. Life sustenance.
2. Self esteem.
3. Freedom
They are core values because they are representing the common goods thought by individuals
in a society. They relate to fundamental human needs which find their expression in almost
all societies and cultures at all time.
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Life- sustenance
This refers to the ability to provide basic necessities of life. All people have certain basic
needs without which life would be impossible. These include:
Shelter, health, safety and protection. When any of these needs or condition is absent or in
critical short supply we may say that a condition of under development has occurred.
Self-esteem
This is another component of good life that constitutes a sense of worth and self respect of
not been used as a tool by others for their ends. In fact, all states and individuals seek some
form of identity, dignity and respect.
Freedom.
This is the final universal core value. Freedom here, seem to be understood in the more
fundamental sense of freedom or emancipation from alienating materials conditions of life
and freedom from the social substitutes of men, ignorance, misery, dogmatic beliefs etc.
Freedom involved the expanded range of choices for societies and their members, together
with the minimization of external constraints in the pursuit of some goals which we call
development.
ITQ
List the three core values of development identified by professor Goulet.
ITA
1. Life sustenance
2. Self esteem
3. Freedom
1.8 Dimensions of developmentThe multi-dimensional nature as well as its complexity has led to the consideration of the
concept today in line with various aspects of human life. Thus, we now have economic
development, socio-cultural development as well as administrative development.
Economic development Economic development is concern with promotion and establishment
of an economic system that would improve the standard of living through the effective
utilization of resources for the provision of basic infrastructure, high productivity, higher per-
capita income and net capital investment in productive sectors of the economy which will in
turn lead to a higher gross national output.
Economic development is generally defined to imply a qualitative improvement in the overall
supper structure through the eradication of poverty, unemployment, provision of a good
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standard of living and effective manpower utilization. It also include improvement in material
welfare, especially for persons with the lowest incomes, the eradication of mass poverty,
diseases and early death.
Socio-cultural development
This aspect of development depends very much on advancement of the forces of production
at a particular stage and at a given time. Socio-cultural development should not only lead to
interpretation of one’s environment but also those socio-cultural forms that affects the
development efforts of individual and societies at large. Some of the socio-cultural factors
that influence development positively include:
Improved Education
1 Ability to read and write acquisition of skills as well as general enlightenment by every
member of the society.
1 Provision of adequate infrastructure light, water, energy, transport and
communication etc.
Improvement in health care services
Provision of both curative and preventive health services so as to reduce infant mortality,
maternal mortality, increase life expectancy increase productivity of labour etc finally;
Changes in the belief
And values as well as the norms of the society which cause serious problems to development
efforts e.g. language, arts, literature, music mode of dressing e.t.c
Political development
According to Huntington David Apter and Lucian Pye, political development occurs when
societies essentially exhibits high degree of order, stability, role and structural differentiation
as well as institutionalization. To the International Social Sciences Research Council (ISSRC)
a society is said to be development politically if it is able to overcome the following
challenges:
(a) The challenge of authority or state building
(b) The challenge of unity.
(c) The challenge of participation.
(d) The challenge of distribution.
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Administrative development. Development is basically the responsibility of the government
especially the in developed countries. Thus, societies develops the machineries of
government must correspondingly be equipped to cope with the new roles and demands that
accompany it i.e. vital government machineries must respond to the needs of the people
through the establishment of institutions that would plan, execute and implement the policies
of government to individuals, groups and societies at large.
In short, administrative development within the administrative sector th3e public bureaucracy
is responsible for planning, and executing governmental policies.
Thus, development administration has to do with the transformation of some subjective
immoral values such as corruption, inefficiency, apathy into objective rationalism, handwork,
accountability, and initiatives toward the development of a true science of work.
The indicators of administrative development include:
1. Administrative effectiveness and efficiency.
2. Improve attitude to work ethics
3. Minimization of corruption
4. Improve skills etc
ITQ
What is Economic development?
ITA
Economic development is concern with promotion and establishment of an economic system
that would improve the standard of living through the effective utilization of resources for the
provision of basic infrastructure, high productivity, higher per-capita income and net capital
investment in productive sectors of the economy which will in turn lead to a higher gross
national output.
Read also: what is development? http://www.cgdev.org/blog/what-development
https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/...
Summary
In Study Session 1, you have learned that:
1. Administration is the use of men and material to achieve the purpose of an
organization.
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2. It is a collective group effort aimed at achieving the objectives of an
organization.
3. Public administration covers all the three branches – executive, legislative and
judicial, and their inter-relationship
4. Public administration has an important role in the formulation of public policy
and thus it is a part of the political process
5. Administration is relevant in political systems as it Improve the wellbeing of
man as such any administrative activity that has no human element cannot be
said to be administration.
6. Civil service is the machinery made up of the personnel of the various
ministries which advice and executive government policies.
7. Development as a concept that has generated a lot of writings due to its broad
and polemic nature
8. The dimensions of development include: political, socio – cultural, economic
and administrative development.
Self assessment questionsNow that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answers in your
study Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next study Support Meeting. You can
check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment questions at the end of this
Module.
SAQ 1.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 1.1)Define the term administration
SAQ 1.2 (Testing Learning outcomes 1.5)List four characteristics of civil servants
ActivityWhat is the relevance of administration in political systems?
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Relevance of administration in political systems
Relevance 1:
Relevance 2:
Relevance 3:
Relevance 4
ReferencesAke, C. (1996). Democracy and development in Africa.Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.
Bello, K. (2005). Essentials of Public Administration, Kano Flash Printers.
Bagchi, A.K. (1982). The Political Economy of under development London, Cambridge
press.
Barbara, I. (1993). The meaning of development interaction between “New State’ and old
ideas U.SA, University of Salford.
Frank, A.G. (2009). Development Accumulation and under development, New York monthly
Review Press
Ghosh, B.N. (2006). New Comparative Government New Delhi, Lotus press
Isaiah, O.D (2006). Essential s of Public administration. Niger State, Jube publications
Labini, P.S. (2001).Underdevelopments strategy for reform Canbridge university press.
Mbumega, A (2012). Issues of development and poerty reduction in Nigeria.Makurdi
Destiny Ventures
Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe underdeveloped Africa, Abuja.Penalf Publishing Inc.
Ron, A. (1995). Development Studies: An introduction through selected readings. Greenwich
University press.
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Study Session 2: The meaning and growth of developmentadministration
Introduction
In study session 1, you were acquainted with some of the basic concepts or terms that would
assist you to comprehend the meaning of development administration. Having familiarized
yourself with these concepts, it is important for us to examine the meaning of development
administration in this session.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, you will be able:
2.1. Define development administration
2.2. List the features of development administration
2.3. State the purpose of development administration
Bold term
2.1. Meaning of development administrationThe term development administration has also attracted attention from so many scholars in
the field of political science and administration. According to Irving Swerdlow development
administration is administration in “poor countries” he defined two inter-related tasks in
development administration that is, institutional building and planning. Han been Lee
advanced that development administration is concerned with the problems involved in
managing a government or an agency thereof so that it acquires an increasing capacity to
adopt to and act upon new and continuing social changes with a view to achieving a sustained
growth in political, economic and social fields. Merle Fainsod on his part stated that
development Administration is a carrier of innovating values. It embraces the array of new
functions assumed by developing countries embarking on the path of modernization and
industrialization. Ordinarily, development administration involves the establishment of
machinery for planning, economic growth and mobilization and allocation of resources.
Collins (1993) posited that development administration is concerned with the achievement of
change under conditions where change is difficult.
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Put more concretely, its focus is on a range of instrumentalities employed to achieve
the ends of national, social and economic development, the machinery of planning, the role of
government in development, the public corporations, marketing boards, projects and
administrative reforms at all levels. B.B Schaffer advanced that development Administration
is about development programs, policies and projects in those conditions in which there are
usually wide and in which there are peculiarly low capacities and severe obstacles in meeting
them.
See also https://www.reference.com/.../meaning...development-administration
ITQ
Development administration is about development programmes, policies and projects. True
or False
ITA
True
2.2. Features of development administrationDevelopment Administration has the following characteristics:
1. Change-oriented. That is it brings about socio-economic change rather than the
maintenance of the status quo.
2. It is goal oriented; it is aimed at achieving progress in social1 economic1 political and
cultural goals (result oriented)
3. Development Administration has commitment. High morals and motivation in work
situation to achieve developmental goals.
4. Client oriented that is meeting the needs of the specific target groups which could be
farmers, children, the vulnerable group, civic society, Bureaucrats etc.
5. Time oriented: Development administration programmes, projects or policies should be
completed within a specific period of time limit.
6. Citizen participation Enlisting popular support and the involvement of the masses in the
formation and implementation of development programmes.
7. Innovativeness: That is replacing or improving administrative structures, methods and
procedures for the effective realization of developmental goals.
Below is a Tabular explanation of the differences between development Administration and
Traditional Public Administration.
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Table 2.1.Differences between development and Traditional Public administration
Development Admin Traditional Public Admin
1. It is change oriented It is status quo oriented
2. It is dynamic and flexible It is hierarchical and rigid
3. It emphasizes on effectiveness in goal
achievement
It emphasizes on economy and efficiency
4. Its objectives are complex and multiple Its objectives are simple
5. It is concerned with new tax It is concerned with routine operations
6. It believes in decentralization It believes in centralization
7. It relies heavily on planning Does not rely on much planning
8. It has a broad scope Its scope of operations is limited
9. It has a time limit It has no time orientation
Source: Joseph Rugumyamheto (1998)
Table 2.1 shows the differences between development administrations in a country
particularly in a developing country such as Nigeria. Public administration generally deals
with the traditional function of any government that involves the provision of roads, schools,
hospitals, construction of bridges and markets. Development is a broader concept that goes
beyond this function. It has to do with how development particularly in third world countries
can be accelerated. See Table 2.2 for a better understanding of the aims and objective of
public administration and development administration.
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Table 2.2: Paradigm shift: from Traditional Public Administration to Result Oriented
Management
Source: Joseph Rugumyamheto (1998)
Deriving from the analysis in Table 2.2, we can see that most governments in Africa are
rushed to the bureaucratic cultures of their public administrative systems, conformity and
control. There is this prevailing philosophy that much greater flexibility is required in the
management of the public service in order to improve morale and productivity. In addition,
many governments have encouraged the shift of emphasis from administration to service
delivery or the delivery of programmes. Therefore, through the civil service reforms and the
introduction of development programmes, the governments are in hot pursuit of a paradigm
shift, from bureaucratic – oriented management to a results–oriented management. Table 2.2
shows the features of traditional public administration and result oriented management.
TRADITIONAL PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
RESULTS ORIENTED
ADMINISTRATION
1. Weberian/hierarchical organizational
structure
2. Rules – driven decision
3. Rules and procedures
4. Executives appraisal based primarily on
compliance with the rules.
5. Focus on the tasks/functions
Flexible/professionally oriented structures
Result driven decision making
Results based performance appraisal
Focus on the client/target service
beneficiaries.
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ITQ
List any three features of Public administration
ITA
1. It is status quo oriented
2. It is hierarchical and rigid
3. It emphasizes on economy and
efficiency
2.3 Purpose of development administrationThe term development administration was first used in 1955 by an Indian scholar called
Goswami. The concept later became more popular with writers like: Edwin Weidner,
Fredrick W. Riggs, Joseph Lapolombra, George Gant etc. Development administration
emerged as a sub-field of Public Administration in the 1950s and 1960s. The factors which
led to its emergence include:
1. Over-emphasis on the study of the means of public administration and the under
emphasis on the study of the goals of administration by the traditional public
administration.
2. The emergence of newly independent developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin
America due to the collapse of colonialism and imperialism;
3. United Nations sponsored development schemes in developing countries through
multilateral technical aid and financial assistance;
4. Extension of American Economic and Technical assistance and plans to newly
emerged developing countries;
5. Setting-up of the Comparative Administration Group (CAG) in 1960 under the
umbrella of the American society for public Administrative (ASPA); and
6. Search for a new indigenous administrative model to meet developmental needs of
developing countries due to the failure of the western model of development in these
countries.
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ITQ
List any two motivational concerns of development administration.
ITA
1. Over-emphasis on the study of the means of public administration and the under
emphasis on the study of the goals of administration by the traditional public
administration.
2. The emergence of newly independent developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin
America due to the collapse of colonialism and imperialism.
SummaryIn Study Session 2, you have learned that:
1. Development administration is administration in “poor countries”.
2. Development administrations have two inter-related tasks that are, institutional
building and planning.
3. Development administration is concerned with the problems involved in managing a
government or an agency thereof so that it acquires an increasing capacity to adapt to
and act upon new and continuing social changes with a view to achieving a sustained
growth in political, economic and social fields.
4. Development Administration is a carrier of innovating values. It embraces the array
of new functions assumed by developing countries embarking on the path of
modernization and industrialization.
5. Public administration has to do with traditional functions of government such as
maintenance of peace and security.
6. Development administration involves programmmes, and projects that will produce
social, political and economic development in developing countries.
7. One of the main motivational concerns of development administration is the extension
of American Economic and Technical assistance and plans to newly emerged
developing countries.
