Journal of Coastal Environment
COES
ISSN 2229-7839Volume 1, Number 2, 2010
JCEJCEJCE
Journal of Coastal Environment
JCE
Volume 1, Number 2, 2010
Centre for Ocean and Environmental StudiesA-2, East of Kailash (Basement), New Delhi 110 065; Tel/Fax: 91-11-46078340
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected];
Website: www.coes-india.org
This is the which completes Volume I
pertaining year and eight
papers. The first mine gives an of
contributing richness the 25
estuaries east the east
west coast of Bay and
respectively, on
zooplankton and fish of
fertile and
richness and
Malti
based on two policies years 1987 and
2002. It also includes the end of
action
development. Sankar
sandy of
developing
the
the growth
was
of
waves,
an
the
et.
23 corals.
intensive grazing
significantly and to
sea
second number the of the Journal of
Coastal Environment (JCE) to the 2010 contains
paper of account the role of estuaries
to the of coastal environment. The fertility of
of both the west coasts, 8 from coast and 17 from the
India, ending into the of Bengal the Arabian Sea
based the information on nutrients, phytoplankton,
production, indicate that practically all them are
ecologically productive. These collectively contribute to the
sustainability of the coastal environment. The second paper
of Goel summarises the concerns related to water management
the national water enunciated in the
results National Water Mission under the
plan of climate change, thus bringing out two important points
related to energy and industry sectors which lead to sustainable
The third paper of Yogamoorthi and Siva describes
the population characteristics of the brachyuran crab living along the
beaches Pondicherry The criterion is based on the relationship
between carapace length/width to wet (body) weight. The allometric
relationship between the two has been considered important for
conservation strategies. The fourth paper of Srijaya, et. al.
describes importance of organic fertilizer, using seaweed extract, on
of black mustard plant. The extract of Sargassum sp., with a
dilution of 1:100, found to be the most effective concentration.
The fifth paper Arun Kumar and co-authors indicates the variations
which the beaches show in their geometric form. These are based on the
response to the prevailing dynamic forces of tides and currents.
During storms, increase in water levels shifts the wave-attack higher on
profile, making the berms and dunes more vulnerable to erosion. The
sixth paper of J.K. Mishra, al. indicates the importance of conservation
of marine biodiversity in different marine ecosystems. They give an
example of the unique environment of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
which the rock pools contain different phyla and Because of
in the rockpools, the plankton biomass becomes
low with the temperature salinity, almost similar the
adjoining water. The seventh paper of Ananya Roy provides an
Editorial
indication of the decline in biological diversity in the Sundarbans
because of erosion of coastal areas as a result of cyclones, leading to loss of
coastal plain which is greater than its rebuilding process.
The eighth and last paper of Kishore Kumar deals with the Fukushima
nuclear power plant accident in Japan caused by the earthquake of March
11, 2011 leading to giant tsunami waves. The explosions and radiation
leaks have compelled the Japanese government to review the safety of
their nuclear facilities. This disaster has provided clear evidence that
experts can neither give correct predictions of the extent of disaster nor
can they undertake proper safety measures during such a crisis. These
reactors are old boiling type in which sea water is being pumped for
cooling purposes. Similar situations existed in Three Mile Island and
Chernobyl accidents 25-30 years ago which now demand a serious rethink
in about power production the world over.
S.Z. Qasim
This publication has been supported by the Ministry of
Earth Sciences (MoES), Government of India.
Role of Estuaries in Sustainability of Coastal Environment 1
S.Z. Qasim
Convergence of Energy Issues in National Water Policy 11
Malti Goel
Carapace Length/width-weight Relationship of Ocypode 23
macrocera Population from Pondicherry Sandy Beaches
A. Yogamoorthi and R. Siva Sankar
Effect of Seaweed Extract as Organic Fertilizer on the 31
Growth Enhancement of Black Mustard Plant
T.C. Srijaya, P.J. Pradeep and Anil Chatterji
Role of Nearshore Waves in Identifying 45
Vulnerable Zones during Storm and Normal Events
S.V.V. Arun Kumar
Biodiversity of Rock Pool Organisms and their Adaptive 53
Zonation along the Coasts of Port Blair
J.K. Mishra, Shesdev Patro,
D. Adhavan and Anita Mishra
Vulnerability of the Sundarbans Ecosystem 63
Ananya Roy
Tsunami Disaster and Nuclear Contamination 77
Kishore Kumar
C o n t e n t s
Role of Estuaries in Sustainability of Coastal Environment
S.Z. Qasim*
A general survey of the fertility of 25 estuaries, based on their concentrations of
nutrients, phytoplankton and zooplankton assemblage and fish production in
each, as far as these are known, has been enumerated. In all, 25 estuaries, of
both the coasts 8 from the east coast which end up in the Bay of Bengal and
the rest which join the Arabian Sea have been covered. Almost all the estuaries
have been found to be biologically productive. It can therefore be concluded
that the sustainability of coastal waters is largely because of the productive
nature of estuarine waters which receive land drainage and large freshwater
influx during the monsoon months, and these are ultimately passed on to the
coastal environment.
Introduction
Leaving aside small rivers of India which meet the sea through
interjection with land areas adjoining the sea, there are 25 well-
defined estuaries on the east and west coasts of India. Each of these
with its physical, chemical and biological characteristics has been
described by Qasim (2003). Altogether the 25 well-defined estuaries
include 8 on the east coast and 17 on the west coast. Those on the
east coast join the Bay of Bengal and the rest on the west coast join
the Arabian Sea (for details see Qasim, 2003). From the larger estuaries
such as Hooghly, backwaters of Kerala, Vellar and Mandovi-Zuari,
several thousand tonnes of edible varieties of fish, prawns, lobsters
etc. are caught annually. Fishery in most of the estuarine systems is
sustainable and lasts practically throughout the year. It is important to
* Former Secretary, Govt. of India and former Member (Science), Planning Commission, Govt. of India.
Jour. Coast. Env., Vol. 1, No. 2, 2010
Abstract
note that during the monsoon season, when fishing in coastal waters
gets partially or fully suspended, estuaries form the mainstay and
contribute to fish production significantly.
Major indices of sustainability are the concentration of nutrients (Po , 4
No , Sio ) phytoplankton density, zooplankton availability and its 3 3
biomass and fish production. These can be described in each estuary
as follows:
East Coast
Hooghly (Hugli)
Phosphates were high during the pre-monsoon months and low during
the monsoon season. Nitrates, on the other hand, were high during the
monsoon months and low during the pre-monsoon season. Silicates
were high during the monsoon season and low during the pre-
monsoon months.
Similarly, phytoplankton composition including diatoms, blue-green
algae, green algae, dinoflagellates and other holophytic flagellates were
quite abundant during different months of the year (Shetye et al.,
1962). Zooplankton organisms present included copepods (37 species),
tintinnids (5 species), chaetognaths (2 species) and several other
groups. Purely marine forms e.g. siphonophores, hydromedusae,
ctenophores etc. occurred when salinity in the estuary was high. The
estuary offers one of the richest grounds for fishery in the country.
Fishing activity goes on intensively practically throughout the year
and the total annual catch amounts to 8-10 thousand tonnes (Jhingran
& Gopalakrishnan, 1973). The composition of fish, prawns, crabs etc.
in the catch includes more than 120 species (Pillay, 1967).
Rushikulya
This estuary is located near Ganjam town of Orissa State. It becomes
saltwater-dominated during the pre-monsoon season (November to
May) and freshwater-dominated during the monsoon months (June to
October). Reliable studies on practically all components of the estuary
(hydrography, nutrients, phytoplankton, zooplankton, fishery, etc.)
Journal of Coastal Environment2
have been carried out by Gouda & Panigrahy form 1989 to 1995. It is
rich in nutrients including phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish
production.
Godavari
This estuary is formed by several rivers and covers a large area of
Andhra Pradesh and finally meets the Bay of Bengal forming Kakinada
Bay (Sarma & Ganapati, 1971). It has a lot of vegetation in its 2surroundings and covers 317 km of forest area with about 17 species
of mangroves. Hydrography of this estuary has been done by several
authors. It is rich in nutrients, phytoplankton and zooplankton.
Copepods forming a major component of zooplankton (Chandramohan
& Rao, 1972). It provides rich fishery of clupeoids, sciaenids, prawns,
prawn-seeds and several other commercially important species (Devi,
1988).
Ennore
The river Ennore passes through Chennai city and joins the Bay of
Bengal at Ennore located near the Madras Harbour. Sivaswamy (1990)
has studied its hydrography including nutrients, phytoplankton and
zooplankton fairly extensively. It is rich in phytoplankton and
zooplankton with a rich fishery of mullets, half beak, prawns and
crabs (Sridhar, 1982). Cooum
The river Cooum forms a narrow estuary at its junction with the Bay
of Bengal. Nutrients are high, phytoplankton and zooplankton
abundant (Raj and Valsaraj, 1984, Anantharaj et al., 1987). It formed a
rich fishery of fishes, prawns and crabs (Nammalwar, 1987).
Adyar
It runs into the city of Chennai (Madras) and is rich in nutrients,
phytoplankton and zooplankton: At one time it had a rich fishery
(Daniel, 1987) but because of dumping garbage and pollutants from
neighbouring towns, its fishery has become depleted.
Vellar
It is situated near Parangipettai, a small town formerly known as Port
Novo and ends up within Pichavaram mangroves which occupies an
3Role of Estuaries in Sustainability of Coastal Environment
area of about 800 hectares. Because of its proximity with Marine
Biological Station of Annamalai University (presently known as the
Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology), it has been studied
well. It is extremely rich in nutrients (Po -P, No -N, Sio -S) [Chandran 4 3 3
& Ramamoorthi (1984)]. Its phytoplankton rich population includes
diatoms (47 species), dinoflagellates (4 species), blue-green algae
(including Trichodesmium) abundantly found. Zooplankton population
largely included invertebrate larvae, fish eggs and larvae (Thangaraja,
1995).
The estuary provides a productive environment for fishery. Around
the estuary, there are 5 villages with a total population of about 640
fishermen and the total fish landing during the period December 1973
to November 1974 was 3,801,51 kg and included 12 categories of fish,
rays, prawns, crabs and clam (Thangaraja, 1984). Prawns kept in cages
and immersed into the estuary grew well when fed on pelleted food
(Shanmugam et al., 1995).
Cauvery (Kaveri)
The Cauvery River originates in Karnataka and ends up in Tamil Nadu
forming a delta fringed with mangroves. There has been no detailed
investigation of the fertility of this estuary. However, from the analysis
of phosphatesphosphorus (Po -P), (Ramanathan et al., 1993), it can be 4
deduced that this estuary is just as fertile as the seven estuaries of east
coast described above.
West Coast
Ashtamudi
It is located in the southern part of Kerala State and covers an area of 2
32 km . It is formed by Kallada River which is the main river and
several smaller rivers, it branches off into eight zones. The estuary
opens into the Arabian Sea through a 200 metre wide month. It is rich
in nutrients and its phytoplankton community includes 52 species
belonging to 38 genera. Primary production measured using light and 3dark bottle showed high values (average 196.56 mgC/m /h) from July
3to October and low values (average 91.93 mgC/m /h) from November
to February (Nair et al., 1983). Composition and abundance of
4 Journal of Coastal Environment
zooplankton varied from season to season and there was a
combination of brackishwater, marine and freshwater forms. The most
dominant component of zooplankton were copepods (Nair & Azis,
1987). The estuary provides a sizeable fishery. Mullets, pearl spot and
prawns are the most abundant forms from August to October (Nair &
Azis, 1987).
Cochin Backwaters and Vembanad
They form a complex system of shallow estuarine network spread over
more than 325 km running parallel to the coastline of Kerala. They
have two permanent openings to the Arabian Sea one at Cochin
(renamed as Kochi) and the other at Azhikode. The Cochin connection
is about 450 m wide and forms the main entrance to Cochin Harbour.
The other connection at Azhikode in the north is much smaller in
width. The backwater system has been the most intensively studied
for more than four decades and form one of the most productive
ecosystems among the estuarine environments. It is rich in
phosphorus, nitrogen and silicates. It has a high primary production
and relatively low zooplankton biomass. The rate of consumption by
the zooplankton works out to be only 10% of the primary production
leaving behind a large surplus of basic food in the environment. This
food sinks to the bottom and is utilised by sedentary animal
communities. Therefore, it is not surprising to find primary
production in the estuary, far exceeding the rate of consumption by
zooplankton harbivores. The backwaters terminate into a large
reservoir called the Vemband Lake. Studies conducted on the lake
separately indicate that is has a high fertility and provides rich fishery
grounds.
Kali
It is formed by the river kali one of the important rivers of Karnataka
which opens into the Arabian Sea forming the Kali Estuary. Its
freshwater regime is controlled by the monsoon season and saltwater
incursion by the tidal flow. It is rich in nutrients, phytoplankton,
zooplankton and fishery at Karwar (Shetye et al., 1993).
Mandovi-Zuari System
It is formed by the two rivers Mandovi and Zuari. The former has
many tributaries as compared to the latter. A canal called the
5Role of Estuaries in Sustainability of Coastal Environment
Cumbarjua Canal connects the two rivers inland. Thus the two rivers
and the canal demarcate the island of Panaji (Panjim) at Goa. This
estuary also has been well studied. Qasim & Sen Gupta (1981) have
worked on the saltwater penetration into the two estuaries and have
given an account on nutrients and phytoplankton while Padmavati &
Goswami (1996) have given the zooplankton abundance in the
estuarine system. The annual fish catch in the two estuaries varies
from 150 to 350 tonnes (average 200 tonnes), annually.
Estuaries of Mumbai (Bombay) Region
The region includes three estuaries as follows:
(i) Bombay Harbour/Thana Creek; (ii) Mahim and (iii) AmbaThe information available on these estuaries is not adequate. However,
from the work on general hydrography, it can be deduced that these
are just as fertile and sustainable as the others on the west coast
described above.
Estuaries of Southern Gujarat
Southern Gujarat has been profusely endowed with perennial rivers.
About 16 rivers (large, medium and small) flow in the east-west
direction. Most of them end into shallow estuaries named after the
rivers which are as follows:
(1) Sabarmati; (2) Mahi; (3) Dhabar; (4) Narmada; (5) Kim; (6)
Tapti; (7) Mindhola; (8) Purna; (9) Ambika; (10) Kaveri; (11) Karera;
(12) Auranga; (13) Par; (14) Kolak; (15) Darmangana; (16) Varoli
Socio-economic development in Gujarat State and rapid
industrialization in southern part have led to the emergence of many
industries near rivers utilising freshwater according to their needs and
conveniently disposing off the wastewater either into the river or in
the estuary depending upon their location. As a result, many new
towns have come up and some of the older cities, which are several
kilometres in land areas e.g. Vapi, Bulsar, Surat, Navsari, Billimora,
Ankleswar, Bharuch, Baroda and Ahmedabad) have flourished at the
cost of the quality of their river water. It is also to be noted that since
ancient times, human population in India has grown along the rivers
6 Journal of Coastal Environment
and many villages and small towns located on the banks of rivers have
become dependent on the river water for their domestic needs.
Consequently, in many villages, there are few wells or hand-pumps
and these are largely used for taking potable water for drinking. For all
other needs such as washing clothes and utensils, bathing and even
for cooking food, the river water is normally used. Therefore, the
discharge of untreated or partially-treated wastes into the rivers will
provide a health hazard with the result that several owners of the
industries took the initiative themselves for investigating the
magnitude of pollutants going into the rivers and estuaries, and if
formed alarming, measures should be recommended to control the
situation (for details see Qasim, 2003).
Present state of coastal environment
The foregoing account on estuaries of India clearly indicates the
importance and fertility of estuarine ecosystems all terminating into
the coastal waters and making the environment sustainable for fish
production. The mechanised sector yielded 74%, motorised 22% and
artisanal 4% of fish production. From the shore upto a depth of 25
metres, the catches are largely from the non-mechanised boats,
(canoes, rowing and sail boats etc.), upto 50 m depth (small
mechanised boats, upto 100 m depth (trawlers) beyond 100 m depth
(rarely fished adequately).