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Self assessment questionsNow that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answers in your
study Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next study Support Meeting. You can
check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment questions at the end of this
Module.
SAQ 2.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 2.1)Define the term development administration
SAQ 2.2 (Testing Learning outcomes 2.2)List four characteristics of development administration
ActivityList the main differences between public administration and development administration.
Differences between public administration and development administration
Public Administration Development administration
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6
7.
ReferencesAke, C. (1996). Democracy and development in Africa.Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.
Bello, K. (2005). Essentials of Public Administration, Kano Flash Printers.
Bagchi, A.K. (1982). The Political Economy of under development London, Cambridge
press.
Barbara, I. (1993). The meaning of development interaction between “New State’ and old
ideas U.SA, University of Salford.
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Frank, A.G. (2009). Development Accumulation and under development, New York monthly
Review Press
Ghosh, B.N. (2006). New Comparative Government New Delhi, Lotus press
Isaiah, O.D (2006). Essential s of Public administration. Niger State, Jube publications
Labini, P.S. (2001).Underdevelopments strategy for reform Canbridge university press.
Mbumega, A (2012). Issues of development and poerty reduction in Nigeria.Makurdi
Destiny Ventures
Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe underdeveloped Africa, Abuja.Penalf Publishing Inc.
Ron, A. (1995). Development Studies: An introduction through selected readings. Greenwich
University press.
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Study Session 3: Theories of development administration
Introduction
Politics and administration have been studied from ancient times to the present. The
contribution of early theorists in the study of organization constitutes the foundations upon
which modern organizations are studied today. It is in line with the forgoing statement that
this session was designed to introduce you to some of the theories and models used in
understanding or explaining problems in developing societies. Theories are also useful
sources of conceptual framework and concepts that are used in political and administrative
studies.
Learning outcomes
At the end of this session, you will be able to:
3.1. Highlight the main features of Fredrick Rigg’s Agraria – Industria model
3.2. Outline the features of Fused – Prismatic – Diffracted model
3.3. Highlight the features of the Sala Model
3.4. Outline the features of Marx Webber Bureaucratic Model
3.5. Give the criticism against Bureaucracy
3.6. List the features of Structural –Functionalism
Bold terms
3.1 Fredrick W. Riggs Theory of Prismatic SocietyTheory is a coherent group of propositions formulated to explain a group of facts or
phenomena in the natural world and repeatedly confirmed through experiment or observation.
In the field of social sciences, a model is an imitation of or an abstraction from reality that is
intended to order and simplify the view or perceptions of that reality while still capturing
some essential characteristics. Model and theories are most often than not used
interchangeably. A model is often characterized by the use of analogies to give a more
graphic or visual representation of a particular phenomena.
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Fredrick Riggs is the foremost model-builder in comparative public administration. Rigg’s
book “Administration in Developing Countries: The theory of prismatic society (1964)”
continues to be probably the most notable single contribution in comparative public
administration. Riggs constructed his two ideal models (theoretical models) to explain the
administrative systems in a comparative context, these are:
1. Agrarian – industrial model
2. Fused – prismatic – diffracted model
Agraria – Industrial model
Riggs developed the Agrarian – Industrial model in 1956. This model distinguished between
two types of societies.
a. A society dominated by agricultural institution and
b. A society dominated by industrial institutions
The former represents imperial China, the Asian minors and other third world countries in
Africa while the latter represent industrial society i.e the capitalist west where we have the
USA, Britain, France etc. According to Riggs all societies move from an agrarian stage to an
industrial stage. A view which is similar to Rostow’s stages of economic growth. He
identified the structural features of these two societies as shown in Table 3.1
Table 3.1. Features of Agrarian – Industrial Model
S/N Agraria Industrial
1. Ascriptive values Achievement values
2. Particularistic norms Universalities norms
3. Diffuse patterns Specific patterns
4. Stable local groups and limited mobility High degree of social and
5. Simple and stable occupational differentiation Spatial mobility
6. Differential stratification system Well developed occupational
system.
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7. Egalitarian class system i.e
prevalence of Associations
which are functionally
specific and non ascriptive
Source: F.W Riggs (1956)
As you can see from Table 3.1, the Agrarian society is a traditional society that is basically
primitive and unstable while the industrial society is a stable society with a well developed
economic and political system.
The Agrarian – Industrial model was however not free from criticism from scholars.The
model was criticized for the following reasons:
1. It does not provide enough mechanism to study mixed – type societies i.e society that
have both agrarian and industrial features.
2. It does not examine transitional societies such as ours.
3. The agrarian – industrial model as postulated by Riggs was also too abstract with
little resemblance to concrete reality.
It is in the light of the above criticism that Riggs abandoned this model and came up with the
fused – prismatic- diffracted model.
Fused – Prismatic – Diffracted Model
The fused – Prismatic – Diffracted model was propounded by Riggs as a response to criticism
leveled against the agrarian -industrial model.
The fused – prismatic – diffracted model represents the undeveloped, developing and
developed societies respectively. According to Riggs, Traditional agricultural and folk
societies (agrarian) represent the fused model, and modern industrial societies (industrial)
represent the refracted model. The former is functionally difused while the latter is
functionally specific i.e. the structural performs limited functions. In between these two polar
extreme, comes the prismatic society. The prismatic society is a traditional society and hence
combines the features of both the agrarian and industrial societies as you can see in Table
3.2.
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Table 3.2. Features of Fused – Prismatic – Diffracted Model
S/N Fused Prismatic Diffracted
1.
2.
3.
Ascription
Particularism
Functional diffusion
Attainment
Selectivism
Poly-Functionalism
Achievement
Universalism
Functional Specific
Source: Riggs (1962)
Since Riggs was mainly concerned with how administrative system interact with their
environment, he thus constructed the prismatic – Sala model. Prismatic represents
transitional society and sala represents the administrative sub-systems with the following
features:
3.3 Features of Sala ModelHeterogeneity: A prismatic society has a high degree of heterogeneity that is a simultaneous
presence side by side, of quite different kinds of systems, practices and viewpoints. The sala
(administrative sub system) is also heterogeneous as it combines the element of fused
society and bureau of a diffracted society.
Formalism: A prismatic society has a high degree of formalism, that is, a degree of
discrepancy or incongruence between the formally prescribed and the effectively practiced,
between norms and realities. In short it refers to the gap between theory and practice.
Overlapping: Overlapping in Sala refers to what is described as administrative behavior but
which is actually determined by non-administrative criteria which include:
Nepotism: In recruitment, appointments promotions, award of contracts etc in Nigeria these
problems are some of the problems affecting administrative development. It is in view of
these the budget procurement and contract award office (the due process) was established in
2003 to check contract scams.
Polynormativism: These exist side by side in a Sala administrative system traditional and
modern norms thus leading to lack of consensus on norms of behaviours. The consequence is
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that there would be no set of standard in the system. The implication is efficiency and
effectiveness would be stifled.
Polycommununalism: Under the sala administrative system as propounded by Riggs in the
polycommunual system there exist ethnic and religious groups competing in a hostile
environment. The consequence of such interaction is administrative and political instability
because of the conflict that such interaction would spawn.
Bazaar – canteen model that have both the features of traditional and modern economic
system. Such a system encourages fluctuation in market prices and inconsistencies in
government policies.
Authority verses control: A Sala prismatic society has an unbalanced polity in which
administrators dominate the politico administrative system.
3.4. Max Weber Bureaucratic Model (Legal rational authority)The concept bureaucracy is derived from the word bureau. Max Webber, the father of
bureaucracy, described bureau as a “formal, hierarchical organization staffed with persons,
publicly paid, holding life-time jobs won in open competition. (Mitchell and Simmons,
1994). It is a fact that Webber constructed his model of organization bureaucracy from the
word bureau. But before we look at how bureaucracy functions, it is important to discuss
the types of Authority which Webber identified in the management of public affairs. He
categorized three types of authority:
1. Traditional Authority,
2. Charismatic Authority and
3. Legal Regional Authority
Traditional authority is the authority given to Kings, Queens, Chiefs, Emirs, Obas to
perform certain tasks by their subjects. In fact Traditional Authority rested on established
belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of status of those
exercising authority. Charismatic Authority on the other hand is the innate personal quality
of an individual that makes him a leader. These qualities range from his intelligence, wealth,
family background, height, eloquence, beauty etc. Charismatic authority rested o the
devotion to specific and exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an
individual person while Legal Regional Authority rested n the belief in the legality of
patterns of normative rules and the right of those elevated to authority, under such rules to
issue commands.
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Webber believed bureaucracy was the purest form of organization and that is why over
the years scholars often use Webber’s ideal type of organization for the purpose of
comparism because they are assumptions or hypotheses put forward by Webber.
Lawton and Rose (1994) identified three major forms of bureaucracy. In the first place, it
is seen as a form of government, which is distinguished from other forms such as monarchy
or democracy. The bureaucrats are employees of the state. He went further to assert that
bureaucracy is conceptualized as a system of administrative efficiency. In this light,
bureaucracy is a complex organization with a hierarchy, which can be found in both the
public and private sectors of the economy. Lastly, the word bureaucracy is most often used
in pejorative terms of abuse, delay or red tape in the public service by political, economic,
social, religious or other factors – it has the different aspects which that is, Max Weber
(Bureaucracy).
Weber sees this as the dominant institution of modern society. The system is called legal
rational because the means are specifically designed to achieve certain specific goals. This
is legal because it operates by means of a system of rules and procedures through the office
which an individual occupies at a given time.
For most people the word “Bureaucracy” conjures up visions of large complex
government agencies where red tape make it practically impossible to get anything done.
But it is important to note that bureaucracy as a form of organization may either be good or
bad, depending on how it is managed. A bureaucracy may be large or simple although the
usual connotation is a large and complex organization.
For our purposes, a bureaucracy will mean a relatively formal and impersonal model of
organization and management, a theory that reflects many of the principles of classical
theory. It may apply to the public or private organization model, and like most models, it is
seldom found in a pure form.
When he developed his model of bureaucracy, he did not intend it to be a model for a real
organization. Rather he intended it to be a conceptual tool, a strictly logical, rational
organization design that could serve as a standard of comparism or as a skeleton for the
development of structure for an actual organization.
According to Johari (2006) Max Weber bureaucratic model have eight fundamental
principles of rational legal authority which include:
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1. Organization of official functions on a continuous rule – bound basis
2. A specified sphere of competence and distinct functions based on systematic division
of labour
3. Principles of hierarchy with a lower office under the control and supervision of a
higher one
4. Trained personnel for the conduct of business
5. Complete separation of members of administrative staff from the ownership of the
means of production of administration, with a clear separation likewise in principle of the
property belonging to the organization and controlled within the sphere of office and the
personal property of the official available for private use.
6. A complete absence of appropriation of official position by the incumbent,
7. The formulation and recording in writing of all acts, decisions and rules and
8. The ideal type being the purest form of legal authority or imperative coordination
In simple terms the above fundamental principles which are also believed to be the main
features or characteristics of bureaucracy are summarized as followed:
i. The activities required to achieve the purpose of the organization are divided into
a set of clearly defined spheres.
ii. Along with the assignment of duties there is assignment of commensurate
authority to carry them out.
iii. Measures are adopted to ensure that only those qualified on the basis of generating
standards are employed such managers are trained to be experts. They are paid according to
be basis of their status that is according to rank and possibly length of service.
iv. There is official hierarchy the organization and low jobs are supervised by those
of higher rank, decision made of the lower can be appealed to a still higher level.
v. The management of the organization is based on written document (the files) and
follows general rules i.e. rigid application of rules and regulations.
vi. This type of organization according to Weber is characterized by: precision,
speed, unambiguity, knowledge of the files, continuity, discretion, unity, strict
subordination, reduction of friction and material and personnel cost.
3.5 Criticisms of the Bureaucratic Model1. Speed and precision which Weber associated with the hierarchy may not be
fully realized because however ideal the organization and however well trained its officials
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are, natural differences of opinion will arise over interpretation of orders, and a good part of
the machine like precision will be lost.
2. Inflexibility: The men at the top are far removed from contact with the actual
day to day work of the organization would not know when to change the rules and
regulations i.e. there will be inflexibility.
3. Size / complexity: as an organization expand in size there are bound to be a lot
of complexities ranging from delays in decision making to implementation.
4. Specialization / professional pyramid: vocation or professional training can
make the worker to have a where mind about the overall objectives of the organization i.e.
leading to professional pyramid.
3.6 Structural- Functionalism: Talcott ParsonsStructural functionalism was for many years the dominant sociological theory. Ritzer (2008)
citing colony stated that the structural functional approach or structural functionalism is a
theoretical “tradition”. The structural functionalism is now mainly of historical significance,
although it is also notable in the role it played in the emergence of Neo – functionalism. Neo
functionalism is another sociological theory that came up as a result of the decline of
structural – functionalism. The two prominent writers that wrote extensively on the structural
functional approach popularly known as Structures Functionalism were Talcott Parsons and
Robert Merton. In this session, we shall discuss the contributions of these exponents to the
development of structural functionalism theory (structural functionalism) though, has over
the years declined in relevance but it is still used in explaining how administrative systems
functions that it is often regarded as an explanatory theory.
Talcott Parsons contributed a great deal to the development of modern sociological theory. In
fact his contribution to the growth and development of modern sociological theory cannot be
over emphasized. We shall begin the discussion of Parsons structural functionalism with the
four Functional Imperatives for all “Action” Systems, his famous AGIL scheme.
AGIL
Talcott Parsons believes every society has a function to play in meeting its needs in the
society. According to Rizter citing (2007) and Rocher (1975) a function is “a complex of
activities directed towards meeting the need or needs of the system”. According to Parsons,
there are four functional imperatives that are necessary for all systems. These include:
i. Adaptation (A)
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ii. Goal attainment (G)
iii. Integration (I), and
iv. Latency (L)
The imperatives which he said must be present in all systems is what he described as AGIL.
Parsons believe is that no system can survive if it failed to perform these four functions.
These AGIL as discussed below:
Adaptation: Every system exists in an environment. This environment can be ecological,
legal, social, technological, religious or political. Each environment exists with some
problems or obstacles that can affect its development. The ability for this system to survive
these challenges or obstacles makes it to function successfully.
Almost all the countries of the world have one form of problem or the other. It could
be political, economic, or socio-cultural. The ability for these countries to survive threats or
adapt to these threats or obstacles put them in a pole position to develop and function
properly. For instance, Israel as a country has been able to adapt to the security obstacles or
threat in the Middle East. Israel has been able to function politically, economically and
militarily etc as a result of its adaption to the security threats to its external environment. Any
country that cannot adapt to its external environment would definitely find it difficult to
function that is why some countries find it difficult to develop because of their inability to
adapt to the threats confronting them.
Nigeria can also be cited as a good example too as regards to the issue of adaptation. The
problems associated with Nigerian federalism since independence has not been completely
addressed. The problem of ethno-religious conflicts, the National question, federal character
principle, fiscal federalism etc. are still perceived as serious threats to the survival of the
Nigerian Nation. Yet, to adapt to these challenges by coming up with policies and
programmes that have helped in safe guarding its existence.
Goal Attainment: Every system has a goal to attain. It is as a result of this fact that
organizations, states or countries are established. It is this goal that almost all the units or
sectors that make up the system must cooperate to achieve. For instance Nigeria has a
National agenda which include among others: Mass literacy, women empowerment, balanced
development, basic health etc. It is expected that all units in the country must cooperate to see
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to the actualization of these objectives if on the other hand a unit decides to abandon the
general objectives for sectional or individual interest then the entire system would fail.
All system must ensure that the general objectives or goals are achieved. The only
way to achieve this is for the government to create enabling environment for all the units in
the system to operate. Financial, human and material resources must be provided and
motivated to achieve the set objectives. In the case of Nigeria which we cited earlier, all the
three tiers of government i.e. the federal, state and local governments must cooperate to
achieve the goal of the country.
Integration: For a system to function properly, all the units must cooperate with one another.
Such cooperation leads to integration. It is therefore the responsibility of those in charge of
organizations to ensure that departments or units in the organization lead to team work and
better performance. Integration discourages conflicts. According to Joseph (2005) negative
sanctions are available to correct those who flout the rules of proper conduct. Positive
sanctions are also available to reward those who play according to the rule. The sub system
responsibility for the interpretation of rules and sanctioning of derelicts is the judiciary. It
interprets the law and enforces compliance.
Latency: Joseph (2005) again stated that social order does not only reside in being able to
perform the roles expected of people occupying certain statuses in the system. These roles
could be performed just to satisfy the expected demands but with no moral basis to respect
the rights of others in the system who also have roles to perform. Joseph citing Turner (1978)
went further to add that latency is a double faceted phenomenon involving tension
management and pattern maintenance. It is true that in every system or organization conflicts
abound since it is the nature of man. Human nature is unpredictable so it is the ability of the
society or system to ensure that all players in the system and sub-system conform to the
expected patterns or behaviors so as to enable them perform their expected functions. The
system should endeavour to appreciate hard work and symbolic roles by rewarding those who
perform exceptionally.
Tarcott Parsons AGIL scheme laid the conditions in which all system must used to function
properly. Any system or sub-system that wants to survive must ensure that these four
imperatives are present or available. Without the imperatives, Parsons believed that most of
the problems within a system would remain unresolved.
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From the discussion above, Parsons’s AGIL scheme could be used at all levels as seen
in his theoretical postulation. Below is a diagrammatic representation of AGIL Scheme.
Table 3.3 Structure of the General Action System.
L I
Cultural
System
Social
System
Behavioral
Organism
Personality
System
A G
Source: George Ritzer (2005)
Now, you can see in Table 4.3 above that the Behavioral organism is the action system that
handles the adaptation function by adjusting to and transforming the external world. The
Personality system performs the goal-attainment function by defining system goals and
mobilizing resources to attain them. The Social system copes with the integration function by
controlling its components parts. Finally, the Cultural system performs the latency function
by providing actors with the norms and values that motivates them for action (Ritzer, 2005).
The features of the Action scheme can be thus be summarized as follows:
i. Social systems must be structural so that they operate compatibly with
other systems.
ii. To survive, the social system must have the requisite support from other
systems.
iii. The system must meet a significant proportion of the needs of its actors.
iv. The systems must elicit adequate participation from its members
v. It must have at least a minimum of control over potentially disruptive
behaviour.
vi. If conflict becomes sufficiently disruptive, it must be controlled.
vii. A social system needs a language in order to survive.
See the meaning of bureaucracy http://www.investopedia.com/.../bureaucracy
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SummaryIn Study Session 3, you have learned that:
1. The Agrarian - Industrial model is a theoretical postulation that described the main
administrative and political features of traditional and industrial society.
2. The Agrarian – Industrial model was criticized for failing to examine the transitional
societies such as Nigeria.
3. That the prismatic society represents a transitional society which is between the
Agrarian – Industrial societies.
4. That Bureaucracy its criticized for its inflexibility, size, professional pyramid etc
5. Structural – functionalism is a theoretical approach that used the AGIL Scheme to
explain functions which individuals and societies perform.
Self assessment questionNow that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering the following question. Write your answers in your study
Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next study Support Meeting. You can check
your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment questions at the end of this Module.
SAQ 3.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 3.6)How will you describe the role of Latency under Tarcott Parsons’s AGIL scheme?
Activity1. What are the roles of the bureaucracy in your country? Are there challenges in carrying out
these roles?
Roles of the bureaucracy Problems and challenges in carrying out
the role
Role 1:
Role 2:
Role 3:
Role 4:
Role 5:
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2. In line with the theoretical approaches discussed in this session, list any four challenges
facing development in Nigeria.
Challenge 1:
Challenge 2:
Challenge 3:
Challenge 4
ReferencesAdole, R.A (2016). Studies in Comparative Public Administration. Kaduna:Mike BPublications Limited
Ghosh, B.N. (2006). New Comparative Government New Delhi, Lotus press
Isaiah, O.D (2006). Essential s of Public administration. Niger State, Jube publications
Labini, P.S. (2001).Underdevelopments strategy for reform Canbridge university press.
Mbumega, A (2012). Issues of development and poerty reduction in Nigeria.Makurdi
Destiny Ventures
Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe underdeveloped Africa, Abuja.Penalf Publishing Inc.
Ron, A. (1995). Development Studies: An introduction through selected readings. Greenwich
University press.
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Study session 4: Modernization and Underdevelopmenttheory
Introduction
In Study session 3 we discussed how politics and administration have been studied from
ancient times to the present using relevant theories. In this session, we shall continue with the
discourse by looking at other theories which scholars had also used in explaining
phenomenon particularly in third world countries such as Nigeria. You will therefore be
acquainted modernization and underdevelopment theories.
Learning outcome
At the end of this session, you will be able to:
1.1. Discuss the modernization theory
1.2. Highlight the criticism against the modernization school
1.3. Discuss underdevelopment theory
1.4. List the features of underdevelopment
1.5. Define Dualism
1.6. Highlight the features of domestic and international dualism
1.7. Discuss how dualism can be applied in Nigeria.
Bold term
4.1. Modernization theory
There are two main writers that have written on the issue of modernization. They are S.N
Elsendaht and David Apter. Modernization theory is used to explain the process of
modernization within societies. Modernization refers to a model of progressive transition
from a pre – modern or traditional to a modern society. The theory looks at the internal
factors of a country while assuming that with assistance, traditional countries can be brought
to development in the same manner more developed countries have been. Modernization
theory was a dominant paradigm in the social sciences in the 950s and 1960s.Modernization
theory maintains that traditional societies will develop as they adopt more modern practices.
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Proponents of modernization theory claim that modern states are wealthier and more
powerful than that their citizens are freer to enjoy a higher standard of living. Corroborating
this view, Esientadht view modernization as the process by which new institutions, new ideas
and new ways of doing things are introduced in a society in an effort to bring desired change.
Thus a society is said to be modernizing when these innovations are introduced in an effort to
bring about those types of social, economic and political patterns that are regarded as modern.
ITQ
Discuss briefly the underlying tenets of modernization theory
IT A
Modernization refers to a model of progressive transition from a pre – modern or traditional
to a modern society. The theory looks at the internal factors of a country while assuming that
with assistance, traditional countries can be brought to development in the same manner more
developed countries have been.
4.2. Criticism against the modernization theory
1. Modernization theory has no doubt contributed significantly to the advancement and
sustenance of liberal social science and the propagation of an ideology that seeks to
promote subordinate relations between third world and the developed societies.
2. The theory has provided the ideological and intellectual frame work for understanding
strategies in economic,political,social and cultural aspects of life that are carried out
by western societies in their interactions with less developed countries
3. However, the modernization theory is ahistorical, undialect and ethnocentric. It is one
sided and too focused on the western world.
4. The theory thus suffers from the worst form of economic determination. It is assumed
that when economic take off is achieved, some how other aspects of development will
be transformed as well. From the modernization perspective, the practical battle for
development among third world countries is economic growth that is why it
encourages foreign aid and economic reforms by their financial institutions such as
World Bank and the international monetary Fund.
5. The theory entirely ignores the impact of colonialism and imperialism on developing
countries.
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ITQ
Give one criticism leveled against the theory of modernization
ITA
The theory thus suffers from the worst form of economic determination. It is assumed
that when economic take off is achieved, somehow other aspects of development will be
transformed as well. From the modernization perspective, the practical battle for
development among third world countries is economic growth that is why it encourages
foreign aid and economic reforms by their financial institutions such as World Bank and
the international monetary Fund.
4.3 Underdevelopment theory
It emerged as a theoretical tool for analysis in the late 190s and1970s amongst scholars in
third world countries when it became apparent that the modernization school could not
adequately explain the problem of development in third world countries. It echoed the
nationalistic expression and anti – imperialistic drive for auto – centric development in third
world states.
The Underdevelopment theory central proposition is that, under development which is
epitomized by economic stagnation, poverty and unemployment is not the natural state of
third world countries contrary to conventional liberal or bourgeoisie analysis propelled by
modernization. Under development should therefore be understood from the historical
context of world capitalist system: Colonialism, slavery and neo – colonialism.
ITQ
What is the central concern of the underdevelopment theory?
ITA
The Under development theory central proposition is that, under development which is
epitomized by economic stagnation, poverty and unemployment is not the natural state of
third world countries contrary to conventional liberal or bourgeoisie analysis propelled by
modernization.
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4.4 Features of underdevelopment
The following are the main features of underdevelopment:
1. Creation of an unstable state
2. Creation of a decadent, dependent and largely unproductive bourgeoisie
3. Dependence of African states on the production and exploitation of a narrow range of
cash crops for foreign exchange earnings
4. Dominance of their economies by multinational corporations in critical sectors of
their economies.
5. Scientific and technological backwardness
6. The peripherization of Africa in the world capitalist economy with an infinitesimal
contribution to world production and near total irrelevant in world affairs.
ITQ
List any two features of the underdevelopment theory
ITA
1. Creation of an unstable state
2. Creation of a decadent, dependent and largely unproductive bourgeoisie
Read also modernization theory http://www.imprint.co.uk/.../modernization-theory
4.5. Meaning of DualismThe main view of the theory of dualism is that the economic laws that are found valid in
advanced capitalist countries do not exist in third world countries. Simply put, the process of
modernization has led to the polarization of the world. This thus gave birth to the
development two worlds i.e. the developed and developing countries with their distinctive
features. And within the developing society there is the existence of two different i.e.
domestic dualism. A country that is internally polarized with modern and primitive sector
side by side(urban and rural).
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Features of dualism
1. The existence of two set of conditions both modern and traditional institutions co –
existing with a traditional economic system e.g. the first and third world countries at
the international level.
2. The co existence is permanent and not transitional. The relationship takes a longer
time to be separated.
3. Widening gap between the two sectors. The gap in development between two sector is
widening every day.
4. The backwash effect: The interrelations between superior and inferior elements are
such that the existence of the superior elements does nothing to help the inferior
sector. Rather the superior element retards the development of the inferior element.
This is known as the backwash effect.
Features of domestic dualism
1. The standard of living varies between the ruling elites and the masses (High level of
poverty amongst the masses.