Coastal environment presently forms the mainstay for the exploitation
of fishery resources. However, the yield obtained from coastal waters
does not remain steady and fluctuations have become evident showing
a declining trend year after year. Pelagic finfishes contributes about
52%, demersal 28%, crustacean 16% and molluscan 4% of the total
landings. Mechanised vessels yield 74%, motorized boats 22% and
artisanal 4% of the total along the coastal environment. Landings were
greater from the west coast as compared to the east. The oil sardine,
Sardinella longicep contributed 12.4% of the marine fish resources,
followed by penaeid shrimp 8.9%. Indian mackerel, catfishes,
threadfin etc. registered increased catches during the year 2009.
The sustainability of coastal waters is largely because of estuaries
opening into this zone.
7Role of Estuaries in Sustainability of Coastal Environment
References
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the river Cooum with special reference to sewage and heavy metal
pollution. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Vol. 96, pp.
141-149.
Chandramohan, P. & Rao, T.S.S., 1972. Tidal cycle studies in relation
to zooplankton distribution in the Godavari Estuary. Proceeding of the
Indian Academy of Sciences (B), Vo. 75, pp. 23-31.
Chandran, R. & Ramamoorthi, K., 1984c. Hydrobiological studies in
the gradient zone of the Vellar Estuary: 3. Heterotrophic bacteria.
Mahasagar Bulletin of National Institute of Oceanography, Vol. 17,
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Daniel, A., 1987. Estuarine animals and their adaptations. Journal of
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Devi, S.L., 1988. Observation on the fishery and biology of penaeid
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52-63.
Gouda, R. & Panigrahy, R.C., 1995. Seasonal distribution and behavior
of nitrate and phosphate in Rushikulya Estuary. Indian Journal of
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Jhingran, C.G. & Gopalakrishnan, V., 1973. Estuarine fisheries
resources of India in relation to adjacent seas. Journal of Marine
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Nair, N.B., Azis, P.K.A., Dharmaraj, K., Arunachalam, M.,
Krishnakumar, K. & Balasubramanian, N.K., 1983. Ecology of Indian
Estuaries. Part I Physico-chemical features of water and sediment-
nutrients of Ashtamudi Estuary. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences,
Vol. 12, pp. 143-150.
Nair, N.B. & Azis, P.K.A., 1987. Hydrobiology of Ashtamudi Estuary a
tropical backwater system in Kerala. Proceedings of National Seminar
on Estuarine Management (ed.) N.B. Nair, National Committee on
Science, Technology & Environment, Government of Kerala,
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Nammalwar, P., 1987. Pollution impact and management of the coastal
estuaries around Madras, India. Proceedings of the National Seminar
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on Estuarine Management (ed.) N.B. Nair, State Committee on Science,
Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, pp.
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Padmavati, G. & Goswami, S.C., 1996. Zooplankton ecology in the
Mandovi-Zuari estuarine system of Goa, west coast of India. Indian
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Pillay, T.V.R., 1967. Estuarine fisheries of the Indian Ocean coastal
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Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C., pp. 647-657.
Qasim, S.Z., 2003. Indian Estuaries. Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi. 420 pp.
Qasim, S.Z. & SenGupta, R., 1981. Environmental characteristics of
the Mandovi-Zuari estuarine system in Goa. Estuarine, Coastal and
Shelf Science, Vol. 13, pp. 557-578.
Rao, V.N.R. & Valsaraj, C.P., 1984. Hydrobiological studies in the
inshore waters of the Bay of Bengal. Journal of Marine Biological
Association of India, Vol. 26. pp. 58-65.
Sarma, D.V.R. & Ganapati, P.N., 1971. Hydrography of the Coringa
River of the Gautami-Godavari Estuarine System. Journal of Marine
Biological Association of India, Vol. 13, pp. 234-248.
Shanmugham, A., Rajamanickam, S. & Kannupandi, T., 1995. Cage
culture of Penaeus indicus in Vellar estuary. Journal of Marine
Biological Association of India, Vol. 37, pp. 166-170.
Shetty, H.P.C., Saha, S.B. & Ghosh, B.B., 1963. Observations on the
distribution and fluctuations of plankton in the Hooghly-Matlah
estuarine system, with notes on their relation to commercial fish
landings. Indian Journal of Fisheries, Vol.8, pp. 326-363.
Shetty, D.C., Reddy, C.R., Kusuma, M.S. & Neelakantan, B., 1993.
Fishing methods of Karwar waters. Journal of Marine Biological
Association of India, Vol. 35, pp. 95-104.
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9Role of Estuaries in Sustainability of Coastal Environment
10
Sridhar, M. K.C., 1982. A field study of estuarine pollution in Madras,
India. Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 12, pp. 233-236.
Thangaraja, M., 1986. Report on two types of leptocephalus eel from
Vellar estuary (Bay of Bengal). Journal of Indian Fisheries Association,
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Thangaraja, M., 1995. Certain ecological impacts on the distribution
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37, pp. 56-73.
Journal of Coastal Environment
Convergence of Energy Issues in National Water Policy
Malti Goel*
This paper is about issues and concerns in water policy arising from energy
paradigms. It summarizes early water policy / acts and the two national policies
that have evolved in India in 1987 and 2002 as well as goals of National Water
Mission under climate change action plan. It highlights two important concerns
related to energy and industries sectors for addressing sustainable economic
development issues while enunciating the Water Policy.
Introduction"Every drop in the ocean counts.”
--Yoko OnoWater is the basis to human existence on earth. Water has been
fundamental infrastructure for early civilizations. In 2500 BC Indus
Valley Civilization around Indus River was highly developed. Although
water has been critical input for life and for agriculture, but in recent
times industries also consume enormous water and cause pollution. We
face a water crisis and water policies have evolved to have equitable
distribution and to resolve conflicts. In India total water resource is
estimated to be 4000 billion cum (bcum), through the annual rainfall,
snowfall and glacier melts. The utilizable resource is however, less than
30% of it, comprising 690 bcum of surface water and 433 bcum from
replenished ground water (MoWR, 2010). How to optimize in use of
water and how to maintain ecological balance for economic
development activities, are two vital concerns of current century?
* Former Adviser/Scientist 'G', Department of Science & Technology and Emeritus Scientist & Visiting Faculty, CSSP, JNU, New Delhi.
Jour. Coast. Env., Vol. 1, No. 2, 2010
Abstract
Early Water Acts and PoliciesThe Laws of Manu in 200 BC also known as Hindu law of water
considered water indivisible. Diversion or obstruction of waters was
discouraged and the laws imposed a system of social reprimands and
punishments for those who polluted the water or who stole or diverted
it. Destruction of embankments was illegal (Mazumdar et. al., 1978).
The law encouraged the use and protection of water bodies as
boundaries between villages. However, water bodies of enemies were
destroyed in times of war. Subsequently, Islamic rulers from in India
(1200 AD) also considered water is a gift of God and the Islamic law
principles included that no individual or ruler can own water.British colonialism, which began in 1850s AD, began to change these
ethos and made certain regulations contrary to these. It emphasized
rights of landowners to access water. Early Act on control and rights
over water began with Indian Easements Act 1882. Introducing
Common Law Principles it provided a virtually unlimited right to
access ground water for landowners under their holdings. During the
same era, two regional level acts viz. Northern India Canal and
Drainage Act (1873) and the Madhya Pradesh Irrigation Act (1931)
regulated irrigation; navigation and drainage etc. were promulgated.
These recognized the right of the Government to use and control the
water of all rivers and streams flowing in natural channels for public
purposes. Laws which regulated canals for navigation purposes and
levying taxes on the users, river conservation, and rules on ferries and
fisheries came to be known as, Northern India Ferries Act 1878 and
Indian Fisheries Act 1897 (Siddiqui, 1992). The Indian Fisheries Act
1897 came to also safeguard fish fauna in coastal and inland waters.
This era was instrumental in causing division of responsibilities and
also conflicts between the Centre and the regional/States with regard to
water. The Government of India Act 1935 empowered the provinces to
take decisions on water supply and distribution. With the objective to
resolve inter-state water issues, The River Board Act was enunciated in
1956 after India achieved independence. Control of water pollution has
been addressed by Acts enacted in 1974, 1977 and 1978. These Acts are
summarized in Table 1.
12 Journal of Coastal Environment
13Convergence of Energy Issues in National Water Policy
Table 1
S. No. Acts
1 The Easement Act 1882 allows private rights to use a resource i.e. Groundwater, by viewing it as an attachment to the land. It also states that all surface water belongs to the state and is a state property.
2 Indian Fisheries Act 1897 establishes two sets of penal offences whereby the government can sue any person who uses dynamite or other explosive substance in any way (whether coastal or inland) with intent to catch or destroy any fish or poisons fish in order to kill.
3 The Government of India Act 1935 empowered the provinces to take decisions on water supply, irrigation, canals, drainage and embankments, water storage and hydropower.
4 The River Boards Act 1956 enables the states to enroll the Central Government in setting up an Advisory River Board to resolve issues in inter state cooperation.
5 Merchant Shipping Act 1970 aims to deal with waste arising from ships along the coastal areas within a specified radius.
6 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 establishes an institutional structure for preventing and abating water pollution. It establishes standards for water quality and effluent. Polluting industries must seek permission to discharge waste into effluent bodies. The Pollution Control Board (CPCB) was constituted under this act.
7 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act 1977 provides for the levy and collection of cess or a fees on water consuming industries and local authorities.
8 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules 1978 contains the standard definitions and indicate the kind of and location of meters that every consumer of water is required to affix.
9 Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 1991 puts regulations on various activities, including construction, are regulated. It gives some protection to the backwaters and estuaries
10 Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 2011 puts regulation of permissible activities in CRZ taking into account the dangers of natural hazards in the coastal areas and sea level rise due to global warming.
Water related Acts and Laws enacted in India
14 Journal of Coastal Environment
National Water Policies
Keeping in view the vital importance of water for human and animal
life, development and management of this resource for its optimal,
economical and equitable use became a matter of the utmost urgency.
First National Water Policy was announced in 1987 for maintaining
ecological balance and pursuing economic developmental activities of
all kinds. This policy was later revised and updated by Ministry of
Water Resources (MoWR), and National Water Policy 2002 (NWP2002)
has been enunciated. No doubt premises for both policies have been
Water Availability and its Allocation Priorities, as can be seen from
priority allocation areas in two policies (Table 2). In NWP 2002,
ecology has been added as one of the priority areas and it received a
priority before industry, thereby increasing priority areas from five to
six. It also mentions that these priorities could be modified or added
it warranted by the area / region specific considerations.
In addition, a broad based Institutional mechanism to give focus to
multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary approach has also been proposed to
improve water planning and basin management. Besides, development
of an improved institutional framework, the other main difference in
2002 policy and 1987 policy; has been that NWP2002 focused on
enhancing the participation by private parties in water management
and ensuring that States share the waters of a joint river, with the
object of developing an effective monitoring system. It also proposed
that perspective plan for standardized training should be an integral
Table 2
Water Allocation Priorities
S.No. NWP 1987 NWP 2002
1. Drinking water Drinking water
2. Irrigation Irrigation
3. Hydro-power Hydro-power
4. Navigation Ecology
5. Industrial and other uses Agro Industry and
Non-agriculture industry
6. - Navigation and other uses
15
part of water resource development. It should cover training in
information system, sectoral planning, project planning &
management, operation of projects & their physical structure and
management of water distribution systems. A new emphasis to
research & development (R&D) was given and Science & Technology
Advisory Committee revitalized in the Ministry of Water Resources.
Department of Science & Technology (DST) through its Inter-sectoral
mechanism in place, in cooperation with the MoWR played a key role
in it. The R&D thrust areas and the training for all the categories of
personnel involved in these activities, as also the farmers were
emphasized and highlighted (DST, STAC Scan Plus, 2003).
These two policies have been quite exhaustive and supplemented by
State water policies from time to time such as, Rajasthan State Water
Policy 1999, Uttar Pradesh Water Policy 1999, Karnataka State Water
Policy 2002, Maharashtra State Water Policy 2003 among others. The
most recent is Punjab Preservation of Sub-Soil Water Act 2009, to
address the excess use of ground water in agriculture.
National Water MissionIndia has established in 2009 a National Water Mission under
'National Action Plan on Climate change 2008'. The Mission has
chartered a new path to address climate change concern and has
targeted a comprehensive water data base in the public domain for
assessment of its impact on water resource. The five identified goals of
the Mission have been identified as: (a) comprehensive water data
base in public domain and assessment of impact of climate change on
water resource; (b) promotion of citizen and state action for water
conservation, augmentation and preservation; (c) focused attention to
over-exploited areas; (d) increasing water use efficiency by 20%, and
(e) promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.
Various strategies for achieving the mission goals have been identified
(NWM.2009), which can lead to integrated plan for sustainable
development and ensure basin level management to deal with
variability in rainfall and river flows due to climate change. This
would include enhanced storage both above and below ground,
rainwater harvesting, coupled with equitable and efficient
management structures. One of the important features of the mission
Convergence of Energy Issues in National Water Policy
16
is to review existing National Water Policy to facilitate attainment of
mission goals.
Review of National Water Policy
Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) has recently reviewed National
Water Policy, and a Brainstorming Session and Consultation Meeting
was organized by under the overall guidance of Mr. U. Panjiyar, thSecretary, Government of India on 26 October 2010, participated by
the experts from across the country. Dr. S. Z. Qasim, Chairman, COES
was also invited. I had the opportunity to participate and was thus
benefitted by the views expressed. Several suggestions were made
about the need for making people aware about the scarcity of water in
our country and importance of water conservation as well as ecology
& efficiency in use of water. Issues of social justice, priority and basin
management were deliberated with the aim to harmonize the policy
with NWM.
It emerged that two mega problems India faces today are; shortage of
water and shortage of energy for its future generations. To minimize
the negative impacts of overuse and climate change, convergence of
water policies with energy issues and development of strategies which
can be monitored, are needed. In the following discussions, I have
made an effort to draw attention to the need for an inclusive water
policy to address sustainability issues related to energy demand and
industrial effluents.
Water and Energy
India's economy has been agriculture driven and irrigation has rightly
received the highest priority after drinking water in the National
policy, followed by hydroelectric energy (Table 2). However there are
issues arising out of water and energy consumption as follows.
Ground Water Irrigation — To meet the irrigation needs from
underground water India has 15 million electrified tube wells and 10
million Diesel operated shallow tube wells. Use of electricity for
ground water irrigation is subsidized and free in some States. This has
led to increasing stress on agriculture those States and excessive use
of ground water. Enormous electricity is thus being consumed in
pumping water for agriculture. By one estimate, groundwater
Journal of Coastal Environment
17
irrigation accounts for 4 to 6 percent of India's total carbon emissions.
A one percent increase in groundwater irrigated area increases
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from coal based electricity use in
pumping by 2.2 percent. Under Climate Change impacts on
hydrological cycle and river flows, there will be still larger stress on
the ground water resources. Hence for efficient water management not
only to control the carbon footprint of irrigation, the policy must have
guidelines to minimize or reduce groundwater draft and to encourage
use of store surface water.
Trans-boundary Co-operation for Hydroelectric Generation — Trans-
boundary Co-operation in river water for hydroelectricity has emerged
as another critical issue for meeting energy targets. The 'water energy'
being source of hydroelectric power generation, it is dependent on the
water flow rate, besides other parameters. Dam reservoir, run-of-river
flow, pumped storage and river diversion systems are utilized for high
efficiency power generation as the case may be. Creation of hydraulic
channels leads to diversion of water and hydroelectric encroachment
on river beds. Trans-boundary treatises with Pakistan for Indus River
on western side and with China for Brahmaputra River on Eastern side
are having dampening effects on water availability and hydroelectric
generation. Brahmaputra River for example is having 30% of India's
water resources and has over 40% share in total hydroelectric
generation potential for the country. Brahmaputra covers different type
of climatic zones and part of its basin is located in high seismic zone.
Being a huge source of water availability, rich in fish fauna and
aquatic biodiversity, the energy generation is yet to start. Projects have
been conceptualized, but are facing hurdles in terms of environmental
concerns. Other hurdles are availability of adequate hydrological data
and project information guidelines. On the other hand, Chinese side of
the river has already lined up two dozen hydroelectric power projects.
As a result, the problems may arise for India from diversion of water
resources. Fears are already expressed that the expected energy
potential may not be realized. This situation demands quick and
appropriate guidelines for a policy on trans-boundary cooperation so
that economic development is not affected.