2. Majority of those few rich ones live in urban centres while majority of the poor
masses live in the rural areas
3. In the urban areas pockets of great wealth exist side by side with slums
4. There are differences in the level of technological development. Extensive and
mechanistic farming against traditional labour intensive and limited local needs.
5. Widening gap between the rich and the poor and between modern and traditional
methods of production.
Application of the theory of dualism in Nigeria
The theory of dualism can be applied in Nigeria in the following ways:
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Education: Educational elites, intelligentsias living side by side with millions of illiterates
Economic sector: Few very successful business men i.e. the likes of Michael Adenugas,Aliko
Dangotes,Dantatas living side by side with poor or peasant entrepreneurs.
Industrial locations: Most industries are located in urban centres against rural areas
Urban/rural divide: Urban areas are well developed with good roads, housing, and
infrastructures. The rural areas lack basic amenities
Rich/ poor: A few wealthy people in Nigeria living side by side with the poor masses
SummaryIn Study Session 4, you have learned that:
1. Modernization refers to a model of progressive transition from a pre – modern or
traditional to a modern society. The theory looks at the internal factors of a country
while assuming that with assistance, traditional countries can be brought to
development in the same manner more developed countries have been.
2. Modernization theory has no doubt contributed significantly to the advancement and
sustenance of liberal social science and the propagation of an ideology that seeks to
promote subordinate relations between third world and the developed societies. The
theory has provided the ideological and intellectual frame work for understanding
strategies in economic,political,social and cultural aspects of life that are carried out
by western societies in their interactions with less developed countries.
3. The Under development theory central proposition is that, under development which
is epitomized by economic stagnation, poverty and unemployment is not the natural
state of third world countries contrary to conventional liberal or bourgeoisie analysis
propelled by modernization.
4. Dualism is the process of modernization has led to the polarization of the world. This
thus gave birth to the development two worlds i.e. the developed and developing
countries with their distinctive features.
5. The existence of two set of conditions both modern and traditional institutions co –
existing with a traditional economic system e.g. the first and third world countries at
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the international level. The co existence is permanent and not transitional. The
relationship takes a longer time to be separated.
Self assessment questionNow that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering the following question. Write your answers in your study
Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next study Support Meeting. You can check
your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment questions at the end of this Module.
SAQ 4.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 4.4)How is dualism applied in Nigeria?
Activity1. List the main features of developed societies and underdeveloped societies
Developed societies Underdeveloped societies
Feature 1
Feature 2:
Feature 3:
Feature 4
Feature 5
2. What programmes should the government of Nigeria initiate in order to develop
the country?
Programme 1:
Programme 2:
ReferencesAdole, R.A (2016). Studies in Comparative Public Administration. Kaduna:Mike BPublications Limited
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)
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Bello, K. (2005). Essentials of Public Administration, Kano Flash Printers.
Ghosh, B.N. (2006). New Comparative Government New Delhi, Lotus press
Isaiah, O.D (2006). Essential s of Public administration. Niger State, Jube publications
Labini, P.S. (2001).Underdevelopments strategy for reform Canbridge university press.
Mbumega, A (2012). Issues of development and poerty reduction in Nigeria.Makurdi
Destiny Ventures
Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe underdeveloped Africa, Abuja.Penalf Publishing Inc.
Ron, A. (1995). Development Studies: An introduction through selected readings. Greenwich
University press.
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Study session 5: Planning and development Planning inNigeria
Introduction
Planning is very important in our daily lives as individuals, groups and even to organizations.
Without a good plan no individual or organization will meet its set objectives. Nigeria as a
country also has her own plans on how to put the country on a part of development and
modernization. This session is therefore designed to examine relevance of planning to
individuals and societies particularly in less developed countries such as ours.
Learning outcomesBy the end of this session, you will be able to:
5.1 Define planning
5.2 State the factors to be considered in the planning process
5.3 Discuss machinery of planning in Nigeria
5.4 Discuss development plans in Nigeria
5.5 Summarize objectives of the various development plans in Nigeria
Bold term
5.1. Meaning of PlanningIn its simplest form, planning can be defined as thinking before acting. Planning could mean
to “scheme” arrange beforehand. In fact planning is a broad human attribute. Koontz defined
planning as deciding in advance what to do how to do it, when to do it and who is to do it.
Planning bridges the gap from where we are to where we want to go. It makes it possible for
things to occur which would not otherwise happen.
From the statement above it is very easy to deduce that planning is very important to
individuals, organizations and even the wider society. In fact planning is a pre- requisite for
any form of development, more particularly in developing countries where development is
indeed lacking. Right from the days of Yore ancient cultures as Egypt, china, Indian, Greece,
and the Roman Empire planned their various societies as proven by scattered evidence.
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5.2. Factors to be considered in the planning process.
In carrying out any plan, the following factors must be considered in the planning process:
1. The stage of development
2. Institutional structure
3. Availability and quality of statistical information
4. Resource constraints.
Stages of developmentIn designing development plans, the stage of the country’s development must be taken into
consideration. A complex plan is not necessary for a developing country whose
infrastructures are under developed. A complex plan would be inadequate in a country that is
permeated by small scale subsistence agriculture, limited monetary sector and little or no
inter-industry relations such a country would be more appropriate to concentrate individual,
social overhead such as public investment projects aimed at establishing the necessary
conditions to introduce economic transformation.
Institutional structureThe nature of political institutions determines the character of planning. In a socialist
institution, the planning in a socialist economy with pre dominantly socialist institutions, the
planning process must be socialist also in an economy dominated by a private sector; the
planning process must reflect a private sector arrangement.
Availability/ quality of statistical information.One of the objectives of planning is to bring change using economic variables. This cannot be
done without adequate and accurate statistical data. Without accurate facts the planning
process would be affected. In fact certain models of planning cannot be used or designed
without accurate information particularly when using formal planning models like the
algebraic and numerical mathematical models. In Nigeria, The Federal Bureau for Statistics,
the National Population Commission, the Central Bank of Nigeria and the like are some of
the institutions that carry out planning needs of the country.
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Resource constraintsAvailability of resources must be taken into cognizance when designing plans. The
implementation of development plans depends largely on the availability of resources.
Resources both human and material are very essential in planning process.
ITQ
What are the factors to be considered in the planning process?
ITA
1. The stage of development
2. Institutional structure
3. Availability and quality of statistical information
4. Resource constraints.
5.3. Objectives of planning.Objectives of planning are usually seen from the individual and corporate levels. They are
most often divided into two; namely prime and instrumental goals.
Prime objectives; the prime objectives are basically linked to man or an individual. They
include;
1. Physiological gratifications such as food, shelter, sleep, comfort etc.
2. Love and affection
3. Excitement
4. Novelty
Instrumental or coordinate objectives
These include:
1. Freedom
2. Rationality
3. Democracy
4. Equality
5. Security
6. Progress
5.4. Types of plansDevelopment plans could be classified according to time, horizon, geographical scope,
institutional character and activity coverage. The commonly used plan particularly in
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developing countries is the time plan which is divided into short, medium and long term
plans.
Short term plans: - Are those starting from daily plans to annual plans. it is very uncommon
to here daily plan but it is important to state here that the day to day activities of workers in
an organization is always based on daily plan. There are also weekly, monthly and annual
plans which we called the budget in Nigeria. There are also some specific plans designed to
achieve certain objectives by the government. This type of plans could be described as
operated or adjustment plans.
Medium term plans: - This type of plan is always between two to six years. Never the less a
typical medium term plan is always four to five years. A very good example of a medium
term plan is the: 1962-1968, 1970-1974, 1975-1981 Development plans in Nigeria.
Long term plan:- Any plan that covers a ten year period could be described as a long term
plan. There are in fact certain things that cannot be planned within a short period e.g.
population growth, Transportation system, Agricultural development and the like. Such
issues can be properly organized in a long termperiod.lt is important to also re-state here that
there are still other types of plans such as: Sectoral plans (key sectors) functional plans (6-3-
3-4 system of Education) plan of key projects (power energy projects refineries e.t.c) local
plans meant for local government councils, regional/state plans (annual budgets) National
plans that covers the whole country (National development plans of 1962-1968, and the
Millennium Development Goals e.t.c.
ITQ
The 1970 -1975 development plan in Nigeria is a good example of:
a. Long term plan
b. Short term plan
c. Medium term plan
d. Rolling plan
ITA
Medium term plan
5.5. Machinery of PlanningNo meaningful plan would succeed if the machinery charged with the responsibility of
implementing the plan is weak. The success of a well formulated plan depends heavily on the
agency charged with the responsibility for its execution.
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The national planning commission is must at times charged with the formulation and
implementation of national plans in Nigeria.lt is clear from empirical data that one of the
reasons for the failure of development plans in Nigeria was the inability of the government to
set up a viable machinery of planning. For example in 1955, the National Economic Council
(NEC) was established to take care of issue of planning among other things. The
ineffectiveness of the commission led to the establishment of the Joint Planning Commission
and the National Manpower Board in 1958-1962 respectively.
Due to the failure of the joint planning commission and national economic council (NEC)
were abolished by the Ironsi regime (1966) 2which later established a national economic
advisory group. The establishment of the planning machinery continued until the Second
Republic (1979-1983) with an attempt to establish some form of stability. Like most
institutions in Nigeria, the planning machinery was characterized by the following:
a. Dearth of trained administrator with technical knowledge or expertise on planning related
issues.
b. The dearth of facts and figures i.e. lack of statistical data to carry out effective planning.
c. Other factors like primordial factors where administrators are influenced by tribal,
religious, ethnic and cultural sentiments.
d. Political instability
e. Political interferences
f. Over centralization of politics and projects.
ITQ
List any three planning institutions you know in Nigeria
ITA
National Planning Commission
National Population Commission
Central Bank of Nigeria
Read also Machinery of planning in Nigeria http://www.krepublishers.com/.../jss-20-03-19
http://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID
http://www.academia.edu/.../development-plans
5.6 Development planning in NigeriaEconomic planning as described by Todaro in his book “Development planning” is the
conscious effort of a central organization to influence the effort in some cases, even control
changes in principal economic variables e.g. consumption, investment, saving e.t.c of a
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certain country or region over a course of time in accordance with a predetermined set of
objectives. Economic planning or development planning is aimed at influencing, directing
and controlling state machinery towards a desired goal called economic growth. Development
planning can also be described as a specific set of qualitative economic targets to be reached
in a given period of time, It may be a comprehensive plan with major aspect of the national
economy, and/or partial which covers only a part of the national economy of the country
towards some desired goals and activities usually through series of rationally co-ordinated
inducement, restrictions, programmes and investment. In this way the state sets the limits and
general direction of the movements of all other sectors of the economy. Therefore, the
ultimate goal of all the national development plans in Nigeria is to bring order, priority and
foresight in to the economic activity not only of the state but in the state. In this wise, I am in
total support of Gunnar Mydral in his book “Asian Drama” where he defines economic
development as nothing less than the “Upward movement of the entire social system” C.E.
Black in his book “The dynamics of modernization” define economic development as a tool
for the attainment of a number of ideals of modernization such as the rise n productivity,
social and economic development, modern knowledge, improve institutions and rationally co-
ordinated system of policy measures that can remove a host of desirable conditions in the
social, economic and political system that have perpetuated a state of underdevelopment.
As enumerated above, planning is aimed at achieving economic growth and
development, here I shall give a brief description of what economic growth means. Economic
growth is described as an increase in the capital income of a country over time. Economic
development on the other hand however is the process whereby the real perceptual income
increases overtime. In considering this look at those characteristics of the economy which
make possible sustained and commutative growth in the real per capita income among which
we have qualitative improvement in labour, a rational system of resource allocation in the
interest of efficiency, the development of administrative political and physical infrastructure,
and a distribution of income conductive to national integration. Development planning in
Nigeria therefore is a process aimed at paving way for the above features of economic
development in terms of the desired development.
The country has had four national development plans since independence in 1960. But
the record would not be complete if we sidetracked the first plan drafted for Nigeria during
the colonial era. The plan tagged the ten year plan for development arid welfare for Nigeria,
1946; was made to cover up to 1960. It was prepared at the request of the colonial office in
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London to guide in its distribution of the aid supplied by the colonial Development and
welfare Act of 1940. The total cost was to be 4106.6 million of which 46 million were to be
supplied by colonial development and welfare funds, 431.6 million was to be raised as loan
and the remainder to be obtained from Nigeria revenue resources. The target was to improve
the general health and mental conditions of the people and to provide those physical facilities
which may be regarded as the minimum necessary. For the general development of the
country and its populations; the priority then was placed accordingly on social services —
water supplies and health education and on transport and communication; small amounts
were to be expended upon agriculture and forestry development. Industry was not given any
attention but mention was only made on village industries, pottery and textile and improved
palm oil extraction techniques. In 1951 however the plan was reviewed to take account of the
previous year’s success and particular the failure to reach the stipulated goal of the existing
plan by 1951.The revised plan remained the same as those of original one but its overall
scope in real term was reduced. Two factors necessitated the review was the visitation of the
International Bank of Reconstruction and development team in Nigeria in 1954 which issued
a weighty report with many precise recommendations.
The National Development plan 1962 -1968 constituted the first attempts in Nigeria at
comprehensive, integrated planning. For the first time projections were made and targets
were formed for the performance of the entire Nigerian economy both public and private
sectors, capital and current needs.
The objectives of this plan was to raise the growth rate of gross domestic product
from 3.9% per annum to 4.0% per year and this was aimed to achieved through gross
investment of 15% of gross domestic product per annum directed towards the productive
sectors. This growth rate was estimated to permit 1% per annum per capital private
consumption. 2/3 of the total projected investment of 2,396.6 million (excluding defense) is
to be undertaken by public sector (i.e. 433.6 million by the private sector and total investment
of 779.0 to come from foreign sources. The implementation of this plan was interrupted in
1966 by the political and civil war. During this period annual budget was employed as the
instrument of control and allocation of development recourses.
The 1962 — 1968 plan laid down 3 basic national objectives and goals the attainment
of growth rate of 4.0 per annum over the plan period; a raise in self-sustaining growth,
attainment of a modernized economy consistent with democratic, political and social
aspirations of the people, and objectives which includes the attainment of a more equitable
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distribution of income both among the people and among the regions and the creation of job
opportunities in the non-agricultural occupations. Highest priority of the plan was accorded to
agriculture, industrial and technical training, (trade, primary production) electricity and
transport together accounted for over 63.3% of total expenditure. The Objectives of the plan
were:
(a) A united, strong self-reliant nation.
(b) A great and dynamic economy.
(c) An egalitarian society.
(d) A land of bright opportunities for all citizens and
(e) A free and democratic society.
The main instrument for achieving this planned objective has been a public sector investment
programme. The sectoral allocation of planned capital expenditure in the plan broadly reflects
these priorities enumerated above.
With the problems confronted by the first national development plan the second
national development plan in 1970-1974 was launched. This was a four-year development
plan. It was launched shortly after the end of civil war as a means of re- constructing the
facilities damaged by the war and promoting economic and social development through the
nation. The plan aimed at a capital expenditure of the 3.192 billion during the four years
distribution between the private and public sectors, with the public accounting for 2.10 billion
and 1.56 billion by the private sector. The plan aimed at annual growth not of 7.0% per
annum as against the actual realized growth rate of 8.2% per annum.
However, the growth rate within this period experienced some fluctuations for
example it fell from 18.4% in 1971-1972 to 7.3% in 1973 — 1974 raising thereafter to 9.5%
in 1973 — 1974 and 1974 — 1975 respectively. Decline in the growth rate in 1972 — 1973
was due to an absolute fall of about 7% in agricultural sector which was as a consequence of
the adverse effect of drought on agricultural activity especially in the northern part of the
country and an unusual prolonged dry season in the southern part of the country. Another
factor was a result of a fall in the rate of expansion of the mining and the quarrying sector
during that year, the growth fell from 40.4% in 1971 — 1972 to 18.4% in 1972 — 1973.
Although manufacturing sector experience increase in growth rate of 24% but this does not
complement the fall in growth in the mining, quarrying and the agricultural sectors.
The second National development plan placed more emphasis on agriculture, Mining
and manufacturing. Mining was very high during this period, the contributions of agriculture
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and manufacturing fell below expectations. Among the problem associated during this period
(1970 — 1974) were the difficulties in getting feasibility studies on time, scarcity of technical
partners and infrastructural constraints
Another importance of this plan was the growing dominance of building and
construction as an item of capital formation. This is due mainly to the extensive
reconstruction of facilities damaged by war and the implementation of the large road
programmes of federal Government. There was an increase in the participation of the private
sector to the growth rates with private constructions of 48.4% as against public contribution
of 41.6%.
With all the failures and success is in mind, Nigerian government came up with the
third National Development plan from 1975 — 1980. The objectives are to be geared towards
increase in per capita income (to raise standard of living); more equitable distribution of
income; Diversification of the economy; balanced development and indigenization of
economic activities. The growth rate was the highest ever-recorded averaged 9.5% per annum
during the first year of plan; GDP recorded about 2.5% above the projected plan. At the
beginning of the plan period mining and agriculture as projected to contribute to about 45%
and 23% total GDP respectively and by 1980 it has assumed dominance, but their actual
contribution was 37.5% and 19.9 respectively in that year. The GNP was project to grow that
annual growth rate of 16%. This significant performance could be traced to the indigenization
policy and consolidations of the national gains arising there from the realized revenue.
The plan also made a lot of improvement in the banking and finance sectors, capital
formation also increased tremendously and investment, construction and building continue to
grow in size. Public finance also rose significantly during this plan period this was due to the
federal Government assumption of full responsibility of primary education and teacher
training throughout the country. The substantial Government participation in the petroleum
sector fetched more revenue to our coffers in terms of foreign reserve and this had a positive
role to the economic activities. It contributed about 44% to GDP during this plan period.
However planning in Nigeria continue to face problem of technical manpower, lack fund,
lack of executive capacity and lack of project evaluation of past plans, led to the failure of the
plan.
The fourth national development plan of 1981 — 1985 was launched in 1981 and had
has its main objectives the building of a strong, dynamic and egalitarian culture. The plan
was aimed at increasing real income, even and equitable distribution of income, increased
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supply of skilled manpower and attainment of national self reliance. The aim was to invest
one for every individual on the country for the next four years overall growth rate was
estimated at 7% per annum. The total investment was 82 billion of the sum 70 billion was to
be accounted for by the various government of the federation and their agencies. The federal
government to be responsible for 40 billion with state and local government handling 20
billion; 25 billion was allocated to the federal capital development authority. The private
sector was responsible for 111 billion.
ITQ
What is a development plan?
ITA
“Development planning” is the conscious effort of a central organization to influence the
effort in some cases, even control changes in principal economic variables e.g. consumption,
investment, saving e.t.c of a certain country or region over a course of time in accordance
with a predetermined set of objectives. Economic planning or development planning is aimed
at influencing, directing and controlling state machinery towards a desired goal called
economic growth. Development planning can also be described as a specific set of qualitative
economic targets to be reached in a given period of time, It may be a comprehensive plan
with major aspect of the national economy, and/or partial which covers only a part of the
national economy of the country towards some desired goals and activities usually through
series of rationally co-ordinate inducement, restrictions, programmes and investment.
5.7 Summary on the objectives of national development plans in NigeriaThe colonial welfare development plan (1946 - 1956) it was the first plan made for Nigeria
by the colonial masters. The plan was estimated to cost 106 million.
Main objectives of the plan
a. Provision of a country wide systems of communication network.
b. The provision of adequate funds for the spread of higher education and fundamental
research.
c. Provision of social services for the federal territory of Lagos.
d. Provision of public services and utilities
e. Provision of adequate machinery for safe guarding Nigeria’s security
f. Provision of loans for statutory corporation (marketing boards).
The first national development plan 1962 — 1968.
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The plan had an estimated cost of 2.4 billion.
Main objectives of the plan
a. To raise the gross domestic product from 3.9 — 4%
b. To develop rapidly in areas education, health and employment modernize agriculture,
creation of more managerial opportunities, and provision of necessary infrastructure.
c. Improve fiscal and monetary policies and stability.
The second national development (1970 — 1974).
The Nigerian civil war 1967 — 1970 brought the first national plan to an end. Nevertheless
after the civil war the sum of 3.3 billion was earmarked for the 1970— 1974 plan.
Main objectives
a. The reconstruction of facilities damaged by the war.
b. The rehabilitation and settlement of persons displaced by the war
c. Establishment of an efficient administrative system.
d. Creation of job opportunities.
e. The production of high level and intermediate man power
f. Promotion of balanced development between the urban and rural areas.
The third national development (1975 — 1980)
The third national plan which was estimated to cost 53.3 billion had the following objectives;
a. Equitable distribution of income.
b. Improvement in the standard of living.
c. Adequate supply of all categories of man-power required for sustained economic growth.
d. Reduction in the level of unemployment
e. Increased diversification of economy through rapid expansion of industrial activities.
f. Balanced development
g. Indigenization of economic activity.
4. The fourth national development plan (1979 — 1985)
The Alhaji Shehu Shagari’s administration of (1979 — 1983) introduced the fourth national
development plan in 1981 with an estimated cost of 82 billion.
Main objectives of the plan
a. Increase in the real income of the average citizen.
b. Equitable distribution of income
c. Reduction of unemployment.
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d. Increased in the supply of skilled manpower.
e. Balanced development.
f. Development of technology.
g. Reduction in rural urban migration.
The Fifth national development plan (1990 — 1992) (the rolling plan) introduced by the
Babangida’s administration with an estimated cost of 114.2 billion was introduced to correct
the problems of past national development plans. The plan was meant to cover only a two
year period as against previous plans that had 5-6 year time limit.
The economic crisis that confronted Nigeria since 1993 needed immediate attention as such
planning for a period of 4 years was deemed unnecessary by the Babangida’s administration.
The plan had the following priorities.
1. Consolidation of the gains of the structural adjustment programme
2. To deal with the pressing problems of inflation, unemployment, weak industrial base of the
country and the slow growth of non-oil export.
3. To curb social vices such as drug abuse and armed robbery.
The plan was thus hinged on agricultural development, provision of infrastructure, rural
development e.t.c.
It was based on the foregoing that the Babangida’s Administration created or initiated
Agricultural development programmes such as: River Basin Development Authorities, State
Ministries of Agriculture, the Directorate of food, Road and Rural infrastructures (DFRRI)
and agricultural finance institutions to encourage rural community development.
SummaryIn Study Session 5, you have learned that:
1. Planning has to do with the activities of the future. Planning is deciding in advance
what to do how to do it, when to do it and who is to do it.
2. In the planning process, the following factors are to be considered: Level of
developmet,institutional restructure, resource constraint and availability of statistical
data
3. Planning from the individual level (prime objective) and at the state level (coordinate
objective)
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4. No meaningful plan would succeed if the machinery charged with the responsibility
of implementing the plan is weak. The success of a well formulated plan depends
heavily on the agency charged with the responsibility for its execution.
5. Types of plan: short term, long term and medium term plans
6. “Development planning” is the conscious effort of a central organization to influence
the effort in some cases, even control changes in principal economic variables e.g.
consumption, investment, saving e.t.c of a certain country or region over a course of
time in accordance with a predetermined set of objectives.
7. Development plans in Nigeria include the Colonial welfare plan,1962 -168 plan,
1970 – 1974 plan, 1975 – 1980 Plan, 1981 -1984 plans
Self assessment questionsNow that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answers in your
study Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next study Support Meeting. You can
check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment questions at the end of this
Module.
SAQ 5.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 5.7)List the main objectives of the 1970 – 1974 development plans in Nigeria
SAQ 5.2 (Testing Learning outcomes 5.7)List the factors that led the collapse of the 1962 – 1968 plans in Nigeria.
Activity
1. List any five practices that work against development plans in Nigeria
i. __________________________________________________
ii. __________________________________________________
iii. __________________________________________________
iv. ___________________________________________________
v. ___________________________________________________
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ReferencesAdole, R.A (2016). Studies in Comparative Public Administration. Kaduna:Mike BPublications Limited
Bello, K. (2005). Essentials of Public Administration, Kano Flash Printers.
Ghosh, B.N. (2006). New Comparative Government New Delhi, Lotus press
Isaiah, O.D (2006). Essential s of Public administration. Niger State, Jube publications
Labini, P.S. (2001).Underdevelopments strategy for reform Canbridge university press.
Mbumega, A (2012). Issues of development and poerty reduction in Nigeria.Makurdi
Destiny Ventures
Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe underdeveloped Africa, Abuja.Penalf Publishing Inc.
Ron, A. (1995). Development Studies: An introduction through selected readings. Greenwich
University press.
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Study Session 6. Poverty and poverty alleviationprogrammes in Nigeria
Introduction
Poverty is one of the challenges confronting the development of Nigeria. It is a serious
problem that has attracted much attention from national as well as the international
community because of its implications on the socio – economic development. This study
session was designed to examine poverty and some of the poverty alleviation programmes in
Nigeria.
By the end of this study session, you will be able to:
6.1. Define poverty
6.2. Discuss the nature of poverty in Nigeria
6.3 State the causes of poverty in Nigeria
6.4. Discus the approaches to poverty reduction
6.5. Enumerate some of the development programmes in Nigeria.
Bold term
6.1. Meaning of povertyPoverty as a concept has attracted a lot of attention from different scholars.It is a
multidimensional phenomenon. It is also a social problem. According to Townsend (1997)
poverty is a situation where individuals or families are in command of resources which
overtime; fall seriously short of the resources commanded by the average family.Johnsons
(2006) explained that poverty may be defined “as existing when resources of families or
individual are inadequate to provide socially acceptable standard of living”.
Per Park (2004) state that “Poverty can be expressed as inability to satisfy basic needs
of human life due to lack of income” poverty standard environment characterized with
absolute poverty which is refer to as insufficient resources which an individual is so pressed
to have example, food, shelter, cloths e.t.c.
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Transitional poverty is a short temporary poverty otherwise known as the poverty to
“hopeful” its causes includes both natural and manmade disaster like drought earth quake,
theft and ward. However, subjective poverty in Nigeria is widespread and serves, The most
recent poverty indicators such as illiteracy, youth unemployment, lack of access to safe water
and the growing number of poor people have revealed that Nigeria rank’s below Kenya
Ghana and Zambia.