Adapting to Climate Change — There is another concern about
adaptation to climate change. Being threat to all, climate change as a
Convergence of Energy Issues in National Water Policy
18 Journal of Coastal Environment
means to look at trans-boundary issues as well as in achieving
hydroelectric energy generation is requires use of appropriate
technologies. The changes in hydrological cycle and other parameters
predicted as a result of climate change may lead to appreciable
changes in water availability especially for those who obtain water
from melting of glaciers and snow peaks. Need for a micro-watershed
level database has been suggested the main component of an
alternative water policy for India in 2020 (Kathpalia et al, 2002). To
understand the impact of climate change on water sources, reliable
data collection on scientific basis would be an important tool. It
would also be in harmony with goals of National Water Mission.
As regards to hydropower generation, which has almost nil GHG
emissions, policy incentives on use of alternate technologies is
suggested. It is well known that a system with less storage capacity is
more vulnerable to climate change whereas a larger storage capacity
can provide greater flexibilities to operate. Creation of pump storage
hydropower generation systems can be a safeguard against
vulnerability of climate change. In a pumped storage system power is
consumed in pumping (at times of low electrical demand, pumping is
done) water in a higher reservoir for storage. When there is peak
demand for electricity the stored water is released through a turbine
for generation of electricity. Therefore, redefining hydropower project
priorities and incentivizing development of pump storage power
generation should be considered for adapting to climate change.
Water and IndustriesThe other important issue is dealing with policy on water use by
industries. Although agriculture driven, our economy is growing or
expected to grow at 8-9% per annum. In the coming decades, industry
would become significant user of water in the coming decades. In
water allocation, industries are fifth in priority (NWP2002). Industrial
effluents are greater source of water pollution. Energy industries like
thermal and nuclear have huge water needs for cooling purpose.
Proximity of a water source is essential for many other industries.
Though deliberated in many forums, here we address the concerns of
industry related water issues through following means.
19
Bureau of Water Conservation (BWC) — Efficient use of water is
becoming important for both agriculture and industry. With increasing
role of industries in future economic growth, it would also require
policy measures to ensure recycling and reuse of treated effluents on
large-scale for resource conservation and augmentation. Policies of
zero water waste are proposed. The draft report by Planning
Commission (Parikh, 2009) has suggested that industries should have
self-regulation about treating effluents to standards set by pollution
control authorities. In this context, Confederation of Indian Industry
(CII) has recommended a ten point agenda (CII Communique, 2010).
Setting up of benchmark norms and disclosure standards covering
water use in all segments of agriculture, industry and domestic as well
as implementing actions on incentivizing water conservation are
considered relevant for a new policy. .The agenda highlights
multipronged actions for setting time bound targets for waste water
recycling; establishing rain water harvesting as part of the building
code, restoration of water bodies and instituting a system of water
credits among others.. A suggestion was made to create a Bureau of
Water Efficiency. We feel that a Bureau of Water Conservation (BWC)
would not only improve productivity per unit of water consumed in
the industrial and agricultural processes, but also facilitate
monitoring, making water assessments and water audits mandatory
in identified industries and utilities for conservation measures.
Industrial Ecological Measures in Coastal Zones Lastly an inclusive
water policy should address coastal ecology issues. While
environmental flows for Ganga River are being computed under Ganga
Action Plan, the environmental / ecological footprint of
'developmental' activity and impacts of water-resource development
projects may cause heavy pollution and contamination in coastal
waters. For example energy industry produces waste as fly ash from
thermal power plants and nuclear waste heat from nuclear reactors,
which are being added to oceans and are causes of concern (Qasim,
2009). The effluent discharge of coastal industries may cause immense
pollution problem and affect future drinking water supply obtained
from water desalination. Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 1991
Convergence of Energy Issues in National Water Policy
20 Journal of Coastal Environment
and Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 2011 promulgated by
Ministry of Environment & Forests .ensure vulnerability of some
coastal areas and Islands States to ecological imbalance, protection of
coastal waters as well as impacts of climate change.
With India having 7000 km of coastal line, proper management of
coastal wet lands, estuarine wet lands and flood plains can augment
water resources significantly. Wise use of wetlands into river basin
management not only helps in maintenance of hydrological regime,
but also in conservation of water and biodiversity. Degradation of
coastal wet lands through land development and water management
activities reduce the natural capacity to store and purify water. Soil
subsidence due to anthropogenic activities of ground water extraction
may disrupt wetland hydrology and even loss of wetland. Accelerated
sea level rise due to climate change and increased frequency of
hurricanes would demand coastal wetland restoration through
Engineered Water Management Systems. Therefore a suggestion is
made here to include improved management of wet lands for water
security in the Indian water policy.
ConclusionsIn the rapidly changing economic scenario, energy gap is required to
be filled up in India at a faster rate for meeting the basic needs of its
people. Formulation of water related policies for different sectors of
economy, hydroelectric power for reducing GHG emissions from
power sector and development of strategies for zero water waste are
getting highlighted. This paper describes important concerns related to
water security and suggests implementable policy actions for
addressing sustainability issues. Ground water conservation and trans-
boundary cooperation with respect to hydropower generation are the
need of the hour. The concerns for water and industry could perhaps
be best addressed by a Bureau of Energy Conservation and engineered
water management in coastal regions.
AcknowledgementsAuthor conveys her sincere thanks to Dr. S. Z. Qasim for the guidance
and encouragement.
21
References
Confederation of India Industry CII Communique Journal 2010. Vol.
19, no. 10, pp 63.
Kathpalia G. N. and Kapoor R. 2002. Water Policy and Action Plan for
2020, Alternate Futures, pp 33.
Majumdar, R. C., Raychaudhuri, H. C., & Datta, K., 1978. An Advanced
History of India (4th ed.).Delhi: Macmillan.
Min. of Water Resources, 2010. Background Note for Consultation
Meeting with Policy Makers on Review of National Water Policy, pp50.
National Water Mission: A Comprehensive Mission Document, 2009.
Vol I, owr.gov.in/writereaddata/linkimages/MissionDocument
8395131900.pdf
Parikh, Kirit, 2009. .Integrated Water Management: Policy and
Concerns, Draft Report, Planning Commission
Qasim, S. Z., 2009. Climate Change and Marine Environment, in
Awareness and Capacity Building on Carbon Capture and Storage,
ACBCCS News Flyer, p1.
Siddiqui, I. A., 1992. History of water laws in India. In C. Singh (Ed.),
Water law in India, New Delhi: Indian Law Institute, pp. 289319.
Department of Science & Technology, 2003. (Ed.) Malti Goel, STAC
Scan Plus: a Newsletter of Inter-sectoral Science & Technology
Advisory Committee, ISSN 09T2, 6659, Vol 11, no. 3, p.12.
Convergence of Energy Issues in National Water Policy
22 Journal of Coastal Environment
Carapace Length/Width-Weight Relationship of Ocypodemacrocera Population from Pondicherry
Sandy Beaches, South East Coast of India
1A. Yogamoorthi* and R. Siva Sankar
The brachyuran crab, Ocypodemacrocera population inhabiting along the
sandy beaches of Pondicherry has been examined for its population
characteristics taking the relationship of carapace length/width to wet (body)
weight. Growth parameters a and b of the length-weight relationship, (LWR) w
= aLb, for O. macrocera was 2.5326, 2.5811 and 2.5517 for males, females
and entire population, respectively. The values of b estimated were 0.0412,
0.0409 and 0.0411 for males, females and whole population, respectively. The
regression equation for the LWR are W= 2.5326 + 0.0412L for males, W=
2.5811+0.0409L for females and W= 2.5517 + 0.0411L for the total crab
population. The coefficient of determination of males, females and entire
population were 0.922, 0.928 and 0.923 showing a strong correlation between
the variables. The increase in body weight was associated with carapace length
and width with an equal degree of correlation. The LWR and WWR were
showing positive allometry for all crabs. In O. macrocera, the sex ratio of the
crabs was 3:2 and the length/width-weight distribution pattern did not show
remarkable differences between sexes. It is inferred from the present study that
the allometric relationship among the various parts of the body is functionally
important in the biology of organisms and particularly as a predictive tool for
evolving specific conservation strategies.
IntroductionInformation on morphometric, meristic and length-weight characteristics
of crabs is required for assessment of the fishery (Gbemisola Akin-Oriola
et al., 2005). The size-weight relationship has been used in fishery
* Reader, Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry
University, Puducherry1 Research Scholar, Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry
University, Puducherry
Jour. Coast. Env., Vol. 1, No. 2, 2010
Abstract
24 Journal of Coastal Environment
analyses for several purposes: to convert one variable to another, to
estimate the expected weight for a certain size, or to detect ontogenetic
morphological changes related to maturation of crustaceans and fishes
(Pinheiro and Fransozo, 1993). Estimate of biomass is essential for studies
modeling the structure, animal growth, production, and energy flow in
ecosystems. Because indirect estimation of mass from the body length of
an organism is much easier than direct measurement of its dry mass, the
relationship between body mass and length is a useful tool in ecological
research (Petrakis and Stergiou 1995; Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003; Torcu-
Koc et al., 2006). There are numerous reports on the relationships between
carapace width and wet weight of crabs (Atar and Seçer 2003; Hitoshi
Miyasaka et al., 2007) nonetheless, no reports are found pertaining to the
relationship of carapace length/width to wet weight with reference to
Ocypodemacrocera. Hence presently an attempt has been made.
Material and MethodsAmong the few brachyurans, O. macrocera is distributed along the sandy
beaches of Pondicherry (12°00'59'?N 79°51'43'?N) occupying the high tide
level of the intertidal zone. The crabs are collected by hands and cast nets
during night time and dislodge them from their burrows of 1m depth
during the daytime with the assistance of a fisherman. About 132 animals
are caught alive and transferred to the laboratory in a closed plastic
container. The morphometric measurements are taken and are subjected
statistical analysis.
The relationship between length and weight is usually expressed by the
equation:W = aLb.
This equation can also be denoted as its logarithmic form:
logW = log a + b logL
Where: W = Weights; L = Carapace length or carapace width; a
=Intercept; b = Slope
a and b are estimated by the linear regression analysis from
logarithmically transformed data and the association degree between
weight-length variables is calculated by the determination coefficient (r2)
(Levent Sangun et al., 2009). A student's t-test was used to check for the
width/length-weight relationship statistical significance.
25
ResultsIdentification and distinction between male and female
Totally, one hundred and thirty two crabs were caught from the high
tide mark of the sandy beach in which 75 are males and 57 are
females. Male crabs have a narrow abdomen while females have a
wider abdomen as indicated in the Fig. 1 and 2. Sex ratio and size composition:
The sex ratio of the O. macrocera population studied was 3:2. The
results showed that the size of O. macroceraranged between 2cm and
4 cmfor male and 2.2 to 3.9 for female (Carapace width) and the wet
weight between 6.35 to 50.02 g for males and 8.43 to 50.64 for
females, respectively as shown in table 1.
The relationship of regression of width-weight relationship, length-
weight relationship and width-length are presented in fig. 3, 4 & 5 for
male, female and overall population. Growth parameters a and b of the
length-weight relationship, (LWR) w = aLb, for O. macrocera was
2.5326, 2.5811 and 2.5517 for males, females and entire population,
respectively. The values of b estimated were 0.0412, 0.0409 and
0.0411 for males, females and whole population, respectively. The
Male 75 3.1 0.069 2 4 3.6 0.07 2.5 4.5 26.62 1.67 6.35 50.02
Female 57 3.1 0.064 2.2 3.9 3.7 0.07 2.7 4.5 27.45 1.65 8.43 50.64
Both 132 3.1 0.048 2 4 3.6 0.05 2.5 4.5 26.95 1.18 6.35 50.64
Width CharacteristicsN Mean SE Min. Max.
Width CharacteristicsMean SE Min. Max.
Width CharacteristicsMean SE Min. Max.
Male O. Macrocera Female O. Macrocera
Fig. 2Fig. 1
Table 1
Width, length and weight characteristics for O. Macrocera
Sex
Carapace Length/Width-Weight Relationship
26 Journal of Coastal Environment
regression equation for the LWR are W= 2.5326 + 0.0412L for males,
W= 2.5811+0.0409L for females and W= 2.5517 + 0.0411L for the
total crab population. The coefficient of determination of males,
females and entire population were 0.922, 0.928 and 0.923 showing a
strong correlation between the variables as given in fig. 3.
Regression relationship between carapace width- body weight
Fig. 3
Relationship between width and weightGrowth parameters a and b of the width-weight relationship, (WWR) w = aLb, for O. macrocera was 2.0481, 2.1309 and 2.0782 for males, females and entire population, respectively. The values of b estimated were 0.0396, 0.0373 and 0.0388 for males, females and whole population, respectively. The regression equation for the WWR is W= 2.0481 + 0.0396L for males, W= 2.1309 + 0.0373L for females and W= 2.0782 + 0.0388L for the total crab population. The coefficient of determination of males, females and entire population were 0.918, 0.920 and 0.918, respectively, showing a strong correlation between the variables as given in fig. 4.
Regression relationship between carapace width- body weight
Fig. 4
25Carapace Length/Width-Weight Relationship
Relationship between width and length:Growth parameters a and b of the carapace width- length relationship, (WLR) w = aLb, for O. macrocera was 0.425, 0.2684 and 0.3733 for males, females and entire population, respectively. The values of b estimated were 1.0328, 1.0891 and 1.0522 for males, females and whole population, respectively. The regression equation for the WLR are W= 0.425 + 1.0328L for males, W= 0.2684 + 1.0891L for females and W= 0.3733 + 1.0522L for the total crab population. The coefficient of determination of males, females and entire population were 0.990, 0.994 and 0.990, respectively, showing a very strong correlation between the variables as given in fig. 5.
Fig. 5
Regression relationship between carapace width- length
26 Journal of Coastal Environment
DiscussionThe relationships between carapace width and weight and carapace length and weight have many uses. They are, for example, indicators of a condition, and are used to calculate biomass and to estimate the recovery of edible meat from crabs of various sizes (Lagler, 1968). Information about the individual body weight-length/width relationships in population characteristics is in general of great importance for estimating the population size of a stock for its exploitation. The weight increment to the width-length ratio is used in a given geographic region for observing a species forming and growing (Atar and Seçer, 2003).
In view of the importance of such studies, presently the brachyuran crab, O. macrocera population inhabiting along the sandy beaches of the Pondicherry is examined for its population characteristics taking the relationship of carapace length/width to body (wet) weight. In fact, length-width and weight data are useful and standard results of sampling studies (Atar and Seçer, 2003). They also have a practical value, since they make it possible to convert length into weight and vice versa. On the other hand, body weight and total length, carapace length and carapace width are the most frequently used dimensions in the study of crustaceans (Sukumaran, 1997). In all instances, wet weight is the independent variable and the dimensions of various characteristic fragments are the independent variables (Richardson et al., 2000). In O. macrocera, there is a strong relationship (r2 = 0.92) between length and weight of males and females and the entire crab population. The linear regressions between width or length and crab weight were significant (P > 0.001) and carapace width and length regressions were also significant (P > 0.001). The relationship between carapace width and carapace length was linear with a very high degree of correlation (r = 0.99) as shown in Fig III, implying that the increase in carapace width to carapace length was proportionate. Body weight-carapace length shows that sharp increase in body weight was observed. The carapace length increased marginally in the specimens in the size range of 25-45 mm, and the relationship was linear. Body weight - carapace width relationship was found to be of same nature as in the case of body weight and carapace length. The increase in body weight was associated with carapace length and width with an equal degree of correlation. The LWR and WWR were showing positive allometry for all crabs.
25Carapace Length/Width-Weight Relationship
28 Journal of Coastal Environment
It is also to note that according to Bagenal (1978) when co-efficient of regression is greater and or less than 3, then growth is allometric but when equal to 3, then the growth is isometric. The concept of allometry was first postulated by Huxley and Tersse (1936) and since then it has been extensively applied by many biologists to estimate the population growth characteristics. The values of b ranged from 2.04 to 3.24 for C. Sapidus from Georgia (Stickney, 1972), and it shows similarities with the result of C. Sapidus from Beymelek Lagoon (Atar & Seçer, 2003). In the present study the values of b ranged from 0.2 to 2.5 were recorded. Further, the reports of Pauly (1984) and Saprre (1992) it could not be ignored that the values of b for two other marine portunid crabs (Portunussanguinolentus and P. pelagicus) are larger in some cases, i.e. extraordinary more than 3. Even though the change of b values depend primarily on the shape and fatness of the species, various factors may be responsible for the differences in parameters of the length/width-weight relationships among seasons and years, such as temperature, salinity, food (quantity, quality and size), sex, time of year and stage of maturity.