Nigeria’s gross national product per capital is lower and its purchasing power
continues to decline with high inflation and increasing income inequality (Otiagbe 2002).
Renata (2005:3) is of the opinion that those who subscribed to the human capability concept
of poverty maintained focus, expanding people opportunity and span. Poverty is
impoverishment due to lack of social status as well as personal circumstances to lead valuable
and valued lives. The emphasis on empowering the poor, facilitating their participation in
society and enabling them to move upward on the socio -economic ladder is central to human
capability approach to poverty reduction.
In an attempt to suggest possible ways of reducing poverty in Nigeria, (Eware
2007:22) identified the following approaches.
i. Increasing the poor and vulnerable, access to productive assets.
ii. ii. Raising the return on assets to which the poor and vulnerable have access.
iii. iii. Promoting employment opportunities.
iv. Investing in human capital available to the poor sufficient and relevant
qualities of education health nutrition and food security.
v. Empowering the poor to expand their economic and social participation, this
can be achieved by supplementing their’ resources and initiative with adequate
and relevant transfer.
Poverty at the individual and national level cannot be eradicated. However, it can be
alleviated or its ravaging effects can be ameliorated and thus there is room for well-designed
poverty programmes to address the root cause as well as the impacts and the manifestation of
poverty. Good poverty reduction programmes take time to design and need intelligent
planning human and technical resources as well as established administration capability. To
implement (Daily Trust 2002) “poverty alleviation programmed in Nigeria has failed of
poverty reduction related programmes in Nigeria include programme inconsistency poor
implementation, corruption of government officials and servants, poor targeting mechanism
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and failure to focus directly on the poor (Kani Kerenda et. Al., 2000: Ogwun Mike, 1998 and
Egware, 1997).
ITQ
Define poverty
ITA
Poverty can be expressed as inability to satisfy basic needs of human life due to lack of
income. Poverty standard environment characterized with absolute poverty is referred to as
insufficient resources which an individual is so pressed to have example, food, shelter, cloths
and the like.
6.2. The Nature of Poverty in NigeriaIn Nigeria the problem of poverty has a fairly long-time history being a cause for
concern to the government, town and country initiating practical measures of dealing with the
problem.
Evidence shows that in Nigeria the number of those in poverty level has increased
over time. An estimate has that more than 70% of Nigeria lives in poverty (Fashola 2005).
The Nigeria economic policy (1999 2003) also reveals that only 40% have access to primary
health care, 40% have access to portable water supply, 34% have access to electricity in rural
areas, illiteracy level still at 57% and while almost all Nigerians consume less than one thirds
of the minimum required protein and vitamin intake due to low purchasing power. The
implication of such report of World Bank development report, according to research in rural
terms is that Nigeria is worst off its standard of living compared to its counterpart’s
developing countries like South Africa.
The same report reveals that Nigeria has one of the lower per capital income in the
world even if compared to its counterpart. Nigeria per capital income today is 30 Dollars per
annum. Ghana has about 40 Dollars capital income per annum; Togo has 32 Dollar per
annum.
Information from the Federal Office of Statistics showed that the incidence of poverty
increase sharply both between 2002, 2004 and 2006. In 2004, the National planning
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commission (NPC) after considering preliminary outputs form the collaborative work on the
poor assess, took the initiative to set up Poverty Alleviation Programme Development
Committee (PAPDC). This consists of representatives of government agencies, non-
governmental organization, and community development associations, academia and business
communities. PAPDC’S main task was to advice the government on the design of poverty
alleviation programme, the PADC commission research from consultative survey of 36 rural
and urban communities in six zones, across Nigeria. In March 2005, the surveys access
current poverty alleviation activities being implemented by government, non-governmental
organization and community base organization evaluate the capacity and performance of the
local implementation institute and the level of population participation in the programmes
and sough for views of communities PAPDC reports recommend that to be effective any
rational poverty alleviation programme would need to be flexible enough to address the
diversity of the need of poor individuals and communities (World Bank, 2006).
ITQ
What is the nature of poverty in Nigeria since 2011?
ITA
Evidence shows that in Nigeria the number of those in poverty level has increased
over time. An estimate has that more than 70% of Nigeria lives in poverty. The Nigeria
economic policy also reveals that only 40% have access to primary health care, 40% have
access to portable water supply, 34% have access to electricity in rural areas, illiteracy level
still at 57% and while almost all Nigerians consume less than one thirds of the minimum
required protein and vitamin intake due to low purchasing power.
6.3 Causes of Poverty in NigeriaIn Nigeria poverty can be caused through many factors. Some of these factors among
other include the following:
i. Administration and institutional factors.
ii. Unfair income distribution.
iii. Mismanagement and corruption.
iv. Dependence on one export commodity and over dependence on imports
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Administrative and Institutional Factors
Nigeria mass and object poverty can be traced to mal-administration such as negative
correlation between population and national income and low human capital resources.
Similarly it is said that the country is poor because it lacks administration talent and technical
experience to carry out feasibility studies on how to implement government policies and
programme.
Unfair Income Distribution
Reports show and indicate that Nigeria does not have a fair distribution analysis. The
World Bank survey shows that Nigeria income inequality is worse than any of its African
Neighbors, which still makes the Country’s poverty level uncontrollable, it is estimated that
40% of the Nigeria wealth is shared by just 10% of the National population, 60% shared a
party of 1% of the nation’s wealth. There pitiable income distribution inequalities must be
addressed so as to avoid head cost.
Mismanagement and Corruption:
The major cause of poverty in Nigeria is as a result of corruption and
mismanagement. For instance during the administration of Ibrahim Babangida there was an
alleged case of gross mismanagement of huge amount of money believed to have been
released during the 1992 gulf war. The illegal plight of such an amount of money from the
national treasury has denied the masses good health care, education, employment, portable
water etc. So many Nigerians such as the Sambo Dasukis, Farouk Lawan, Bades, Allison
Maduwekes, and the Metuhs have recently been indicted for stealing billions of naira from
the national treasury.
Dependence on one export commodity and over dependence on imports
This also contributed to poverty in Nigeria since 1980; Nigerian solely depends on oil
as the only commodity for export. The oil sector which accounted for only 22% of the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) provides about 80% of government revenue and over 90% of the
export earning in Nigeria. Also mostly, we maintain a culture over dependence on
importation of goods and services thus making the country a dumping ground for foreign
products particularly from Europe and Asia.
ITQ
List any two causes of poverty in Nigeria
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ITA
1. Administration and institutional factors.
2. Unfair income distribution.
6.4 Approaches to Poverty Reduction in NigeriaThe following are the various approaches to poverty reduction in Nigeria
Economic growth approach
Given the labour absorption capacity of the industrial sector, broad based economic
growth should be encouraged. This should focus on capital. Humana capital has to do with
education, health, nutrition and housing needs. This is obvious from the fact that investment
in these sources of human capital improves the quality of labour and thus its productivity.
Rural development approach
This approach sees the rural sector as a unique sector in term of poverty reduction. This is
because majority of the poor in the developing countries fails in this sector. The government
needs a proper implementation of politics that will improve the quality of lives of the rural
people.
Basic need approach
This refers to the provision of basic need such as food, shelter, water, sanitation health
care, basic education and transportation e.t.c. the basic needs may or may not directly have
positive effect on the lives of the poor because of its implementation, but it is of great help to
the poor.
Target approach
This approach favour directly of poverty reduction programme to specific groups
within the country. This approach includes such programme as social safety needs, micro
credit and school meal’ programme. This required proper identification of the target group so
as to minimize leakages.
Alain (2000) pointed out that despite the fact that the first explicit declaration of
poverty reduction as a national problem was made in 1989, it must be recognized that past
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government attempt at poverty reduction dates back to 1977, programmes and strategies
aimed at poverty reduction by the past government include, community board 1971, farm
settlement (FS) 1959, research institute (RI) 1965, Nigerian entrepreneurship development
work for yourself (NEDIWY), National accelerated food development programme (NAFDP),
Nigeria agricultural and co-operative Bank (NACB), 1973:2. River basin with poverty being
on the increase rendering individuals helpless due to little or no access o basic infrastructure
and amenities, insecurity, high rate of death, corruption in, the level of the society and
government, the need for poverty eradication becomes imperatives.
A very strong foundation is essential for the successful implementation of poverty
eradication scheme in’ any developing country these solid bases are in the area of:
i. National security and political stability.
ii. Discipline
iii. Infrastructural development
Economic stability and provision of adequate welfare services.It has been pointed out that
genuine poverty reduction must be intersectoral with most of other development arid social
change initiative of the government, private sector and nongovernmental organization
(NGO’s). The starting point is a measured of public education efforts which incorporates, but
is not limited to the mass-media and rises mostly on personal and community channels to
convince us in imperatives and community channels to convince us in imperatives of poverty
reduction. They presuppose that the leaders understand poverty reduction and not see it as
sharing the national cake (Daily Trust, 2003:53).
Poverty reduction programmes in Nigeria has failed to produce reduction of poverty,
this include, programme inconsistency, poor implementations, corruption’ of government
officials; poor targeting mechanism and failure to focus directly on the masses (Kankwenda).
Strategies identified include legally security entitlement to productive assets (especially land
and water), preventing access to technology, about all for increasing the output and yield of
stable food, access to macro finance (2005:2), and access to market opportunity to participate
in decentralized resources management. Three quarters of billion of people who live in,
extreme poverty live and work in rural areas.
Almost 75 percent of the people residing in rural area surviving from agricultural
(IFAD) which typically represent the target economic sector in most developing
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countries.The state of affairs above therefore, suggests the need for addressing the
widespread of rural poverty. But this agricultural sector has sometimes been given low
priority. This evident in the usual misdirection of public expenditure allocation for
agricultural development there by providing positive impact on reduction in our rural
environment, until the programme has wider coverage and of people interest. In contrast to
this finding, many poverty reduction strategies focus predominately on promoting growth in
manufacturing trade and service industries which are often concentrated in urban centre,, with
respect to rural development. Poverty reduction strategies often largely rely on the indirect
trickle- down effects. The main idea of this mechanism is not any investment in urban area
though the industrial sector will eventually benefit the rural area where most of the poor live.
Yet, empirical evidence does not seem to support the nation that stimulating economic
growth in urban area improve rural as benefit of urban area led to do appear to significantly
trickle down to rural area for instance, Rawqali on and Daff (2005:25), shows that while
urban likely to do so for rural poverty reduction. In fact there is increasing evidence from
developing countries which suggest ‘that the opposite may be true; meaning that improving
economic condition in rural area is likely to spill into urban centres.
Additionally, poverty reduction in agricultural sectors is closely associated with the
concepts of food security. According to recent projection, the majority of the three quarters of
the food who live in rural areas will continue to live into the 21st century (IFAD 2001), since
the rural populace depend primarily on agriculture and other related activities for their
survival, the production of stable food life rice, maize, sorghum millet and wheat and root
tubers such as yam and cassava will continue to be central in the livelihood of the rural
people.
Though, there has been much debate about whether to the development of local roads
and other types of infrastructure (capital based) benefit the poor. Some evidence suggests that
certain type of infrastructure such as road, transport facilities as well as electricity supply and
telecommunication. This research work is done based on social indicators which are after
referred as “Basic need” for development. The basic needs focus on reduction of poverty
providing the needs to the people (poor) such as health, food water, sanitation and housing as
recognizing by Hicks and Streater (2007).
Basic needs approach becomes necessary due to its concern with ends which are
human development more so, because poverty affects in a shorter period on and fewer
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monetary resources than other strategies which only aim at increasing productivity and
income of the poor in the long run, lastly basic needs leads to higher level of productivity and
income through human development in the form of education and health people (Jinghan
2000).
Dissatisfies with growth, employment, marginal productivity and redistribution with
growth approaches to development and against the back growth approach economic thinkers
turned forward towards basic human needs strategy for promoting human well being,
especially that of the poor. Have the potential, to reduce rural poverty and to contribute to
increase in agricultural output and to income. Ali and Pernia (2003) maintained that local
roads and capital infrastructures have the potential to substantially improve the learning’s
potential to rural residents, particularly since low farm productivity and lack of access to
market constitute one of the main factors underlying rural poverty, in its first mission to a less
developed countries, Columbia 1950, the world Bank stated its objectives in terms of meeting
basic human needs. However, it was at the world employment conference of 2006 that the
International Labour Organization (ILO) expose the concept of a basic needs strategy which
India has already adopted in 2004 two years ahead of the ILO declaration.
Although, redistribution with Group approach emerged against the trickle down of the
marginal productivity and Gross National Product per capita approached, it could not solve
the problem of poverty. It emphasized on, provision of infrastructure and targeting specific
groups and providing for them failed due its marginalization effect, thus basic needs approach
becomes necessary for the following targets.
i. It aimed at raising productivity and incomes of the rural and urban poor.
ii. It emphasized on the removal of poverty by providing public service such as
education, pure drinking water.
iii. It advocates for the provision of infrastructures required generating a surplus
to finance basic communal services, providing investment sufficient to sustain
the increase in productivity.
iv. These public services are to be financed by governments.
According to Ola Yemi (1995) basic needs programmed for poverty reduction should
have the following components; economic components to promote broad based, economic
growth, create employment and income generating opportunity for both poor and non-poor,
social service component and safety net components.
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Fishlow (2005) view poverty reduction as something different from income inequality
which leads to fundamental shifts direction concern for those who are worse-off such as core-
poor. Direction attention to the rural areas where incidence of poverty is high, grassroots
consideration of policy focus and reduction in the tension between the stimulus objectives c
improving the well-being of the people.
ITQ
List the various approaches to poverty reduction
ITA
1. Economic growth approach
2. Rural development approach
3. Basic need approach
4. Target approach
6.5 Development programmes /Poverty Reduction Strategies in
NigeriaPoverty reduction through the models laid down in the Federal government poverty
reduction strategies with particular emphasis to its socio-economic situation. The
states and local government has the following objectives.
a. Building on the poor’s won coping mechanism and taking into account the
institutional, cultural and social factors that influence these strategies.
b. Enhancing the ability of the poor to help the state on sustained basic through
strengthening and creating appropriate partnership with local government and
non government and non government institution.
c. Empowering the living conditions of the poor through target cost effective,
demand driving and promptly delivered programmes.
Concern with decimal performance of the previous attempt of poverty reduction in
Nigeria, State governments in collaboration with the federal government, the World Bank and
Africa development bank, negotiated a credit to finance the community based on the six
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geopolitical zones namely Borno, Abia, Cross River, Kebbi, Ekiti and Kogi as pilot project, it
is a departure from the previous top-down approach to the problem of poverty reduction. The
new strategy focuses on dealing with specific community determined needs. Designed as a
social action formed, its primary objectives it to find a mechanism to improve the availability
and management of development resources of the community level, previous attempts has
failed to encourage the desired level of dialogue participation and local ownership of
development resources.
The Borno State poverty reduction agency (BSPRA) adopted a well planned and
practical strategy of achieving its objectives.
Skills development
Provision of adequate vocational training centre to quip for their particular self-
employment and facilitate maintenance of community level projects. The activities of
national directorate of employment (NDE) need to be constantly appraised and effort should
be made to think of more with both the informal sector where apprenticeship activities are
carried out without proper basic structure of sustaining the apprentice when finish learning
the work and the formal school system where individual could acquire these skills as a part of
their educational programme.
Effective structure
In addition, effort of government to facilitate poverty reduction in urban and rural
areas should also focus on provision of basic inputs that can enhance people’s livelihood
productivity and income. Example, agriculture input, machines, credit facilities, training
programme to develop skills markets, road networks, adequate wages and salaries etc some
segment of the population may continue to receive government subsidy, it is not wrong for
government to grant subsidy to the poor. But the mode of implementation should be properly
coordinated and focused on the poor so as to discourage leakage. Government should on the
long run come up with social welfare programmes that will be directed at the poor, which can
be funded by all ties of government.
Programme / project idea
Poverty reduction proramme and project should he made to integrate the nucleus of
the poor into developmental efforts in order to address the actual needs of that state and local
council more autonomy to evolve and execute poverty reduction programme and projects that
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will take their particular circumstance into consideration. This call for the decentralization of
the institution involved in poverty reduction for instance, the proposed poverty reduction
fund can though this process serve as a variable conditional grants that can enable them all
alleviated poverty in their reduction in their respective areas of jurisdiction through effective
social expenditure programme, moreover, all are committed to not only obtained finance
from the poverty reduction funds, but also contributing towards that fund either from their
internal resources or through external sourcing.
The dire need to create a favourable atmosphere conducive to engendering sustainable
social, economic and political development has continually geared government leaders
around the world particularly in less developed countries (LDCs) in to initiating development
programmes. Yet, even as they put efforts to redress the challenges confronting development
in the continent, solutions relating to development remain elusive. This issue is essential in
the sense that Nigeria is presently a country embarking on a path of development and
modernization. This, she has tried to consolidate by initiating development programmes for
the country through the Public Service. Since the Nigerian Public Service is the body mainly
responsible for the actualization of government policies and programmes, this section of this
book would therefore identify some of the development programmes formulated by Nigeria
since independence but a more in depth analysis would be made on the Poverty Alleviation
Programme.
The Nigerian Public Service is a colonial creation. At its earliest stage, it was
concerned mainly with the maintenance of law and order and raising revenue to sustain the
British Colonial Administration. The Public Service was also geared towards the policy of
preventing trouble in the areas under the colonial administration. All these were necessary
because it was only in an atmosphere of peace that the colonial administration could
successfully carry out the exploitation of the country’s resources. Thus, the socio-economic
development of Nigeria was not in the agenda of the British. However, at independence in
1960 the philosophy of the Nigerian Public Service changed to that of Development
Administration because of the development challenges confronting Nigeria at that point in
time. Consequently, there was the urgent need to promote comprehensive programmes of
social, political, economic and industrial change.
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Development progammes in Nigeria: an Overview
Over the years, some development programmes have been undertaken with the aim of
reducing, if not totally eradicating poverty in Nigeria. These programmes were expected to at
least promote social, economic and political development in the country. Some of these
programmes include:
The establishment of Peoples’ Bank;
Creation of Community Banks and small scale industries in Nigeria;
Establishment of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE);
Creation of River Basin Development Authorities;
Operation Feed the Nation;
Green Revolution Programme;
Back to the Land Programme;
The Family Support Programme;
The National Agriculture Development Projects;
Community Development Programme;
Better Life for Rural Women;
The Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DIFRRI);
Entrepreneurship Development Programme;
Family Economic and Advancement Programme (FEAP);
The Seven Point Agenda and;
The Poverty Alleviation Programme; and
The Transformation Agenda.
A critical look at the Poverty Alleviation Programme would be considered here. This is as
a result of the fact that it is one of the development programmes embarked upon by the
country since returning to democratic rule on 29th May 1999.
The Poverty Alleviation Programme was introduced in Nigeria in the year 2000 by the
Obasanjo led Administration because Nigeria which was seen as one of the richest countries
in the early 1970s retrogressed to become one of the 25th poorest countries at the threshold of
the 21st century. It is disheartening to mention here that Nigeria is the sixth largest exporter of
oil and at the same time hosts the third largest number of poor people after China and India
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(Octive, 2006). It is against this background that the National Poverty Eradication
Programme (NAPEP) was immediately set up in 2000 with the following objectives:
1. To reduce the social unrest occasioned by unemployed youths;
2. To reposition the private sector so as to make it more productive;
3. To create opportunity for employment and wealth creation;
4. To invest in education; and
5. Provision of social programmes for the vulnerable
The above objectives of the Poverty Alleviation Programme were strengthened by the
introduction of the National Economic Empowerment Strategy (NEEDS) which drew
heavily on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) are a series of eight time bound development goals that seek to address
issues of poverty, education, gender equality, Health, and the Environment (Ibrahim,
2008).
To demonstrate Nigerian commitment to the MDGs particularly the reduction of
poverty in the country, late president Umaru Musa Yar’adua also introduced the Seven Point
Agenda. An economic and social programme aimed at facilitating the achievement of the
goals in 2015. One of the specific goals of the MDGs is: Eradication of extreme poverty and
hunger. The targets for this goal are:
a). To reduce by 50% between 2000 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less
than one US Dollar; and
b). To reduce by 50% between 2000 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from
hunger.
Based on the forgoing, it is important to state here that when food is available and easily
affordable in the country, it ensures that the citizens would be able to engage in their socio-
economic and other ancillary activities, but this not the situation Nigerians find themselves
today. There is in fact a wide gap between the rich and the poor in Nigeria. In fact politics
and power tussle; corruption among the elite leaders and rulers in the country has seriously
increased poverty and dependence in the country.
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Poverty Alleviation Programme was introduced as earlier stated in response to the
high level of poverty in Nigeria. Poverty Alleviation Programmes were in fact initiated in
order to improve the socio-economic and political well being of the poor. According to Rick
(2003) in his attempt at providing a context of global poverty advanced that: Half the world’s
six billon people live on less than U.S dollars per day; two billion have no electricity; one
and a half billion have no safe water and a quarter billion children do not attend School.
In similar manner, Kabiru (2009) in an attempt to anal size the status of poverty
alleviation programme in Nigeria opined that: “with a population of 140 million and a youth
population of 80 million, with 64 million unemployed, also with an estimated Graduate
turnover of over 600,000 graduates yearly the Nigerian labour market is in crisis”
It must be mentioned here that since the creation of NAPEP, the Government Agency
responsible for the execution of the Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Nigeria nothing
meaningful has been achieved pertaining to the state of poverty in the country. This can be
attributed to the poor and inefficient performance of the Nigerian Public Service. A Public
Service characterized by mismanagement and an authoritarian political culture. Anofi (2004)
re-echoed this fact when he advanced that: The United Nations (UN) allocated one billion
naira to Nigeria for the implementation of the MDGs and according to the 2007 Mid Point
Assessment declared that Nigeria is unlikely to meet the achievement of the MDGs.
The reason for the above statement is not far- fetched. The huge amount of money
released by the Federal and some State Governments for the execution of the poverty
alleviation program me were most often than not diverted into personal use. The poor
implementation of poverty alleviation programmes is truly attributed to poor management
particularly weak control of resources earmarked for the programmes. From 2000 to date
cases of mismanagement of public funds abound in the Nigerian Public Service for instance
late President Musa Yar adua on assumption of office in 2007 lamented how the past
administration of General Olusegun Obasanjo mismanaged and spent over 1.2 trillion naira
on the power sector without any result to show for it (Timothy,2008).More so huge amount
of monies were released by the Federal Government to NAPEP so as to provide loans,
fertilizers, organize workshops and Seminars for the target population, provide farm
implements etc to farmers and the vulnerable sections of the population in the country but
these are yet to be achieved due to poor planning and corruption among government officials.
It is pertinent to state at this juncture that the Poverty Alleviation Programme and other
development programmes have failed in Nigeria due to the factors enumerated and discussed
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above. This is why Okeke (2009) stated that: The core causes of the recent Boka Haram
crisis in some parts of Northern Nigeria was largely attributed to mass unemployment and
poverty across the country. Aliyu (2009) was also in a similar frame of mind when he said
that many social commentators and analysts implicated poverty and the underdeveloped state
of Nigeria due to the failure of the Public service to deliver. They also spotlighted the
distorted electoral processes, the inability to entrench good leadership and corruption in high
places as some of the factors that led to the failure of development programmes in Nigeria.
It is pertinent to note here that no country can experience good governance and
sustainable national development without a sound Public Administration system that is
responsible for government development plans and programmes. In fact it is rather
disheartening to know that the Nigerian Public Service pay little or no attention to some of
these development programmes in the country which is a serious threat to peace and
stability in the country.
Nigeria cannot succeed in her various government reforms programmes such as the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the National Economic Empowerment
Development Strategy (NEEDS) and the Vision 20:2020 Objectives if it continued to neglect
its development programmes in the country. The essence of setting development programmes
in the country cannot be over emphasized. Development Programmes accelerates good
governance and sustainable national development. Nothing meaningful can be achieved if
development programmes are not strengthened in the country. Nigeria is a country endowed
with human and natural resources which if judiciously used could have made it to be one of
the richest and industrialized countries in the world. But, today, Nigeria is adjudged as one of
the poorest countries in the world due to the large number of poor people in the country and
the failure of some of its relevant Departments and Agencies in the public service to perform
their day to day activities. Nigeria cannot leapfrog over its development challenges if it
continues to be plaque by poor leadership and decayed government institutions like the
Public service. In fact Nigeria may be unable to engage the international economy
sufficiently if the Public Service is not completely reformed.
The administration of development programmes from the analysis above can be said
to be poor due to the inefficient nature of the Nigerian Public Service. Almost all the policies
and development programmes initiated by both past and present governments in Nigeria have
been bedeviled by: Corruption, unqualified staff, poor salaries of public servants, lack of
political commitment, inadequate funds, over centralization of policies, weak institutional
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and administrative frame work etc. Nigeria cannot overcome the challenges of development
if its Public service is not properly re-positioned. The public service is a very important arm
of government because it is the body responsible for the execution of government policies
and programmes. As such, it need to be reformed so as enable Nigeria achieve the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015 and also realize the vision 20:2020
objectives. If nothing is done to checkmate the high level of corruption and administrative
malpractices in the Nigerian Public Service, development would indeed be a mile wide and
an inch thick for Nigeria. As a matter of urgency, the Nigerian Government should involve
the poor or the masses when formulating policies/programmes for development in Nigeria.
For instance in the case of the Poverty Alleviation programme, good analysis and diagnosis
of the state of poverty in Nigeria should be properly done.
If the poor were involved in the policy process, they assure that best priorities are
chosen for the vulnerable in the country. More so, one key to enhancing efficiency is
education and training which makes people better and be able to care for them. Government
should therefore design relevant curriculum that would encourage manpower development in
the public service since unqualified staff was identified as one of the weaknesses of the
public service.