In O. macrocera, the length/width-weight distribution pattern did not
show remarkable differences between sexes. The sex ratio of the crabs
was 3:2, indicating that males were found mostly going in search for
food and mating because of the reproductive period which is seasonal
during the onset of rainfall. Similar observation has also been made by
Bello Olusojiet al (2009).
Although data analysed ( sample size) in this study is not of greater
magniture, it is still possible to infer that the allometric relationship
among the various parts of the body is functionally important in the
biology of organisms and particularly as a predictive tool for evolving
specific conservation strategies.
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the Director, CAS in marine Biology and Prof.Ajmal
Khan for their expertise and permission to refer the museum specimen
required for the confirmation of the species selected in the present
study. We also profusely thank the fishermen from Chinnakalapet
(opposite to our University) for their help and cooperation in catching
the animals from the deep burrows both during day and night times.
29
Without their involvement, we could not dig out so many crabs for the
study. We extend our thanks to Dr.S.M.Sundarapandian, Senior
Lecturer, for his help in completing statistical analyses.
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Torcu-Koç, H., Erdogan, Z. andTreer, T. 2006. A review of length-
weight relationships of Fishesfrom freshwaters of Turkey. Journal of
Applied Ichthyology.22. pp. 264270.
Effect of Seaweed Extract as an Organic Fertilizer on the Growth Enhancement of Black Mustard Plant
1 1,2 1T.C. Srijaya , P.J. Pradeep and Anil Chatterji
There have always been attempts to replace inorganic fertilizers with organic
fertilizers from natural sources for enhancing the growth of commercially
important plants. In continuation to the same efforts, an attempt was made to
demonstrate the growth enhancing properties in the extracts of two species of
seaweeds (Padina tetrastomatica and Sargassum sp.) used on black mustard
plant (Brassica nigra L). The extract of Sargassum sp. (1:100 dilution) was the
most effective concentration in enhancing different parts of the plant by more
than 80% (p<0.05). Padina extract of the same dilution also showed promising
results but was relatively less effective than the extract of Sargassum sp.
(p<0.05). Micro elemental analysis revealed that the major micro-elements 2+ + 3+ 3+such as; Mg , Na , Al and B were relatively higher in 1:100 dilutions of the
extracts of both the species of seaweeds as compared to the crude and 1:50
dilutions of the extracts.
Introduction Application of synthetic growth promoters in agriculture farming has
been in practice for many decades. However, continuous use of
inorganic fertilizers in traditional farming has been losing its
popularity because of its adverse effect in altering the chemistry of the
soil, making it less congenial for plant growth. Moreover, the harmful
effects of inorganic fertilizers have serious impact on human health
(Camargo and Alonso 2006). In recent years, liquid extracts prepared
1 Institute of Tropical Aquaculture, University Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia.2 Oral Cancer Research and Coordinating Centre, University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
Jour. Coast. Env., Vol. 1, No. 2, 2010
Abstract
from different seaweeds have started gaining importance as foliar
sprayers or soil conditioners for several important crops (Rama Rao
1991, Mohan et al. 1994, Rajkumar and Subramanian 1999,
Thirumaran et al. 2006, 2007, 2009, Rathore and et al. 2009, El-
Quesni et al. 2010). Seaweeds have been reported to take the richness
of mineral elements from the sea that can account up to 36% of their
dry mass. The mineral macro-nutrients in seaweeds consist of sodium,
calcium, magnesium, potassium, chlorine, sulfur and phosphorus. The
micro-nutrients include iodine, iron, zinc, copper, selenium,
molybdenum, fluoride, manganese, boron, nickel and cobalt (Jensen
1993, Noda et al. 1990, Jiménez-Escrig and Goni 1999). Wet or liquid
extracts made from seaweed such as; Eucheuma sp. and Sargassum sp.
are used as supplementary fertilizers that have been reported to
increase the yield of crops by 12-36% in some commercially important
plants (Stephen et al. 1985). The seaweed extract has been found to
contain growth stimulators such as auxins, gibberellins, and cytokine.
The extract also comprises growth promoting hormones (IAA and 2+ 2+ 2+ 4 6+ 7+ 4+
IBA), trace elements (Fe , Cu , Zn , Co , Mo , Mn and Ni ),
vitamins and amino acids (Challen and Hemingway 1965, Stephen et
al. 1985). The use of seaweed extract at the germinating stage showed
encouraging results by stimulating the growth of roots and shoots
(Featon and Van Stadena 1983). About 2-10% of seaweed extracts in
combination with NPK fertilizer has also been used in some
developing countries to enhance the yield of the crop of the
commercially important plants (Chatterji et al. 2004). Seaweed extract
can be used as a growth enhancer for variety of plants at a lower
concentration without any harmful effects (Abdel-Mawgoud et al.
2010). Plants sprayed with seaweed extract showed healthy growth
with bright green and larger leaves, early flowering and fruit bearing
as compared to the group where no seaweed extract was used (Abdel-
Mawgoud et al. 2010). The extract of Sargassum sp. when tried on
turnip, chilies, pine apple, paddy, some flowering plants and
vegetables etc., showed an enhancement in the growth of plants by 35
to 40% (Dhargalkar et al. personal communication). Considering the
importance of seaweed extract for agricultural applications, an attempt
was made to evaluate the growth enhancing properties in the extracts
prepared from two species of seaweeds namely; Padina tetrastomatica
and Sargassum sp. on the black mustard plant (Brassica nigra L).
32 Journal of Coastal Environment
Material and Methods
Plant Materials and Extract PreparationFresh samples of seaweeds (Padina tetrastomatica and Sargassum sp.) were collected during the low tides from a coastal village at Tanjung Sedili (Johor) in Malaysia. Seaweeds were washed thoroughly immediately after their collection with seawater and then freshwater subsequently to remove the adhering material and sand particles.
oCleaned seaweeds were dried in oven at a temperature of 60 C and ground to fine powder using a pulverizer. About 1 kg of dried seaweed powder and 4 liters of freshwater was boiled separately for each species under a pressure of 15 lbs using a pressure cooker (Pressure Canner, 15.5 Quart) for 1 hour. This process yielded 2 liters of concentrated extracts of seaweed from each species. Extracts were finally filtered using a muslin cloth and treated as 100% concentrated extracts of each species. In 1 liter of concentrated extract, 0.1% of formaldehyde solution (5 ml) was added to preserve the extract. Extracts of P. tetrastomatica and Sargassum sp. were used after their dilution with fresh water to achieve 1:50 and 1:100 dilutions. The efficacy of the extract was evaluated as soil conditioner by adding the extract in the soil before planting the seeds of the black mustard plant (Brassica nigra L).
Before commencing the experiments for evaluating the efficacy of the extracts, soil from a commercial agriculture farm was collected and mixed with 2% river sand thoroughly. The soil was filled properly in 15 plastic pots (20 x 20 x10 cm size). Prior to transplantation of the seeds, the following five sets of pots were prepared for evaluating the efficacy of different seaweed extracts:
Set 1 : Control group (Absence of seaweed extract in the soil)
Set 2 : Experimental Group- P-50 [Seaweed extract (20 ml) of P. tetrastomatica (1:50 dilution) was mixed the soil].
Set 3 : Experimental Group- P-100 [Seaweed extract (20 ml) of P. tetrastomatica (1:100 dilution) was mixed with the soil].
Set 4 : Experimental Group- S-50 [Seaweed extract (20 ml) of Sargassum sp. (1:50 dilution) was mixed with the soil].
Set 5 : Experimental Group- S-100 [Seaweed extract (20 ml) of Sargassum sp. (1:100 dilution) was mixed with the soil
33Effect of Seaweed Extract as an Organic Fertilizer
before transplantation of seeds.
The above mentioned sets were prepared in triplicates. The black mustard seeds (Brassica nigra L.) were purchased from the local market and kept in fresh water for one hour in a glass beaker. Only the seeds that settled at the bottom of the beaker were used for conducting the present experiment 5 seeds of black mustard were carefully planted at the center of each pot one by one at a distance of 2 cm each. The seeds were pushed 5 cm deep in to the soil and the depression was then loosely covered back by the soil.
Each pot was labeled with the pot number and the date of sowing of the seeds. The date of sowing was recorded to determine the offset date for the data analysis. Regular sprinkling of water was done every day to keep the soil moist. The day on which the seeds started germinating through the soil was treated as day Zero. The plants were watered every day or on alternate days depending on the requirement.
Growth Measurements
thAfter the 60 day of the experiment, three plants from each set of the experiment were slowly removed to review the growth of the plant. The following measurements were taken:
1. Leaf Count. Total number of leaves growing on one plant was counted and the mean number for three plants was recorded. The leaves that appeared for the first time were not considered as real leaves as they were dicotyledons. They were thicker and rounder than actual leaves.
2. Plant Height. The height of each plant was measured from the base to the tip of the plant in millimeters using a scale and their mean was recorded.
3. Stem Thickness. The thickness of each plant stem was measured in diameters at the base of the plant using a Vernier caliper and their mean values were recorded.
4. Leaf Area. The length and breadth of the leaves of each plant was measured by a Vernier caliper. The leaf area was estimated by multiplying values of the length and breadth and then dividing the same by 2.
Micro-element CompositionThe elemental composition was also measured to see the effect of
34 Journal of Coastal Environment
dilution on the concentration of micro-elements present in the seaweed extracts. For that 100ml of solution from all groups (P-50, P-100, S-50 and S-100) including crude extracts were freeze dried. Freeze dried contents from all groups were taken in a sample size of 0.1g for the digestion process. The process was conducted by mixing the 0.1g weighed sample with 3ml of concentrated nitric acid and then kept in the digestion chamber at a temperature of 60° C for 5 hours. From this digested product, 1 ml of the solution of each group was transferred individually to 6 different centrifuge tubes (15 ml) and then subsequently 9 ml of Milli-Q water was added to each tube The diluted sample was finally used for detecting the elemental composition of the samples on an ICP-MS unit (Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, Perkin Elmer, USA). The collected data was tested statistically by analysis of variance, one- way ANOVA (Originpro. 8.1).
ResultsThe recorded measurements of the different parts of the plants in each
group are presented in Table 1. In all groups, the effectiveness of
extracts (1:50 dilutions) of both the species were found relatively
lower in comparison to the extracts that were diluted by 1:100 times.
It was observed that the average leaf count was maximum (9 leaves
/plant) in group S-100 when compared to the control group (3 leaves
/plant). The P-100 group was also found effective but the leaf count
was relatively lower (6 leaves/plant) than the groups where Sargassum
Plant parts Control P-50 P-100 S-50 S-100
Leaf count 3±1.2 4±1.1 6±1.2 3±1.2 9±1.1* * *Plant height 70±3.7 82±4.6 188±12.3 118±12 162±8.9
* *Stem thickness 1±0.2 1±0.1 1.2±0.4 1.9±0.2 1.9±0.1
* * *Leaf length 7±1.4 16.5±2.08 22.3±2.5 12±1 34.3±3.5
* * *Leaf width 4.7±1.2 13.3±0.58 16.4±1.1 8±1.02 27.33±1.53
* * * *Leaf area 16.45±2.6 109.72±2.8 182.86±2.95 48±1.9 468.70±11.09
35
Table 1
Measurement of plant parts (mm) [values with
asteriks were significantly different (P<0.05)]
sp. extract was used (Table 1).The relative percentage of the number of leaves was 66.7 with
Effect of Seaweed Extract as an Organic Fertilizer
36 Journal of Coastal Environment
Sargassum and Padina extracts (1:100 dilutions) respectively, and the
leaf count was 50% higher than the control group (Figure 1). The
maximum plant height of 188.0+12.3 mm was recorded in group P-
100 in comparison to 162.0+8.9 mm with group S-100 (Table 1). The
relative increments in plant height were 62.8 and 56.8% with Padina
and Sargassum extracts respectively (Figure 1). Surprisingly, the stem
thickness did not show any difference with S-50 and S-100 though
these values were the maximum as compared to the control and
Padina extract groups (Table 1). The percentage of Increments in the
stem thickness was 16.7 and 47.4% more with P-100 and S-100
The maximum leaf length and breadth were; 34.3+3.5 and 27.3+1.53 mm in those groups where Sargassum extract (1:100 dilutions) was used (Table 1). The extract of Padina (1:100 dilution) was also found effective in increasing the leaf length and breadth significantly. The percentage increments in leaf length and breadth were; 75.6 and 82.8% respectively with Sargassum extract (1:100 dilution) in comparison to the control group (Figure 1). Maximum leaf area with
2Sargassum extract (1:100 dilution) was 468.70+11.09 m and the 2minimum was (16.45+2.6 m ) in the control group (Table 1). The
percentage increment in this group in comparison to the control group was 82.8% (Figure 1). The data collected for each group separately was tested statistically by applying one-way ANOVA and it was found that among all the groups Sargassum extract of 1:100 times dilution was most effective and showed significant enhancement (P<0.05) in
Fig. 1
Percent increment in different plant parts
37
different parts of the plants by more than 80%. The Padina extract of the same dilution was effective but relatively the percentage increment in most of the parts of plants except plant height were significantly lower as compared to the Sargassum extract (P<0.05).
3+ 4+The ICP-MS analysis showed that micro-elements such as; Cu , Pb , 2+ 2+ 2+ 4+Ba , Cd , Cr and Co in the Padina extract were within the range of
0.073-1.89 ppb in crude, 0.66-1.750 ppb in 1:50 and 1.65-68.70 ppb in 2+ 3+ +
1:100 dilutions of extract. The micro-elements like Zn , Fe , Mn and 3+Al were within the range of 8.56-78.60 ppb in crude, 8.89-40.40 ppb
in P-50 and 156.00-637 ppb in P-100 groups. Similarly micro-elements 3+ + 3+
such as; B , Na and Mg were within the range of 58.30-5270 ppb in
crude, 46.30-3090.00 ppb in P-50 and 3610-94300 ppb in P-100 groups
(Figure 2A).
Fig. 2
Elemental composition in Padina and Sargassum extracts
Effect of Seaweed Extract as an Organic Fertilizer
38 Journal of Coastal Environment
The ICP-MS analysis of Sargassum extract showed that micro-elements 3+ 4+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 4+such as; Cu , Pb , Ba , Cd , Cr and Co were within the range of
2.42-2.10 ppb in crude, 2.31-1.78 ppb in S-50 and 1.08-11.90 ppb in 3+ 2+ + 3+
S-100 groups. Micro-elements like B , Zn , Mn , and Fe were
ranged between 10.40 and 73.60 ppb in crude, 4.35 and 54.00 ppb in 3+ +S-50 and 61.70 and 373.00 ppb in S-100 groups. Similarly Al , Na
2+and Mg were ranged between 135.00 and 11900.00 ppb in crude,
36.90 and 5020 ppb in S-50 and 1330.00 and 71,500.00 ppb in S-100
groups, respectively (Figure 2B).
In Padina extract (P-50) most of the elements showed a significant
decrease (P<0.005) ranging from 4.34 to 52.90% with an exception 2+ 2+where Zn and Cd showed an increase of 3.40 and 2.69%
respectively (Figure 3A). In Padina extract (P-100) all the elements
were of higher magnitude ranging from 50.5-98.3% (P<0.05). Similarly
in Sargassum extract (1:50) a significant decrease (P<0.05) was
observed, it ranged between 4.34 and 77.0% (Fig. 3B). However, in
Sargassum extract (1:100) a considerable increase ranging between 3+ 2+
22.7 and 97.0% was observed with an exception where B and Cd
showed 16.1 and 55.3.0% decrease, respectively.