Again Government through its relevant agencies should improve access to credit and
the promotion of small scale enterprises in Nigeria so as enable some of these development
programmes succeed. It is also worthy to recommend here that Public Servants should ensure
that the execution of projects and programmes for development should be in line with the
Budget planning and Execution procedures (Due Process). Salaries and working conditions of
Public Servants on the other hand should be improved so as to stop them from engaging in
corrupt practices and other administrative excesses.
Finally, in other to combat corruption and the mismanagement of public funds, more
Ombudsman like oversight agencies and Accountability Institutions like the Economic and
Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) and the Independent Crimes and other Related matters
Commission should be strengthened legally and financially so as to monitor the activities of
Public Servants in the country.
ITQ
List any five development programmes you have studied
ITA
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1. Creation of Community Banks and small scale industries in Nigeria;
2. Establishment of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE);
3. Operation Feed the Nation;
4. Green Revolution Programme; and
5. The Family Support Programme.
Summary1. Poverty as a concept has attracted a lot of attention from different scholars.It is a
multidimensional phenomenon. It is also a social problem. According to Townsend
(1997) poverty is a situation where individuals or families are in command of
resources which overtime; fall seriously short of the resources commanded by the
average family.Johnsons (2006) explained that poverty may be defined “as existing
when resources of families or individual are inadequate to provide socially acceptable
standard of living”.
2. The nature of poverty shows that in Nigeria the number of those in poverty level has
increased over time. An estimate has that more than 70% of Nigeria lives in poverty
(Fashola 2005). The Nigeria economic policy (1999 2003) also reveals that only 40%
have access to primary health care, 40% have access to portable water supply, 34%
have access to electricity in rural areas, illiteracy level still at 57% and while almost
all Nigerians consume less than one thirds of the minimum required protein and
vitamin intake due to low purchasing power.
3. In Nigeria poverty can be caused through many factors. Some of these factors among
other include the following: administration and institutional factors,
unfair income distribution, mismanagement and corruption, dependence on one export
commodity and over dependence on imports.
4. Some development programmes have been undertaken with the aim of reducing, if
not totally eradicating poverty in Nigeria. These programmes were expected to at least
promote social, economic and political development in the country. Some of these
programmes include: the establishment of Peoples’ Bank; creation of Community
Banks and small scale industries in Nigeria; establishment of the National Directorate
of Employment (NDE); creation of River Basin Development Authorities;
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Self assessment questionsNow that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answers in your
study Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next study Support Meeting. You can
check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment questions at the end of this
Module.
SAQ 6.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 6.4)
Discuss any poverty approach as a poverty reduction strategy in Nigeria
ACTIVITYWhat strategies should the government of Nigeria employ to reduce the level of poverty in
Nigeria?
Strategies 1:____________________________________________________
Strategies 2:___________________________________________________
Strategies 3:____________________________________________________
Strategies 4:___________________________________________________
Strategies 5:___________________________________________________
3. How should government assist you in your effort to alleviate poverty in your
community?
ReferencesAdole, R.A (2016). Studies in Comparative Public Administration. Kaduna:Mike BPublications Limited
Bello, K. (2005). Essentials of Public Administration, Kano Flash Printers.
Ghosh, B.N. (2006). New Comparative Government New Delhi, Lotus press
Isaiah, O.D (2006). Essential s of Public administration. Niger State, Jube publications
Labini, P.S. (2001).Underdevelopments strategy for reform Canbridge university press.
Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)
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Mbumega, A (2012). Issues of development and poerty reduction in Nigeria.Makurdi
Destiny Ventures
Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe underdeveloped Africa, Abuja.Penalf Publishing Inc.
Ron, A. (1995). Development Studies: An introduction through selected readings. Greenwich
University press.
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Study session 7: Rural development
Introduction
In study session 6, we discussed poverty alleviation and poverty alleviation strategies in
Nigeria. You may recall that we observed that poverty is prevalent in the rural areas as about
seventy percent of the population resides in the rural area. In this session we shall discuss the
meaning of rural development, its features and the importance of developing the rural areas.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
7.1. Define rural development
7.2. List the characteristics of rural area
7.3. List the aims and objectives of rural development
7.4. Problems confronting rural development in Nigeria
Bold term
7.1. Meaning of rural development
The concept of rural development is been perceived by different scholars in different ways.
According to Ormalele, Rural development means improving the living standard of the
masses or low income population residing in rural areas and making the process of their
development self sustaining. Muahke on his part, viewed rural development as improving the
living standard of the people and sustaining it. It therefore implies setting priorities and
programmes of development and mobilizing the people i.e. involving the people to know
their needs and aspiration rather than imposing development of different kind on them.
Maboganjo on his part see rural development as the reorganization and mobilization of rural
masses to enhance its capacity to cope efficiently with the daily task of their lives.
The involvement of the people in the formulation and implementation of rural
development programmes has fundamental impact on the development of rural areas in the
sense of management, usage, repairs and maintenance of rural development projects such as
markets, boreholes, drainage e.t.c. Rural development is therefore a strategy which is
designed to improve the social, political, economic and cultural life at the rural communities.
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The main goal of this strategy is the active participation of the people in the conception
formulation, and implementation of development policies, programmes and projects. It is
only via active involvement of the people that self- sustenance can be achieved; otherwise all
the efforts made to improve the lot of the rural folk will fail.
ITQ
Define rural development
ITA
According to Ormalele, rural development means improving the living standard of the masses
or low income population residing in rural areas and making the process of their development
self sustaining.
7.2. Characteristics of a rural area
The following are the main features of rural area
a. The main occupation of more than 70% of the population is farming at the subsistence
level.
b. Relatively small size and low density of population spread over a large or small
geographical area.
c. Non availability of modern infrastructures like motorable roads, pipe borne water,
electricity, health and educational institutions.
d. Little or no influence on the formulation of government policies and programmers. The
populations of the rural areas are often times apathetic. Low level of income and general
poverty of the populations.
7.3. Aims and objectives of rural developmentIf we are to accept the definition of rural development as given by Ormalele, then the main
objectives of rural development is improving the living standard of the masses of low income
population residing in the rural areas and making the process of their development self
sustaining. The following could thus be said to be the main aims and objectives of rural
development.
1. Reducing rural poverty.
2. Meeting the basic needs of the rural people.
3. Providing basic rural infrastructure.
4. Increasing rural productivity and income.
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5. Inducing socio change for balance human and materials betterment.
6. Reducing inequality income and wealth.
7. Increasing employment and stemming rural migration.
ITQ
List any three objectives of rural development
ITA
1. Reducing rural poverty.
2. Meeting the basic needs of the rural people.
3. Providing basic rural infrastructure
Problems confronting rural development in NigeriaThe following are the challenges confronting rural development in Nigeria.
a. Lack of political commitment
b. Inconsistent rural development policies and projects.
c. Corruption.
d. Over centralization of policies and programmes (no mass participation)
e. Lack of basic infrastructures policies and programmes at the rural level.
f. Poor technological base.
g. Lack of human and material resources.
h. Ignorance of government policies and programmes at the rural level.
i. Poor leadership at local and state government levels e.t.c
Summary1. Rural development means improving the living standard of the masses or low income
population residing in rural areas and making the process of their development self
sustaining.
2. The main occupation of more than 70% of the population is farming at the subsistence
level.
3. The main objectives of rural development is improving the living standard of the
masses of low income population residing in the rural areas and making the process of
their development self sustaining. The following could thus be said to be the main
aims and objectives of rural development: Reducing rural poverty and meeting the
basic needs of the rural people.
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4. The following are the challenges confronting rural development in Nigeria: lack of
political commitment, inconsistent rural development policies and projects and
corruption.
Self assessment questionsNow that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved
its Learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answers in your
study Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next study Support Meeting. You can
check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment questions at the end of this
Module.
SAQ 7.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 7.4)
List any five problems confronting rural development in Nigeria
See also rural development programmes in Nigeria
http://www.arabianjbmr.com/pdfs/KD.../2.PDF
ACTIVITYList any five advantages of residing in a rural area
Advantage 1:____________________________________________
Advantage 2:_____________________________________________
Advantage 3:____________________________________________
Advantage 4:___________________________________________
Advantage 5:___________________________________________
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ReferencesAdole, R.A (2016). Studies in Comparative Public Administration. Kaduna Mike B Publications Limited
Ake, C. (1996). Democracy and development in Africa.Ibadan:Spectrum Books Ltd.
Bello, K. (2005). Essentials of Public Administration, Kano Flash Printers.
Bagchi, A.K. (1982). The Political Economy of under development London, Cambridge
press.
Barbara, I. (1993). The meaning of development interaction between “new’S’ and old ideas
U.SA, University of Salford.
Fannon,F. (2005). The Wreched of the earth,New York Grove Press
Frank, A.G. (2009). Development Accumulation and under development, New York monthly
Review Press
Ghosh, B.N. (2006). New Comparative Government New Delhi, Lotus press
Labini, P.S. (2001).Underdevelopments strategy for reform Canbridge university press.
Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe underdeveloped Africa, Abuja.Penalf Publishing Inc.
Ron, A. (1995). Development Studies: An introduction through selected readings. Greenwich
University press.
Riggs F.W. (1963). Administration in developing societies. A theory of Prismatic Society,
Boston Massachusetts: HountongMiffin Ltd.
Ujo, A.A. (1994). Understanding Development Administration in Nigeria Joyce Kaduna
Graphic Publishing ltd.
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Appendix
SELF ASSESSMENT ANSWERS
SAQ Answer 1.1Administration as a concept has attracted a lot of writings from so many scholars due to its
broad nature. Literally, the term ‘administration’ means management of affairs in an
organization. The organization could be public or private. The term management should not
be confused in any way with administration though they are most at times used
interchangeably. Management can be said to be the manipulation of both human and material
resources in order to achieve organizational goals or objectives while administration means to
care for or look after people, to manage affairs.
It is a determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. Administration is also
seen as the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose. It could also
refer to the organization and direction of human and material resources to achieve desired
ends.
SAQ Answer 1.22. Permanency
3. Impartiality
4. Anonymity
5. Expertise action
SAQ Answer 2.1According to Irving Swerdlow development administration is administration in “poor
countries” he defined two inter-related tasks in development administration that is,
institutional building and planning. Han been Lee advanced that development administration
is concerned with the problems involved in managing a government or an agency thereof so
that it acquires an increasing capacity to adopt to and act upon new and continuing social
changes with a view to achieving a sustained growth in political, economic and social fields.
Merle Fainsod on his part stated that development Administration is a carrier of innovating
values. It embraces the array of new functions assumed by developing countries embarking
on the path of modernization and industrialization.
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SAQ Answer 2.21. Change-oriented. That is it brings about socio-economic change rather than the
maintenance of the status quo.
2. It is goal oriented; it is aimed at achieving progress in social1 economic1 political and
cultural goals (result oriented)
3. Development Administration has commitment. High morals and motivation in work
situation to achieve developmental goals.
4. Client oriented that is meeting the needs of the specific target groups which could be
farmers, children, the vulnerable group, civic society, Bureaucrats etc.
SAQ Answer 3.1Latency: Social order does not only reside in being able to perform the roles expected of
people occupying certain statuses in the system. These roles could be performed just to
satisfy the expected demands but with no moral basis to respect the rights of others in the
system who also have roles to perform. Latency is a double faceted phenomenon involving
tension management and pattern maintenance in every society. It is true that in every system
or organization conflicts abound since it is the nature of man. Human nature is unpredictable
so it is the ability of the society to handle or manage these conflicts that would lead to socio –
economic and political development.
SAQ 4.1 AnswerThe theory of dualism can be applied in Nigeria in the following ways:
Education: Educational elites, intelligentsias living side by side with millions of illiterates
Economic sector: Few very successful business men i.e. the likes of Michael Adenugas,Aliko
Dangotes,Dantatas living side by side with poor or peasant entrepreneurs.
Industrial locations: Most industries are located in urban centres against rural areas
Urban/rural divide: Urban areas are well developed with good roads, housing, and
infrastructures. The rural areas lack basic amenities
Rich/ poor: A few wealthy people in Nigeria living side by side with the poor masses
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SAQ Answer 5.1Main objectives of the 1970 -1974 plans
a. The reconstruction of facilities damaged by the war.
b. The rehabilitation and settlement of persons displaced by the war
c. Establishment of an efficient administrative system.
d. Creation of job opportunities.
e. The production of high level and intermediate man power
f. Promotion of balanced development between the urban and rural areas.
SAQ 5.2Factors that led to the collapse of the 1962 -1968 plan are:
1. Political interferences
2. Lack of adequate manpower to carry out the plan
3. Poor feasibility study
4. Weak Planning institutions or Machinery
5. Political instability
6. Civil war
7. Lack of fund
8. Weak private sector
SAQ Answer 6.1Skills development: provision of adequate vocational training centre to quip for their
particular self-employment and facilitate maintenance of community level projects. The
activities of national directorate of employment (NDE) need to be constantly appraised and
effort should be made to think of more with both the informal sector where apprenticeship
activities are carried out without proper basic structure of sustaining the apprentice when
finish learning the work and the formal school system where individual could acquire these
skills as a part of their educational programme.
SAQ Answer 7.1The problems confronting rural development in Nigeria include:
Lack of political commitment
b. Inconsistent rural development policies and projects.
c. Corruption.