DiscussionSeaweeds generally known as marine algae comprise of about 45,000
species found in the world oceans (Bequette and France 1997). They
are basically photosynthesizing plants exposed to a combination of
light and high oxygen concentrations that result in the formation of
free radicals and other strong oxidizing agents. Seaweeds rarely show
Fig. 2
Percent change in the elemental composition of Padina (A) and Sargassum (B) extracts
39
any photodynamic damage during metabolism as they have efficient
protective anti-oxidative mechanism. This important characteristic
also helps in protecting commercially important plants from extreme
sun heat when seaweed extracts have been used as a fertilizer
(Matsukawa et al. 1997). Attempts have also been made for the past
several decades to isolate many other important compounds from
seaweeds useful for various purposes (Moore 1978, Konig et al. 1994,
Tutour et al. 1998, Satoru et al. 2003).
The present investigation confirms the previous findings of Chatterji
et al. (2004) where seaweed extract was used for a variety of plants
with lower concentration without any harmful effects. In the present
study, aqueous extract of Sargassum sp. has been found to be more
successful and thus the possibility of developing an effective fertilizer
for improving the growth of plants is high. Surprisingly, extracts of
both species when diluted 100 times showed better results as
compared to the less diluted extract. This further shows that only a
small amount of seaweed extract can be used or even mixed with
commercially available plant fertilizers to enhance the growth of the
commercially important plants. Secondly, places where use of
inorganic fertilizers is not encouraged in agriculture farming, extract
from seaweed might be a good, powerful and environmental friendly
approach to replace the extensive use of inorganic fertilizers.
Effect of seaweed extract on watermelon hybrids (Citrullus lantus L.)
was successfully demonstrated by Abdel-Mawgoud et al. (2010).
Watermelon hybrids were cultivated and sprayed twice after five and
nine weeks of their plantation with different concentrations of the
extract of seaweed prepared from Ascophyllum nodosum. The effect of
seaweed extract was highly significant showing better vegetative
growth and bigger size of the fruit as compared to the control groups.
Similarly when the aqueous extract of Sargassum wightii was sprayed
on Zizyphus mauritiana, it showed an increased yield and better
quality of fruits (Rao 1991). Featon and Van Stadena (1983) found an
improvement in the growth of tomato shoot and root when a seaweed
extract was used either as foliar sprayer or mixed with the soil.
The findings of the present study confirmed that all growth
parameters showed enhancement with all concentrations of seaweed
Effect of Seaweed Extract as an Organic Fertilizer
40 Journal of Coastal Environment
extract used for the efficacy experiment. The enhancement of these
plant growth parameters could be either related to the presence of
auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, precursors of ethylene, betaine and
cytokinins (Stephen et al. 1985) or could be due to the hormonal
activity of the seaweed extract (Crouch and Staden 1993). The
accumulation of higher mineral content in the plant where seaweed
extracts were used, strongly suggested the positive effect of seaweed
extract as a promoting substance. These plants showed higher ability
to absorb and metabolite the nutrients from the soil that was
supplemented by the seaweed extracts (Abdel-Mawgoud et al. 2010).
The appropriate concentration of seaweed also plays an important role
in enhancing the growth of the plants. In the current study, though all
concentrations were found effective, more diluted extracts (1:100)
showed better results as compared to the concentrated extracts.
Seaweeds are considered to be well balanced, harmless and natural
sources with a high degree of bio availability of trace elements (Booth
1964). Large number of natural compounds is produced by the plants
including seaweeds. These natural products with large or
stereoisometrically complicated molecules are present in reasonable
concentrations. Natural compounds have a unique and defined
chemical structure and consist of a fixed ratio of elements that are
held together in a defined spatial arrangement by chemical bonds.
Elements in the plants form compounds to become more stable with
the maximum number of possible electrons (normally 2 or 8) in their
outermost energy level. Elements of the compounds do not retain their
original properties once they form a bond. The strength of bonds
varies considerably and is either known as strong bonds (covalent or
ionic bonds) or weak bonds (dipole-dipole interaction). The
constituents of natural compounds can be separated by a chemical
reaction as a compound can only be formed either from elements or
from other compounds or a combination of the two by a chemical
reaction (Hill et al. 2005). In the present study the crude extract of
both the species showed a lesser concentration of micro-elements
which meant that these micro-elements had a strong bonding with
natural compounds. There could be a possibility of initiation of a
chemical reaction when the extract was being diluted. Maximum
freely available elements were at 1:100 dilutions. The growth of
41
tomato plants and their roots have improved significantly when
seaweed extract (1:500) was used as a foliar sprayer at regular
intervals or mixed with the soil in which the tomatoes were planted
(Featon and Stadena 1983). However, Abdel-Mawgoud et al. (2010)
reported a reverse trend in the growth of the plants where higher
concentration of seaweed extracts were found less effective in
enhancing the growth of watermelon plants. The extract of seaweed of
Ascophyllum nodosum indicated considerable enhancement in the
plant yield and health of different crops. However, the mechanisms of
action in enhancing the growth has not been demonstrated
successfully so far (Colapietra and Alexander 2006). This interesting
hypothesis deserves further detailed investigation to prove that more
micro-elements are available for the growth of plants once the extract
is diluted.
In recent years, use of inorganic fertilizers has been discouraged by all
sectors of people. The inorganic fertilizers in higher quantities not
only burn the delicate roots of the plant but also distort the quality of
the soil by encouraging the leeching of the nutrients in the soil.
Generally inorganic or chemical fertilizers are primarily derived from
chemical compounds such as ammonium nitrate, ammonium
phosphates and potassium chloride and do not completely compose
micronutrients that are essentially required by the plants. These
fertilizers also contain salts and other compounds which are not
absorbed by the plants and left behind in the soil and build up over
the time. The accumulation of such compounds makes the soil less
congenial and sometimes has harmful effects on the plants. At this
stage, the soil needs to be neutralized using other substances to bring
it to a normal state suitable for planting. Such toxic compounds in the
soil sometimes may get washed away during watering of the plants
and seep into groundwater. It has been reported (Camargo and Alonso
2006) that the toxic wastes from fertilizers contaminate the ground
palatable water which is harmful to human health. Besides showing
harmful effects on human health, use of inorganic fertilizers needs
strict watering schedule in order to retain moisture in the soil which
is sometimes not economical.
Seaweed farming in many Asian countries is at an experimental stage
and unfortunately, so far no attempt has been made to utilize seaweed
Effect of Seaweed Extract as an Organic Fertilizer
42 Journal of Coastal Environment
as a growth enhancer in commercially important plants. Judicial
harvesting strategies for sustainable production and utilization of
seaweeds should now be advocated seriously involving the fisher folk
communities in coastal villages. It is the right time to initiate effective
programmes on seaweed cultivation and also develop technical
expertise for the large scale cultivation of economically important
seaweeds, such as Padina and Sargassum sp. Seaweeds are generally
harvested manually in many countries and such harvesting practices
are an important source of additional income to coastal fishermen and
fisherwomen (Immanuel and Sathiadhas 2004). Development of
effective fertilizers from seaweed will certainly help farmers to get
better and quality yield in their crops. In conclusion, this practice of
seaweed usage will also help poor fishermen community to generate
additional income by supplying raw materials for the preparation of
bio-fertilizer from seaweeds.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the University Malaysia Terengganu for
providing SKS fellowships to STC, PJP and Principal Research
Fellowship to AC. We are grateful to Mr. Joseph from Institute of
Oceanography, for his kind help during ICPMS analysis.
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44 Journal of Coastal Environment
Role of Nearshore Waves in Identifying Vulnerable Zones During Storm and Normal Events
S.V.V. Arun Kumar, K.V.S.R. Prasad, K.V.K.R.K. Patnaik, CH. Venkata Ramu and P. Sreenivas*
Beaches along most of the shorelines of the world, exhibit variations in their geometric form over different time scales in response to the prevailing dynamic forces due to waves, tides and associated currents. The periods and intensity of erosion and accretion alternate over time and are generally coupled to nearshore wave conditions. The wave action on the coast depends on deep water wave climate and its complex transformation processes in the nearshore regions. Depth induced shallow water wave refraction has significant influence in wave attenuation and in turn the distribution of wave energy. The wave runup on dissipative beaches depends primarily on the deep-water significant wave height, wave period and beach slope (Peter et al., 2001). The nearshore parameters, viz. wave runup, wave setup and wave energy, have been evaluated during storm and normal conditions of SW monsoon (June-September) and NE monsoon (November-February) by empirical parameterization along the Visakhapatnam coast. During storms, increased water levels shift runup and the location of wave-attack higher on the profile, making berms and dunes more vulnerable to erosion and over-tapping (Stockdon et al., 2007).
The higher nearshore wave energies are observed at R.K.Beach, Jodugullapalem beach and Sagarnagar beach during both the seasons. During storm events, the higher wave energies associated with higher wave runups casue severe erosion along the wave convergence zones. The storm wave runups (SWRUs) were higher at R.K. Beach, Palm Beach, Jodugullapalem Beach and Sagarnagar Beach. The yearly low wave energy is observed at Lawson's Bay with lowest wave runup, considered as safest zone. R.K. Beach, Palm Beach and Jodugullapalem Beach are identified as vulnerable zones of wave attack. It is noteworthy that in addition to wave energies, the wave runups and wave setups also play a vital role in endangering the coast (Prasad et al 2009).
Study areao o
Visakhapatnam coast (Lat. 17 41'34'' N and Long. 83 17'45''E) located
in the northern part of Coastal Andhra Pradesh, India is selected for
* Department of Meteorology and Oceanography, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Jour. Coast. Env., Vol. 1, No. 2, 2010
Abstract
Fig. 1
Location map. The stations are denoted by numbers (135) along the coast
this study (Fig.1). The study area comprises 8 km long stretch from
Coastal Battery to Rushikonda beach, about 35 stations are selected
with equal spacing along this stretch. The coastline is aligned
WSWENE direction with almost parallel bathymetry contours offshore.
The predominant offshore wave height is 1.0-1.25 m during regular
storm wave events and 0.5-0.75 m during normal conditions. It has a
natural harbour in the southern most part constructed for shipping,
trade and defence. Towards north, there is Lawson's Bay beach which
has a concave shape with low energy waves throughout the year. The
popular R.K. Beach is almost straight (~2 km) with plunging breakers.
The spring tide range is around 1.5 m and the beach is composed of
fine-coarse sand of mean grain size ~0.35mm.
ResultsNearshore wave energy and wave runupDuring the SW Monsoon season, the average nearshore wave energy
3 along the coast is higher for the stations 3 and 20 with values 4.3x10
2 J/m (Fig. 2). From the southern end of the coast, the wave energy is
3 2decreasing having a least value of 2.2x10 J/m in the Lawson's Bay (station 13). Hence, during this season, R.K. Beach, Jodugullapalem Beach and Sagar nagar Beach are the high energetic zones and so there is a possibility of erosion at these places. The seasonal
46 Journal of Coastal Environment
Fig. 2
47Role of Nearshore Waves in Identifying Vulnerable Zones
In the southern part, the wave energy is lesser at stations 9 and 10 3 2(~1.5x10 J/m ). This shows that during NE Monsoon, the southern
part of the coast is less vulnerable to wave attack except the stations 4 3 2
and 6. The mean minimum energy occurs at station 18 (1.8x10 J/m ).
On a yearly average, the stations 4, 15 and 31 are the higher wave 3 3 3 2energy zones with values 3.9x10 , 3.6x10 and 4.0x10 J/m
respectively. The lower energies reside at Lawson's Bay (station 12)
and station 18. Hence, in a year maximum possibility of erosion takes
place at R.K. Beach, Palm Beach, Jodugullapalem Beach and at
Wave runup (in blue) and breaker wave energies (in brown) during south-west and north-east monsoon seasons in storm (a, b)
and normal conditions (c, d), respectively
3 2maximum occurs at station 15 with value 4.1x10 J/m and thereafter the stations along the northern extension are potential zones of higher wave energies (Fig.3).
But in the natural conditions, the erosion at the above locations may
not be severe. The severe erosion also depends upon the extent of
maximum wave runup during storms. As the cut in the beach takes
place mainly in the foreshore region of the beach, we must include
the wave runup factor in addition to wave energy.
During storm conditions, the maximum wave runup (R ) ranges 2%
3 2between 5-6 m and Wave energy (E ) is around 5.0x10 J/m . During b
these conditions for SSE waves (SW Monsoon), SWRUs are higher at
the stations R.K. Beach (station 5) and Jodugullapalem Beach (station
21) with magnitudes 5.13 m and 5.52 m respectively. SWRU lows are
occurring all along the Lawson's Bay beach (stations12 to 16) and
along Rushikonda Beach (stations 33 to 35). Lower runups are
associated with lesser foreshore beach slopes. Whereas during storms
48 Journal of Coastal Environment
Fig. 3
Nearshore wave energy distribution in SW monsoon, NE monsoon,and yearly average along the coast
of NE Monsoon season, the higher wave runups occur at the above
places with lesser magnitudes. The wave energies are having higher 3 2
magnitudes from the stations 7 to 15 of around 1.3x10 J/m , but taking
the runups into consideration the stations from 11 to 15 are less
vulnerable to erosion.
During normal conditions the estimated wave runups and energies are 3 2of lesser ranges (R ~1-2 m and E ~ 10 J/m ). For the most frequent 6 2% b
sec period waves, during SW Monsoon (SSE waves) and NE Monsoon
(E waves), the results are quite noticeable that the stations 3, 4, 7, 9 in
the southern part and the stations 20 and 25 in the northern part are
vulnerable to erosion during SW Monsoon season and the stations 8,
11 and 22 are vulnerable to erosion during NE Monsoon season.
Hence it is worth mentioning that in addition to higher wave energies,
the higher wave runups are also should taken into account for
identifying the vulnerable zones of erosion along the coast.
Response of the beach to Nearshore parameters.
49
Fig. 4
Beach profiles at stations 3, 4, and 9 between March 2007 and August 2007 showing intensity of erosion
(volumes in m3/m of shoreline) due to storm waves
Role of Nearshore Waves in Identifying Vulnerable Zones
50 Journal of Coastal Environment
The results were compared with the beach profiles taken prior
(March) to and after (August) the storm events at stations 3, 4 and 9
(Fig. 4) in order to observe the response of the beach due to combined
affect of wave energy, wave runup and wave setup. It is observed that,
the net seasonal erosion takes place at all the above stations with the 3maximum being noticed at station 3 of magnitude 133.44 m /m of
3shoreline. At station 4, it is around 104.8 m /m and at station 9, it is 3still lesser than 47.76 m /m. The erosion was mainly observed at the
foreshore zone and it is a short-term effect. The erosion was observed
to be severe at the stations where wave runup is high. Severe erosion
is possible for steeper foreshore beach slopes (higher wave runups)
even for moderate breaker wave energy during storm conditions.
ConclusionDuring storm conditions of SW Monsoon, the storm wave runups
(SWRU) are higher at the stations R.K. Beach and Jodugullapalem
Beach with magnitudes 5.47m and 5.59 m respectively. Higher SWRU
are also observed at the above stations during the storms of NE
Monsoon, with magnitudes 5.13 m and 5.52 m respectively. SWRU is
observed to be smaller all along the Lawson's Bay beach with
magnitudes 0.64 m. The higher nearshore wave energies are observed
at R.K.Beach, Sagarnagar beach and Jodugullapalem beach with 3 2magnitudes around 4x10 J/m during both the seasons. The yearly low
3 2wave energy (1.8x10 J/m ) is observed at Lawson's Bay with lowest
wave runup (0.56 m), considered as the safest zone. R.K. Beach, Palm
Beach and Jodugullapalem Beach are identified as vulnerable zones
due to waves. In addition to wave energies, the wave runups and wave
setups also play a vital role in endangering the coast. Even though
some of stations are having higher energies but erosion may not be
occurring significantly without much slope (wave runup). Severe
erosion is possible for steeper foreshore beach slopes (higher wave
runups) even with moderate breaker wave energy during storm
conditions.
AcknowledgementThe authors sincerely acknowledge the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, India for providing research
fellowship.
51
ReferencesPeter, R, P.D. Komar paul , Mc.D.G. William, M.John, B. A. Reggie
(2001) “Wave runup, extreme water levels and the erosion of
properties backing beaches”, Jr. of Coastal Res., Vol.17, No.2, pp. 407-
419.
Prasad, K.V.S.R., S.V.V.Arun Kumar, Ch.Venkata Ramu and P.Sreenivas.
“Significance of nearshore wave parameters in identifying vulnerable
zones during normal and storm conditions along Visakhapatnam coast,
India”. Natural Hazards: Volume 49, Issue2 (2009), Page 347 - 360. doi
:10.1007/s11069-008-9297-4.
Stockdon, H.F., Sallenger, A.H., Holman, R.A., Howd, P.A., (2007) “A
simple model for the spatially-variable coastal response to hurricanes”.
Marine Geology. 238: 1-20.
Role of Nearshore Waves in Identifying Vulnerable Zones
52 Journal of Coastal Environment
Biodiversity of Rock Pool Organisms and their Adaptive Zonation along the Coasts of Port Blair
J. K. Mishra*, Shesdev Patro, D. Adhavan and Anita Mishra
Conservation and protection of marine biodiversity has become an
international priority due to its significance in the ecological, economic and
moral value of the society. It is thus imperative to note down the vivacity of
diversification of organisms in different marine ecosystems and understand
distribution pattern of different in any single ecosystem as in the case of
intertidal rock pools for their adaptation and distribution pattern.
Andaman & Nicobar being a unique biosphere with island ecosystems serves
as home to diversified group of organisms, especially in its intertidal
environment. The rocky intertidal environment of the A & N Island holds
myriads of life forms indicating a healthy environment. Present investigation
was carried out on five rock pools at Sesostris Bay, Port Blair (A & N Islands),
where we recorded 23 different species comprising of sea weeds, animals of
different phyla and corals. However the plankton composition was found to be
very low indicating the maximum grazing activity by rock pool animals. All the
environmental parameters were found to be at its lowest concentration, where 0as the temperature (29-31 C) and salinity was found to be 34‰ in
concurrence with the adjoining sea water.
IntroductionIn the marine ecosystem, intertidal zone happens to be the most
important environment, which remains exposed to all the harsh
environmental conditions. This extremely narrow interface between
the ocean and land is a region which is known for its amazing
biodiversity and extreme ranges of physical forces. Biological
* Department of Ocean Studies and Marine Biology; Pondicherry University, Port Blair,
Andamans
Jour. Coast. Env., Vol. 1, No. 1, 2010
Abstract
54 Journal of Coastal Environment
communities of this environment are subjected to high impact forces
of the nature extending from wind and waves, salt water and fresh
water runoff, desiccation, submersion, and extremes in temperature,
all in one day. The conditions in the environment at times influence
the animals to make choices about their habitat selection, feeding
behavior etc. in coherence with the surrounding environment (Huggett
and Griffiths, 1986; Chapman, 2000; Castellanos-Galindo and Giraldo,
2008).
These harsh intertidal shores of Andamans were found to be of
different types including rocky, sandy and at places muddy shores
with a highly and differentiated life forms which are subjected to a
rapid and significant changes in physicochemical parameters and food
supply that occur on the basis tidal movement. Of all these types,
rocky shores (with hard rock) are observed to be the most densely
inhabited by microorganisms, diversified animal forms and also
autotrophs including sea weeds etc. But at times, rocky shores show
some characteristic features due to the presence of rock (tide) pools of
various sizes, depths and locations (i.e. at different levels descending
from supralitoral to sublitoral zones). These rock pools are formed, as
the high tide comes in over a rocky shore filling the depressions or
hollows which turn into isolated pools as the tide retreats with the
ebbing tide (Fig. 1; some of the rock pools studied).
These rocky areas on the edge of an ocean is filled with sea water and
provides a unique habitat, where ocean meets the land and is
continuously shaped by the action of sun, wind and water. Several
authors have already explained the composition of different rock pool
flora and fauna in the world (Huggett and Griffiths, 1986; Trussell,
2001; Pinn and Rodgers, 2005; Matthew, 2006). But not much work is
being carried out on the rock pools found along the coast of Andaman
& Nicobar Islands except the report on shore animals of Andaman and
Nicobar Islands by Tikader et al. (1986). So to understand the
biological diversity in these tiny pools and adaptations of organisms
within itself to the fast changing physical and chemical parameters of
the pool environment, this investigation was carried out by selecting
five rock pools at different locations along the Sesostris Bay, Port Blair,
55Biodiversity of Rock Pool Organisms and their Adaptive Zonation
Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Present study was also focused to
understand different types of animal association for food and shelter
in a single pool in association with the biological and physical
components of this tiny biosphere, with a view to make a database for
future applications in the areas of bioactive secondary metabolites
from rock pool organisms under stress and develop a sustainable
management plan for the biodiversity resources.
Materials and MethodsIn the present study, five different rock pools of varying sizes (area in
sq cm) were selected along the Sesostris Bay, Port Blair. Of which 0 0three were selected near the south point (11 39.88' N, 92 45.41' E),
0 0and three were in front of the Science Centre (11 39.35' N, 92 45.45'
0 0E and 11 - 39.34' N, 92 - 45.44' E). These were observed for physical
factors like temperature, salinity, pH, water depth, total area and
biological parameters like different species, their number and their
zonation pattern. Also the BOD concentration of the pool water was
estimated. The study was carried out for a period of two years
extending from December, 2006 to April, 2008 and the sampling was
done in the lowest low tide during full moon and new moon days.
The total area of the pools were measured by taking the average of
both the length and width (in cms) at the longest tip of the pool using
a measuring tape and calculated to the nearest sq. cm. scale. Similarly
water depth was measured by taking the average depth at three
different points in the pool and calculated to the nearest centimeter
scale. The air temperature, sea water temperature and the temperature
of the pool water was also measured by using a regular laboratory
thermometer. Salinity was measured by using refractometer (ATAGO)
and pH was measured using pH meter (pHTestr 30, Instruments).
Simultaneously BOD samples were collected and analyzed in the
laboratory by titrimetric method after fixing the samples in the field
by Winkler's reagent.
The biological parameters like number of animals and plants in the
rock pools were counted and also identified up to genus and species
level in the field and unidentified samples were collected, stored in
10% formaldehyde and brought to the laboratory for further analysis.
56 Journal of Coastal Environment
Results and DiscussionsEach rock pool studied provides a unique environment and differs
from each other in their depth, height in the intertidal zone and area.
We found that the water temperature of the rock pool was within a
range of 29ºC 34ºC, salinity range of 33-35 ‰ and the pH of the rock
pool water was found to be 8 8.2, which were in concurrence with
that of the adjoining sea water (Fig. 1).
0 0 0The total area of five pools No. 1 (11 - 39.88' N, 92 - 45.41' E); 2 (11
0 0 0 0- 39.90' N, 92 - 45.39' E); 3 (11 - 39.90' N, 92 - 45.40' E); 4 (11 - 0 0 039.35' N, 92 - 45.45' E) and 5 (11 - 39.34' N, 92 - 45.44' E) was found 2 2 2 2 2to be 247cm , 203cm ,110cm , 119 cm and 69 cm , whereas depth of
the water column was found to be 31 cm, 22 cm, 21 cm, 29 cm and 14
cm respectively.
It was observed that the rock pools were enriched with a variety of life
forms. More number of organisms belonging to 23 genera / species
including sea weeds, invertebrates, fishes (ornamental, sand goby),
mollusks, corals was found to inhabit a comparatively small aquatic
medium within the rock pool environment. It was recorded that in a 2 2 2 2 2
total area of 247 cm , 203 cm , 110 cm ,119 cm and 69 cm (of pool #
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively), number of animals and plants were 348,
363, 176, 290, and 66 respectively (Fig. 2). This shows that pools are
densely populated, suggesting the fact that pools have no binding in
limiting the number of animals. As it is evident, number of species in
0 0Rock Pool No. 1 (11 39.88' N, 92 45.41' E) Rock Pool No. 3 0 0 (11 39.90' N, 92 45.40' E) Two of the several Rock Pools studied at Sesostris Bay, Port Blair, A & N Islands
Fig. 1
57
some small pools was comparatively found to be more than that in the
larger pools. This may be due to the adaptive pattern of the rocky
shore animals to a vertical zonation in relation to the elevation of the
intertidal environment (Huggett and Griffiths, 1986).
As discussed above, number of animals in each rock pool varies not in
relation to the available space but due to the compulsion of being
retained during the ebbing tide in the higher elevations. In some
cases, even if the tide pool area is more, number of animals are less in
comparison to the less area with more number of animals, which is
well documented during the study in rock pool number two and four
(Fig. 3). A detailed composition of different group of animals is also
given in Table 1.
Temperature, Salinity, pH of the corresponding Rock Pools at Sesostris Bay(Port Blair, Andaman & Nicobar Islands)
Fig. 2
Total area of Rock Pools and their corresponding number of animals inhabiting
Fig. 3
Biodiversity of Rock Pool Organisms and their Adaptive Zonation
58 Journal of Coastal Environment
However the plankton composition in the pool water was found to be
very low, which may be attributed to the high grazing rate by the
organisms like ornamental fishes, sand goby, crab and other lower
organisms. On the other hand, there were also no crustaceans except
few crabs observed in any of the pools during the study period. But a
specific distribution pattern in the animals in every pool was observed
with a specific zonation pattern of the intertidal environment As it is
evident from the Table 1, and also explained in the Fig. 4, the number
of gastropods was more in the pool one, which is fairly closer to the
seawater level during the lowest low tide, and their number declines
with the higher reaches indicating a trend of vertical zonation of rock
pool animals as suggested by Huggett and Griffiths, 1986. Similarly
ornamental fishes also found to have the same distribution pattern.
Total number of organisms and sea weeds found in the Rock Pools studied at Sesostris Bay, Port Blair (A & N Islands)
Table 1
Number of organisms
Pool Brittle- Sea Gastro- Bi- Oyster Crab Sea Sand Coral Orna- Sponge TotalNo. star urchin pod alves weed Goby mental No.
fish
1 64 08 152 - 03 05 01 86 03 24 02 348
2 146 08 123 - 02 05 02 55 04 17 01 363
3 44 - 65 - - - 02 55 03 07 - 176
4 17 02 30 10 05 07 - 17 02 09 - 99
5 - - 12 - - 01 - 46 01 06 - 66
Population density in different Rock Pools at Sesostris Bay (Port Blair, A & N Islands)
Fig. 4
59
Population density of rock pools exhibited a high degree of variation during the study period (Fig. 4). It has also been observed that the number of brittle stars in rock pools show fluctuation. In January, the number of brittle stars was less but increased in February and again shows a decrease in March & April. But in the pool number five, brittle stars were not found at all during the period of study. Similarly, the number of gastropods showed a gradual decline in their congregation and was found very less in numbers during the month of March & April. Also the number of crabs decreased gradually and only one or no crabs were found in the month of March and April. Number of ornamental fishes also shows variation in their numbers. But the number of species of corals, seaweeds, sponge, other fishes including rock skippers, gastropods, and brittle stars was found to remain constant and there was no elimination or addition of new species.
Study on rock pools resulted in the identification of organisms belonging to 25 genera / species (Fig. 5), comprising three species of seaweeds (Padina tetrasporomatica, Turbinaria ormnate and coralline red algae; Pillulifera sp.); four Genera of corals (Pocillopora damicornis, Acropora nasuta, Acropora mont iculasa, Mont ipora and Pseudosiderastrea sp.); two species of sea urchins (Diadema setosum, Stomopneustes variolaris); one species of brittle star (Ophiocoma scolopendrina); two species of crabs (unidentified), six species of gastropods (Nerita costata, Nerita squamulata, Conus ebraeus, Engina medicaria, Thais mutablis and Turbo sp); four species of ornamental fishes (damsel fish: Abudefduf saxatilis and Chaetodon sp.; Goby (Neon Goby: Elacatinus oceanops and a sand Goby: Pomatoschistus minutus); one species of oyster (Pinctada sp.); one species of sponge and the acorn barnacle (Balanus amphitrite).
Species diversity in different Rock Pools at Sesostris Bay (Port Blair, A & N Islands)
Fig. 5
Biodiversity of Rock Pool Organisms and their Adaptive Zonation
The striking feature is that the number of species of ornamental fishes,
sand goby, gastropods, sea urchins and other animal forms, sea weeds
and corals remain constant in the pool water throughout the study
period. But only with the fluctuation in their total numbers in
different pools with a specialized colonizing pattern (Huggett and
Griffiths, 1986; Underwood and Chapman, 2000). Although corals and
sea weeds were grown permanently and no new species of the sea
weeds or corals were found to grow during the period of study, this
indicates the fact that these organisms are endemic and there is less
threat from the invasive species along the study area, which may be
due to the resource limitation for the survival of the species (Romanuk
and Kolasa, 2005).
It has also been observed that many of the tide pool animals were
difficult to observe at the first sight due to their camouflaging
behavior, which in turn helps these organisms to hide themselves
from the hungry predators during their continuous exposure and is a
special adaptive feature of the animals too.
As the study suggests, diversification in the bio-resources and their
colonization of the tide pool environment along the study area is
highly significant. This will be helpful in further studies relating to
the genetic and adaptive pattern of the rock pool biota they possesses
to withstand the stress of a tiny biosphere like rock pools. Further
the study reveals that there is a highly diversified group of bio-
resources, which comprise 23 different species of animals and
plants. May be the competition for food and shelter forces these rock
pool organisms to best adapt the harsh environmental conditions.
However, it shows that rock pool is a very unique ecosystem, which is
fascinating but remains exposed to all threats including increasing
pollution and excess human activities. It is thus required to be
protected and conserved. Simultaneously this environment also holds
the key to make a genetic data base for future application and
sustainable management of the marine biodiversity resources.
AcknowledgementsAuthors would like to convey their gratitude to the Vice-Chancellor,
Pondicherry University for providing the facilities to carry out this
work. Also thanks are due to Prof. P. M. Mohan, Head, dept. of Ocean
Studies and Marine Biology for encouragement.
60 Journal of Coastal Environment
61
References
Castellanos-Galindo G. A. and G. Alan. 2008. Food resource use in a
tropical eastern Pacific tidepool fish assemblage. Marine Biology. 153.
pp. 1023-1035.
Chapman M. G. 2000. Poor design of behavioral experiments gets poor
results: examples from intertidal habitats. Journal of Experimental
Marine Biology and Ecology. 250. pp. 7795.
Huggett J. and Griffiths C. L. 1986. Some relationships between
elevation, physicochemical variables and biota of intertidal rock pools.
Marine Ecology Progress Series. 29. pp. 189 197.
Mathew E. S. 2006. Seaweed Diversity Enhances Nitrogen Uptake Via
Complementary Use Of Nitrate And Ammonium. Ecology. 87(9). pp.
23972403.
Pinn H. U. and Rodgers M. 2005. The influence of visitors on
intertidal biodiversity. Journal of Marien Biological Association, UK.
85. pp. 263-268.
Romanuk T. and Kolasa J. 2005. Resource limitation, biodiversity, and
competitive effects interact to determine the invasibility of rock pool
microcosms. Biological Invasions. 7(4). pp. 711 722.
Tikader B. K., Daniel A. and Subba Rao N. V. 1986. Sea Shore animals
of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, ZSI Calcutta. pp. 188.
Trussell G. C. 2001. Trait-mediated effects in rocky intertidal food
chains. Predator risk cues alter prey feeding rates. Ecology. 84 (3). pp.
629640.
Underwood, A.J. and Chapman M. G. 2000. Variation in abundances of
intertidal populations: consequences of extremities of environment.
Hydrobiologia. 426. pp. 25-36.
Biodiversity of Rock Pool Organisms and their Adaptive Zonation
62 Journal of Coastal Environment
Vulnerability of the Ecosystem in Sundarban
Ananya Roy*
Ecological diversity in Sunderban is at the threshold of decline. The fragile
land here is being swallowed every day by gradual sea level rise, coastal
erosion and tropical cyclones. Besides the global cause of sea level rise i.e.
thermal expansion of sea water also responsible is the land degrading
anthropogenic activity. An unsustainable situation has crept in the deltaic
plain when natural capital is being used up faster than it can be replenished.
River deltas are mainly facing the brunt of sea level rise and climate
change. The effects are most visible in the Sunderbans of West Bengal. It is
a vast region of mangrove forest near the mouth of Ganges, occupying
some 10,000 sq.km. of which 38% lies in India and the rest in Bangladesh.
Sunderban is a UNESCO world heritage site and a biosphere reserve
because it is the only refuge for Bengal tigers. Sunderban is also home to
four and a half million human population. So the impact of coastal
inundation has left a mark on the livelihood of the people too. Hence it is
required to delve into the depth of the problem.
South of Kolkata, Sunderban is one of the most unique ecosystems in this
part of the world. During the period1829-1830, the region was surveyed
and delineated as a Special Forest Cover by the Dampier- Hodges line.
Sunderban lies in the district of South 24 parganas of West Bengal.
This region rich in biodiversity is facing a subsidence due to tectonic
movements; as a result there is a tilt towards the east. The coastal area near
Sagar islands, Jambu Deep, Namkhana, Patharpratima, Bhangaduni is
susceptible to seasonal ocean currents, tides, waves, winds and cyclones.
* Social Science Department, Mother's International School, New Delhi.
Jour. Coast. Env., Vol. 1, No. 2, 2010
Abstract
Heavy monsoonal rain and river flow almost partially inundates this
region for most of the year. The reduction of the mangrove area has
reduced sedimentation and accelerated erosion apart from removing an
important protection against flood waters and high waves. The current
threat is that of sea level rise.
Old maps record 102 islands in Sunderbans on the Indian side, 52 of them
are inhabited by total 180000 people. Of these Suparibhanga and
Lohachara have already disappeared and cannot be located even with
sophisticated satellite imaging, rendering some 10000 inhabitants
environmental refugees. Studies in the recent years have shown nearly
259 km. of Sunderbans have vanished in the last 30 years. A further
10,000 residing on twelve islands in the west of the estuary face a similar
threat. A large piece of Ghoramara has already shrunk to a tiny mudbank
in the past 25 years. These people have mostly migrated to Sagar but the
island is itself under threat. According to Dec '09 studies New Moore
Island / Purbasha (at the confluence of Ichamati and Rai Mangal rivers
near Bay of Bengal) has been swallowed by the rising sea.
64 Journal of Coastal Environment
Fig. 1
“The Sunderbans are a network of tidal channels, rivers, creeks, and
islands. Some of these islands are mere swampy morasses, covered
with low forest and scrubwood jungle, but those to the north which
are embanked, grow rich crops of rice. Sunderbans is drained by
Matla, Muriganga, Bidyadhari and Hooghly. Towards the coast the
land is scarcely above the high tide water mark.”1 O' Malley, Bengal
District Gazettier 1914/98 pg. The nature of the area makes it prone to
tidal flooding. Embankments are made to prevent the saline water
intrusion. But these embankments are prone to erosion caused by
violent storms and cyclones.
Four disastrous cyclones originated in the Bay of Bengal since 2006 --
Sidr, Nargis, Bijli and Aila. There has been an increase in almost 26 %
over past 120 years, in the frequency of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal,
which may be increased further with the intensifying of El Nino in the
upcoming days. Jalaluddin Shah of Moushuni Island reports that there
has been 13 disasters between 1993 and 2007.
Cyclones affect Sunderbans through three primary mechanisms: wind
damage, storm surge, and sedimentation. Sediments carried by storm
surges are deposited on the forest floor as the surge recedes, causing
plant mortality by interfering with root and soil gas exchange, leading
to eventual death of the plants. Storm surges reduce the viability of
seeds, seedling germination and seedling recruitment. Strong wind
destroys honey bee colonies causing high mortality. Coral reefs,
woodpecker, sea turtles and parrots are all vulnerable to cyclones. The
arboreal monkey and lizards face shortage of foods. Dunes and
beaches are washed away, and large areas are completely submerged.
Fish dies when the decay of foliage stripped from trees lower oxygen
levels in the water. Thus cyclones have heavier impact on wetlands
and the organisms that depend on them.
Sunderbans is the transitional zone between freshwater supplied by
rivers and saline water pushed by the Bay of Bengal. Sundari, trees
will suffer from 'Top dyeing' disease with the increase in salinity due
to temperature rise. Salinity increases the tree mortality rate by
reducing the production of new leaves, leaf longevity and the leaf area
(Suárez and Medina, 2005). Net photosynthesis rate, stomata
conductance and transpiration rate of leaves decrease with the
increase of salt concentration (Yan and Guizhu, 2007).1.
65Vulnerability of the Ecosystem in Sundarban
There is already an increase in salinity in the Chinai and Muriganga
rivers flowing on either sides of Moushuni and is shown in the table.Aquatic organisms will migrate inward due to rise in salinity. Many
fish species and other crustaceans utilize fresh water for spawning
and juvenile feeding. The Hilsa a major export item here, needs less
salinity to lay their eggs and enter various creeks in search of sweet
water. The hatchlings move towards the sea where they attain
adulthood, before returning to the rivers. Migration of fish species will
have an adverse effect on the economy of the region.
This area is also densely populated and the people mostly depend on
agriculture. Mostly poor landless people and migrants abound this
region. Rice, sugarcane, timber, jute and betel nuts are the principal
agricultural products. The agriculture mainly supports the local rural
economy of the northern side. Livestock breeding also shares a part in
the economy of South 24 Parganas, The confluence of river Ganga
with the sea here forms a congenial physical feature for Pisciculture.
Canning is the major fish market. The wholesalers transport them to
the Kolkata auction market. Presently the tourism industry has earned
prominence in the pockets of the district. The principal attraction of
the Sundarbans is the network of estuaries and the Royal Bengal tiger. Indian Sundarbans is bestowed with the highest floral diversity in the
form of mangroves, coastal wetland flora, beach flora and marsh and
swamp flora. The mangrove buffer zone lies to the south east of South
24- Parganas.
66 Journal of Coastal Environment
Date Time Tide Salinity
09.09.08 morning Low tide 0.9
evening High tide 10.5
16.09.08 Morning High tide 15
evening lowtide 10
30.09.08 Morning High tide 15
evening Low tide 11
Table 1
Source: WWF, pry. Survey (In March, Apr. salinity increases to 20- 25 )
The Indian Sundarban has been divided into two parts as (1) Area
within the Sundarban Tiger Reserve (STR) and (2) Area outside the
Sundarban Tiger Reserve. These are further divided into Northern,
Central and Southern zones. There are six zones, three in the STR and
three outside the STR. 105 plants species were identified from the
whole of Sundarbans belonging to different groups, viz. (1) true
mangroves species; (2) mangrove associated species; (3) back
mangrove species; (4) beach flora and (5) parasites, epiphytes and
mistletoes. The core areas as shown in the map( lying in the reserved
forest area of Gosaba, Netidhopani , Bhangaduni and Sajnekhali to the
south) are dominated by the trees, shrubs and herbs; the semi-core
areas by trees with twiners; and the mudflats in medium saline zones
of east of Matla river with shrubs and herbs. Tree-crabs hasten the
process of compositing by chewing the falling leaves. The burrowing
Thalassina species enrich the soil by mixing soil layers. Nutrient-rich
zones like that of Sudhannyakhali are dominated by Thalassina sp.
and Acetes sp. (Mahapatra and Mahapatra, 1990).
67Vulnerability of the Ecosystem in Sundarban
Fig. 2
Ghoramara and Jambudweeep now under the threat of submergence
are centers of floristic interest for its characteristic mangroves, open
FOREST DIVISION BOUNDARY
scrub and dense mixed jungle. The climbers are not well represented
in the island. High salinity and human interference have compelled
several species to migrate towards the eastern Sundarbans or are
gradually dying. (Naskar, et.al, 1997) In Henry's island much of the
mangrove areas have been depleted for fish culture. The photograpgh
shows shrimp culture being practiced within a kilometre from the sea
coast in Henry's island.
68 Journal of Coastal Environment
Fig. 3
Shrimp farming occupying earlier mangrove vegetation areas
Fig. 4
Encroachment of beach and sea water burying the mangroves
The accumulation of sand near the roots of the mangroves thus
burying the breathing roots are a clear evidence of sea water
swallowing the land. But this is an impact of depletion of mangrove
vegetation for economic development. There is also evidence of salt
water intrusion far inland as there is salt crust on the ground.
69
The mangroves and mangrove ecology of the Sundarbans are very
interesting in relation to their floral and faunal diversity, ecological
adaptabilities, unique halophytic phyto-succession, coastal zone
stabilization and enrichment of both the soil and water fertility.
Since the later half of the 18th Century, the presence of these
important natural resources have attracted the rural population to
migrate and settle on this deltaic land mass after clearing the
mangrove forests.
Economic importance of mangroves is no doubt undeniable.
Mangroves are looked at as first line of defense in case of storm
surges, tsunamis or high waves. They act as a major carbon sink.
These halophytic plants can provide a number of raw materials for the
large scale industries and also for the domestic fuel and fodder for
cattle and cottage industries on which the rural people can engage for
their livelihood. Mangrove timber is useful for chipboard, boat
building and paper industry. Besides all these, fishing and fisheries in
these mangrove ecosystem have much potentialities as supplying the
high value fish protein to the local markets as well as in the
international markets from Digha, Kolkata, Haldia. Tiger shrimp
(Penaeus monodon) of these Sundarbans tidal fisheries has attracted
the world markets in the recent time for its good quality and sizes of
the flesh. Apiary industry in the mangrove forest is a promising
economic activity. Wax, tannin are other useful extractions. Tanin
extract is used by the fishermen to dye their fishing nets to increase
their durability. Indian mangrove trees have 35% tannin in their barks.
(Kathiresan & Qasim, 2005)
Some mangrove species have traditional medicinal values like - stops
bleeding, cures breast tumor, leprosy, blood pressure and rheumatic
Reduction in Mangrove Reduction in area area (hectares) 1990-'91 the Indian coastline
120.000 40%
along
Table 2
Reduction of mangrove area in West Bengal
Vulnerability of the Ecosystem in Sundarban
70 Journal of Coastal Environment
disorders. Mangrove plants or its sap is used directly whereas in other
cases the leaves are heated or plant material burnt into ashes for
application to cure skin sores and scabies.
Mangroves are self tolerant forest ecosystem found mainly in the
tropical and intertidal regions and are reservoirs of a large number of
plant and animal species with remarkable capacity for salt-tolerance.
They stabilize the shoreline and act as a bulwark against
encroachment by the sea. (Kishore Kumar, 2003)
Mangroves provide important economic and social resources to coastal
dwellers in the tropics. A series of conservation measures to restore
the forest and control land degradation had been undertaken in the
late 1980s by National Mangroves Committee.
The Sundarbans is the only world renowned marshy land and unique
habitat of the Royal Bengal Tigers ,(Panthera tigris tigris); besides
these, estuarine lusty crocodiles (Crocodilus porosus), several
poisonous snakes (Naja naja), Vipera russelli, Bungarus fasciatus,
Ophiophagus hannata, Trimeresurus erythurus) etc are the common
dwellers of the dense mangrove forests and estuarine water. Mangrove
habitat biota protects these world renowned unique Sundarban
mangals from the rapid and indiscriminate exploitation. The land and
people are at times saved from the natural calamities due to the dense
coverage of these mangrove forests of the Sundarbans. The vast
quantity of the most economically important natural resources tempt
the rural population to enter these dangerous mangrove forest lands
taking risk of their lives. The population of Olive Ridley sea turtles
has come under severe pressure from illegal mechanized trawling and
human interference. These turtles visit the western beach of Baliara
village and Sagar every year during the months of January, February ,
March and April to lay their eggs. I visited this island in early April
this year when an olive ridley was found killed by dogs, who visit the
beach in search of dead fishes or any other unfortunate marine
71
creatures.
The olive riddley (endangered) is a victim of unnatural predators due
to human encroachment near the beach.
The poor creature must have been caught unaware while it was laying eggs at night. Presence of human settlements on the other side of the embankment led to the predators in the beach. This again depicts human interference disturbing natural ecosystem. Since marine erosion is causing inundation of nesting grounds therefore they venture towards unknown beaches. Mostly they inhabit the Gahirmatha coast of Orissa and the coast of Midnapur near Digha and Shankarpur. Local people sometimes catch them to make some easy money. Arjun Manna, field officer of WWF reported having saved turtles from local hands many a times in the western shores of Baliara. Unfortunately these are the people who have lost their land to the sea. Man and animal both are battling tryst with destiny.
Sundarbans witnessed a constant human interference with the ecosystem for three quarters of the nineteenth century. It took some time before the importance of the Sundarbans for purposes other than cultivation were realised. Brandis (first Inspector-General of Forests in 1865) and Schlich (the then Conservator of Forests in 1874) had long emphasised the importance of scientific forestry. Sunderban has the distinction of being the first mangrove forest in the world where scientific management of resources started in 1869. Finally forest protection was enacted by the Government of India in 1878 under the name “Reserved” and “Protected” forests .It is one of the last tropical
Fig. 5
Vulnerability of the Ecosystem in Sundarban
72 Journal of Coastal Environment
deltaic mangrove forest in Asia, the rest have succumbed initially to paddy fields and later to aqua culture.Due to heavy influx of human population, the western portion of the Sundarbans delta is completely reclaimed for agriculture, aquaculture and inhabitation and the same has been noticed in Baliara, Kusumtala, Bagdanga and Moushuni villages; this can be observed in the land-use pattern map; even now human population is encroaching south-wards to engulf the present reserve, where natural regeneration is not too rapid to combat that acute problem. In Moushuni island, there are hardly any mangroves noticeable except the narrow strip along the ferry ghat at Baliara. The western coast of this island towards the Muriganga river shows rapid coastal degradation. Much of the land has been swallowed and many village land and farming areas are already under the sea. Even embankments have failed to prevent the inundation of the villages. These areas had been under vegetation
thcover in the early 20 century. Survival here is a lurking question. WWF had taken initiative of planting mangroves in this western part but most of it has been destroyed during Aila cyclone. This can be
Most of the island of Moushuni is occupied by agricultural area. In the
picture below a part of Baliara village is seen where trees are being yet
felled to expand agricultural areas. This has further resulted in
unobstructed advancement of the sea .Some of these fields have now
turned saline due to intrusion of sea water during cyclones.
Fig. 6
A row of Avecennia Alba remains only along the ferry ghat at Baliara village
Fig. 7
Trees being used for building houses, fencing and furniture
In spite of the sign of natural regeneration in some limited areas, the
present day silviculturists have started thinking of maintaining and
conserving the existing forest situations by planning some non-
mangroves along this tract of the mangrove delta of the Sundarbans.
Realizing the significance of mangrove in preventing encroachment of
the sea there has been attempts to regenerate by plantation .
A few economically important non mangrove species can successfully
be introduced, as the mangrove ecosystem has certain ecological
successional stages and represent the edaphic climax. In fact plenty of
non-mangrove species in this mangrove reclaimed area will not fulfill
the needs of the existing eco-climatic factors of the mangrove
ecosystem. Several of the non mangrove species can survive in those
areas where no frequent tidal action has existed so far, but the
introduced or artificial vegetation cannot give rise to any new
vegetation by natural regeneration. Moreover by the artificial changes
of ecological condition, the other beneficial activities from these
natural resources may disappear, which is not congenial for that
unique ecosystem. Due to coastal erosion , human encroachment and
sea level rise , the natural habitat of the tiger is diminishing resulting
intrusion of the large cat into inhabited areas .
73Vulnerability of the Ecosystem in Sundarban
Fig. 8
Natural Habitat of Tigers in the estuaries
Ecological diversity is on the threshold of decline. Dwindling tiger
population, overfishing, trapping olive ridleys, clearing mangrove
forest for settling climate refugees are all creating pressure on the
existence of balanced ecosystem. Project Tiger of 1972 was an
ambitious step towards conservation. A healthy tiger population
indicates that the other ecological components in its habitat are
equally robust, since tigers need large amount of prey and good
habitat.
Preservation of mangrove forest controls the climatic extremes. The
evapotranspiration from trees contribute to marginal increase in
rainfall and also help in increase in ground water level. The forest
growth reduces surface runoff and induces underground water storage
and prevents soil erosion. It also extends the flow season of the river.
Thus the Tiger Project and mangrove plantation is both important for
our life supports as well as food security. More employmental
opportunity will prevent people from poaching, forest gathering and
hunting activities. Already NREGA has been implemented in a big
way. Joint Forest Management should be tried in the benefit of the
forest and the people's sustainability. Involvement of NGOs will also
help in local conservation of these unique forested areas.
74 Journal of Coastal Environment
References
Bandopadhyay, Ghosh A.K., K. Seshaiyana; An eco-taxonomical study
on the halophytic plants in the western fringes of the Indian
Sundarbans.
Chakraborty, Susanta, K. 2009. Biological Diversity of Midnapore
Coast, West Bengal. Enviroscan, vol 2, No. 2.
Chawla , S. K. 2008. Climate change- Impact on Indian Ocean Region,
Journal of the Indian Ocean Studies, Vol 16 No. 1 &2 , pg. 69
Kathiresan, K. and Qasim, S.Z. 2005 Biodiversity of Mangrove
Ecosystem. Uses of mangroves ; Hindustan Publishing Corporation.
New Delhi
Kumar, Kishore, 2003. Threat Perception Coastal Zone Environment.
Report Submitted to the Ministry of Defence.
Mahapatra, A.K. and Mahapatra M.K., 1990. An eco-floristic survey of
some islands in Sundarbans of West Bengal. Environment Ecology. Vol.
8(1).
Mitra, Abhijit, Majumdar Sabyasachi, Swapan Kumar. 2002. Marine
ecosystem a field guide. DPM Publishing Co., Kolkata.
Naskar K.R. G. Indian Societies Coastal Agricultural Resources 6 (2);
1988; 149- 158
Naskar, : K.R. Ghosh. D, Sen . Mandal R.N. and Sarkar. A. K.J.
Intercad. 1(1); 1997;
49- 60 ; Mangrove ecology of the Indian Sunderbans ; Its impact on
the rural economy and coastal environment
O' Malley, L.S.S.(1914/1998) Bengal District Gazetters: 24
Parganas.Calcutta: Govt. of West Bengal Pg. 98
Qasim, S.Z, 2003. Indian Estuaries. Allied Publishers, New Delhi.
Qasim, S.Z., 1998. Glimpses of the Indian Ocean. Universities
Publication, Hyderabad.
75Vulnerability of the Ecosystem in Sundarban
76 Journal of Coastal Environment
Tsunami Disaster and Nuclear Contamination
Kishore Kumar*
The explosions and radiation leaks in Fukushima nuclear power plants, a
result of earthquake and resultant tsunami waves, have impelled nations to
review safety situation in their nuclear facilities. The disaster in Japan has
reinforced the reality that experts can neither predict the magnitude of a
disaster nor can they take adequate measures in unforeseen circumstances.
People may argue that Fukushima reactors were old Mark 1 boiling water type,
as also about the placing of diesel generators (for pumping cooling water)
wrongly in a tsunami zone. However, it has also been seen in earlier, cases of
Three Mile Island and Chernobyl accidents that the disaster and their after-
effects can never be predicted correctly. Only the monstrosity of the destruction
and their impact are visible, whereafter there is no use finding excuses. The big
question is: has the time come to consider a gradual movement towards
cleaner energy, i.e. carbon-nuclear-free energy?
IntroductionThe area off the eastern coast of Japan was struck by an enormous 9.0
magnitude earthquake on March 11, 2011 at 1436 hrs. Japan Standard
Time (JST). The event created extremely destructive tsunami waves
which hit the coast in just a few minutes, causing extensive and
severe damage leaving thousands of people dead, injured or missing,
and many times more affected by disruption of electricity, water and
transportation. Apart from such large scale deaths and destruction, a
matter of much larger concern was the overheating of two Fukushima
nuclear plants, Daiichi and Daini whose cooling systems were
knocked out by the earthquake. This led to large radiation leak and
* Consultant, Centre for Ocean and Environmental Studies, New Delhi.
Jour. Coast. Env., Vol. 1, No. 2, 2010
Abstract
the contamination of atmosphere, food and water. It is not only Japan
that will have to contend with the challenge of containing the damage
for a considerably long time, but the world community at large faces
the dangers associated with nuclear power generation in the event of
such disasters.
78 Journal of Coastal Environment
Table 1
The Great Hakuho 684 A.D.
Ninna Nankai 885-889 (Ninna era)
Kamakura 1293
Shohei Nankai 1346-1370 (Shohei era)
Meio Nankai 1498
Keicho Nankaido 1605
Seikaido-Nankaido 1698
Hoei 1707
W. Hokkaido 1741
Nankai, Tokai & Kyushu 1854
Edo 1855
Meiji Sanriku 1896
Greatest Kanto Earthquake 1900
Showa Shanriku 1933
Tonankai 1944
Nankaido 1946
Nigota 1964
Sea of Japan 1983
Okushiri, Hokkaido 1993
Nigota 2007
Japan Pacific Coast 2011
Greatest Earthquakes/Tsunami in Japan
Source: Japan Tsunami History. www.2mkonline.com/2011/03/11
The reactorsBoth the Fukushima reactors are the ageing Mark 1 Boiling Water
design, which store the used or spent fuel within the confines of the
reactor building inside a swimming pool like concrete structure. At
the time of reactor refueling, the spent fuel is removed by a large
crane into the pool and kept underwater for considerable time in order
to prevent the dangerous release of radioactivity. The water in the
spent fuel pool and the roof of the reactor building are the main
barriers to the release of radiation.
The fuel assemblies consist of zirconium alloy claddings that encase
uranium oxide pellets (fuel pellets). This is the most sensitive part as
zirconium reacts with air and steam to produce zirconium oxide and
hydrogen gas in an exothermic reaction, i.e. releasing vast amount of
heat and further aggravating the problem by raising the cladding
temperature, whereas steam reaction generates large quantities of
hydrogen. A self sustaining oxidation reaction, approximately a factor
of 10 than water's boiling point, could result in zirconium cladding
fire, and the consequent rise in fuel rod temperature would lead to
79Tsunami Disaster and Nuclear Contamination
Fig. 1
A map of the tsunami struck areas of JapanSource : www.peternian.wordpress.com
considerable increase of gas pressure inside which, in turn, would
lead to the cladding balloon out and rupture.
At very high temperature of about 1800°C/3300°F, the zirconium
cladding reacts with the uranium oxide fuel to form molten
zirconium-uranium oxide. This reaction along with the rupture would
release large amount of radioactive gases and fuel's radioactive
material, in the form of aerosols, in to the environment. The extent of
the release of radiation depends on the severity of the loss of coolant
water, the amount of spent fuel in the pool, and also how recently the
fuel has been discharged. The consequences would be much more
disastrous in the long-term due to the presence of long lived
radionuclide in the pool in large quantities Cesium-137, Iodine- 129,
Plutonium- 239 and Strontium- 90 than in the reactor itself. The
whole issue is directly related to the cooling of the spent fuel and
would require immediate replenishment of coolant water.
80 Journal of Coastal Environment
The earthquake and tsunamith
On Friday the 11 March, 2011, a 9.0 magnitude (Mw) earthquake hit
the Western Pacific Ocean, approx. 70 km east of Oshika Peninsula of
Tohoku (epicentre) at an underwater depth of approx. 32 km
(hypocentre). The disaster occurred when the Pacific plate, moving at
the rate of 8-9 cm per year, dipped under the plate beneath northern
Honshu. The motion pulled the upper plate down until there was
enough stress build-up to cause a seismic event. According to the
Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA), the quake had ruptured the
The fury of Tsunami unleashed by earthquakeSource : www.flixya.com
Fig. 2
fault zone from offshore Iwate to Ibaraki Prefectures, 500 km long and
200 km wide. Some other Prefectures, including Fukushima, recorded
just under 7 Mw ground motion on the JMA scale. As the plate
boundary and subduction zone in the area of the rupture is not very
straight, the magnitude of earthquakes there do not normally exceed
8.5 Mw, and that is why a 9.0 Mw magnitude of the recent event
surprised even the seismologists.
The break under the seabed caused the sea floor to rise by several
metres, and the portion closest to the epicenter experienced very large
shifts. A 400 km stretch of coastline dropped vertically by 0.6 m
which allowed the tsunami waves to travel farther and faster towards
the coast. It is also estimated that the quake shifted the northeast
Japan by approx. 2.5 m closer to North America, whereas the Pacific
plate may have moved westwards by approx. 20 m. The fault
movement has been considered one of the largest recorded shifts that
has been associated with an earthquake. Experts on geophysics and
volcanology aver that the quake shifted the earth's axis by 25 cm, a
deviation that has led to planetary changes like the length of a day
and the tilt of our planet. This redistribution of the earth's mass
increased its rotationed speed, thus shortening the day by 1.8
microseconds.
81Tsunami Disaster and Nuclear Contamination
Explosion in nuclear reactor after TsunamiSource : www.hybridgames.co.uk
Fig. 3
The Japan Pacific earthquake, caused by 5.8 m up thrust on 180 km
wide seabed at about 60 km offshore from the east coast of Tohoku,
triggered giant tsunami waves of up to 40 m. They hit the coast within
minutes of the quake and travelled up to 10 km inland and caused
extreme destruction along the Pacific coastline of Japan's northern
islands. In about half an hour, a wall of water roughly 250 miles hit
the northeast coast, with at least 7,000 dead and 10,000 missing, as
well as damaging the Fukushima-Daiichi nuclear power plant and its
six reactors. A plant operator had reported that the giant tsunami
wave that brought the nuclear plant on the brink of meltdown
measured about 14 m in height, whereas the Tokyo Electric Power Co.
(TEPCO) had earlier estimated the height of the wave at 10 m at
Fukushima No. 1 plant. The quake crushed an embankment and broke
the arm of a crane at the plant: “The tsunami approached all at once
and surged on to the plant…(it) cleared high above the dyke and came
rushing down to wash away one parked car after another”. These
plants were designed to withstand earthquakes of 8.0 magnitude only,
and the tsunami waves of 5.7 m at No. 1 plant and 5.2 m at No. 2
plant respectively.
82 Journal of Coastal Environment
Rescue personnel checked for radiation
exposure in Japan's Fukushima prefecture Source : www.gettyimages.com
Fig. 4
The reactor explosion and radioactive fall-outWhen the earthquake struck, the Fukushima-Daiichi plant
automatically shut down, sliding control rods, made of boron that
block neutrons, in to reactor cores that stopped the fission of enriched
uranium fuel. However, even with the fission stopped, nuclear fuel
rods must be kept cool with the help of a constant flow of water past
them. But, the now-still water in the reactor began to boil off,
threatening a meltdown of the uranium inside. Due to the tsunami
surge, the back-up diesel generators, placed only slightly above the sea
level, did not survive and their batteries lasted only a few hours.
Thus, the plant had no electricity to run the cooling pumps, and the
lack of coolant water exposed the fuel rods with a meltdown of
uranium fuel pellets inside.
Table 2
Source: Makhijani, Arjun and Ledwidge, Lisa. 2011. Fact Sheet: Radiation and Human Health, http://www.ieer.org
Radiation Exposure
Radiation absorbed dose (Rad): A measure/unit of the amount of energy
deposited in a given tissue (100 orgs/gm).
Gray (gy): A unit of absorbed radiation dose 100 rads.
Radiation equivalent man (Rem): A measure of the biological damage of
the given absorbed dose of radiation. They take into account how
ionizing radiations transfer their energy to human tissues rems are
derived from rads by multiplying the latter by a quality factor of the type
of radiation.
a) For gamma and most beta radiation, the quality factor is one (rems
equal rads).
b) For alpha radiation, the quality factor is 20 (rems=20 rads).
c) Neutron radiation factor vary according to their energy.
Sievert (Sv): A unit of equivalent absorbed dose equal to 100 rems. A
person-sievert is a population dose, expressing the sum of individual
doses in a defined population.
83Tsunami Disaster and Nuclear Contamination
In the absence of coolant water, the hard zirconium-cladding of fuel
rods swelled and burst, releasing radioactive particles, Cesium-137
and Iodine-131, produced by fission. Worse, at a temperature as high
as 1200°C, the cladding stripped oxygen from the surrounding steam,
leaving hydrogen gas behind. At sufficient concentration, (i.e. >4 %),
the hydrogen gas became explosive in the presence of oxygen or a
spark. Being lighter than the air, it accumulated near the top of the
reactor building, and that is why its roof and walls were completely
blown off, releasing the radioactive material in the atmosphere.
For days, the workers and technicians in the reactor continued their
gallant effort to bring cooling water to the boiling reactors and the
overheating pools of spent fuel. That was in the face of further
explosions and hydrogen fires, apart from dangerous levels of
radiation. They could breathe only through special tanks and filters
strapped to their backs, but could hardly shield themselves from the
source of radioactivity. The radiation fall-out was finally confirmed
when the Japanese government reported that milk, canola, spinach
and other agricultural products, from the areas around the plant,
contained high levels of radioactive element, and barred their
shipment from the affected prefectures.
Table 3
Radionuclides release from nuclear facilities
Iodine-131: A half life of only 8 days (short lived). The primary risk
of exposure is thyroid cancer, more for children.
Cesium-137: A half life of 30 years, a high carcinogen.
Strontium-90: A half life of 29 years. It acts like calcium and
concentrates in bones, resulting in bone tumour and leukemia.
Tritium (Hydrogen-3): A half life of 12 years, and causes cancer on
inhalation or ingestion. It crosses the placenta, and its sufficient dose
cause miscarriage or birth defects to the embryo/foetus.
Source: Makhijani and Lisa. IEER. 2011
Only the completion of a new power line, to bring much needed
electricity from power plants outside the area, could restart the
84 Journal of Coastal Environment
electric pumps to cool down the reactors. However, that was
hampered by the impact of earthquake and tsunami which destroyed
the power grid, as also by the high level of radiation inside the reactor
buildings where the lines need to be connected. The task ahead is
extremely tough.
Conclusions
The heroic effort on the part of Japanese engineers and technicians, to
replenish cooling water to the boiling reactors and overheated spent
fuel pools, is indeed commendable towards containing the radioactive
fallout and further damage to the environment. These are still early
days, ans the level of radioactive fall-out will only be known after a
few weeks. Nevertheless, the developments in the past few weeks and
their after-effects raise some basic questions regarding the safety of
nuclear power plants in the event of big disasters. First, no one can
predict the tectonic plate movements a few kilometers below the
seabed and the magnitude of the quake. It does not allow sufficient
time to implement measures of safety. It is now admitted by the
authorities that the reactors were not designed to withstand
earthquakes and tsunami surge of such high magnitude. Another
mistake, as pointed out by experts was that back-up generators were
placed just slightly above the sea level in a tsunami zone, and their
destruction led to cut-off of power supply to run water pumps to bring
in cooling waters.
Now is the time to perhaps do a little introspection about nuclear
power in general. According to Arjun Makhijani form the Institute of
Energy and Environmental Research (Maryland, USA): “The tragedy in
Japan is a reminder that making plutonium and fission products just
to boil water is not a prudent approach to electricity generation”. The
world confronted the same problem during the Three Mile Island
(1979) and Chernobyl (1986) disasters, where the reactors produced
large amount of energy but the accidents played havoc with the
population and the environment. Many experts and concerned citizens
feel that the world has to gradually move to carbon free (coal and oil
based) and nuclear free power generation. Nations have to now
consider safe route to electrical power.
85Tsunami Disaster and Nuclear Contamination
References
Ash. 2011. Japan Tsunami History. http://www.2mkonline.com
Biello, David. 2011. Anatomy of a Nuclear Crisis: A Chronology of
Fukushima. www.e360.yale.edu
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86 Journal of Coastal Environment
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Journal of Coastal EnvironmentVol. 1, No. 2, 2010
Role of Estuaries in Sustainability of Coastal Environment 1
S.Z. Qasim
Convergence of Energy Issues in National Water Policy 11
Malti Goel
Carapace Length/width-weight Relationship of Ocypode 23
macrocera Population from Pondicherry Sandy Beaches
A. Yogamoorthi and R. Siva Sankar
Effect of Seaweed Extract as Organic Fertilizer on the 31
Growth Enhancement of Black Mustard Plant
T.C. Srijaya, P.J. Pradeep and Anil Chatterji
Role of Nearshore Waves in Identifying 45
Vulnerable Zones during Storm and Normal Events
S.V.V. Arun Kumar
Biodiversity of Rock Pool Organisms and their Adaptive 53
Zonation along the Coasts of Port Blair
J.K. Mishra, Shesdev Patro,
D. Adhavan and Anita Mishra
Vulnerability of the Sundarbans Ecosystem 63
Ananya Roy
Tsunami Disaster and Nuclear Contamination 77
Kishore Kumar
Cover Photo : Mangroves at the Sundarbans
C o n t e n t s